The exposition is divided into four semantic blocks: maps of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, as well as the Commonwealth, Europe and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on world maps are presented. In other words, you can see how the territory of Belarus was perceived within the country, as part of the Polish union state, and how Europe looked at us. The organizers of the exhibition are trying to answer the question whether the cards can help Belarusians find themselves.
"Whether we like it or not, the vast majority of Belarusians grew up on the visual images of the Soviet educational system. Moscow, Kamchatka, the Kuriles and Tashkent suddenly turn out to be something mentally close, and Belarus suddenly turns out to be a part of a phantom reality that no longer exists. The same lost historical reality that looks at us from the canvases of old Belarusian maps", say the organizers.
In their opinion, the Soviet propaganda system imposed a visual image of the "distant and alien West, corrupt and bourgeois." " Let's watch. Look with greed, with anger or joy, but not indifferently. And a holistic picture of our reality will open before us.", the organizers say.
What is this reality?
The first geographical map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in other words, the most old map Belarus, dates back to 1595 and is called succinctly - "Lithuania". Its publisher is the famous Flemish cartographer, the founder of modern cartography - Gerhard Mercator. Judging by it, after the Union of Lublin in 1569, which marked the beginning of the creation of the Commonwealth, Lithuania was still perceived as an independent state, in union with the Kingdom of Poland.
The map also allows you to touch the mystery of the disappeared legendary Sarmatian lake-sea, about which the ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote. This huge lake just below Volkovysk on the territory of the modern swampy Polesye, which is also commonly called the Sea of Herodotus, is also present on medieval maps. Back in the 19th century, there was an oral tradition in Polissya that the Black Sea once reached Pinsk and receded only when a certain prince of Kyiv dug up the mountains.
An important role in the self-identification of Belarusians is played by original map ON, created by the hands of not foreign, but domestic cartographers. In 1613, such a map was printed in Amsterdam by the famous publisher Willem Janszoon Blau, commissioned by Nikolai Radziwill, nicknamed the Orphan. It was under him that topographic and hydrographic research on the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, unprecedented in scale, began.
Radziwill map considered one of the best geographical maps of the 17th century in Europe due to its accuracy and artistic performance. It was included in numerous atlases, and was copied for the next 150 years.
Being a great patriot of the Grand Duchy and an opponent of the transfer of the lands of Lithuania to the Kingdom of Poland, Radziwill marked on the map two borders of the Grand Duchy - before the Union of Lublin and after it. In addition, the map reflects key military events with their emotional evaluation Prince Radziwill Sirotka himself. For example, you can learn about the battle of the five thousandth army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under the command of Hetman Nikolai Radziwill (Ryzhy) near the Ulla River, where in 1564 he utterly defeated the thirty thousandth army of Muscovites under the command of Shuisky.
This map is the first cartographic source where the name Ukraine is used, which makes it invaluable for our southern neighbors as well. Later, this map was included in the "Theater of the World, or a new Atlas of maps with a description of all regions, edited by Willem and Johann Blau" and published in Amsterdam. The atlases of the Blau publishing house were considered among the best in Europe and enjoyed tremendous success. The publication is currently stored in British Library in London.
ON in the maps of the Commonwealth
In 1570, the famous Flemish cartographer Abraham Ortelius compiled and published in Antwerp the world's first atlas, which he called "The Spectacle of the Globe", where maps of all parts of the world known at that time were collected. At number 44 there was also a map of Lithuania - the first as accurate as possible at that time. It reflects all big cities ON, multiple geographical names rivers and lakes, as well as the boundaries, albeit very schematically, of some principalities and lands. Despite many errors in geographical names, their spelling corresponds to the Belarusian pronunciation with a transliteration into Latin.
In a later map created by the French cartographer Nicolas Sanson de Abbeville, the names were also given in their Belarusian pronunciation with a transliteration into Latin. For example, Medniki, Minski Horodzysche, Niemen, Narocz, Retrow, Lubniki. On this map, the border of Lithuania and White Russia lies to the east of the Mstislavl, Chernigov and Vitebsk lands. That is, White Russia refers to the lands located to the east of the current borders of Belarus, captured by the Muscovites from the Litvins at the beginning of the 16th century.
ON in maps Europe
In the Neapolitan "Map of modern Euro[opean] Sarmatia or Hungary, Poland, Russia, Prussia and Wallachia", published in 1507, for the first time in history, the geographical names Polonia and Lithuania are used in the title of maps. In addition, for the first time in the toponymy of Lithuania, the names of the rivers Viliya, Neman, Bug, the cities of Medniki (Myednyky) - the summer residence of Lithuanian princes, Troki (Troky) appear. The original Belarusian Latin spelling of the geographical names Wilno, Grodno, Kofno, Lyda, Brestze is fixed on the map. This map is the heir to the Ptolemaic, ancient tradition, and in the era of late antiquity, the Greeks and Romans called the land Sarmatia of Eastern Europe, and their inhabitants are Sarmatians.
"A map of the sea and a description of the northern lands and their miracles, diligently executed in the year of our Lord 1539 in Venice" created by the Swedish priest Olaf Magnus on the basis of his travel notes and sketches from nature. For example, there is a miniature depicting in detail how bears extracted honey from wild bees in our forests, by which the author emphasized the abundance of these places. The map is an additional argument to believe that Muscovy was called "White Russia" at that time, and "Black Russia" was called the lands of the Pskov region, which partially belonged to the GDL. White Russia is located at the very top of the fragment on the territory of the current Leningrad Region.
Curious to determine the attitude of Europe towards Lithuania can be considered anthropomorphic (allegorical) cards. Such cards came into fashion in the second half of the 16th century and are considered the prototype of political cards. One of the first such cards is the "Queen of Europe" (a map of Europe in the form of a female figure). The placement of countries on the body of a woman was symbolic. For example, Turkey - the enemy of the Holy Roman Empire - did not hit the map at all. Bohemia, the birthplace of the Pope of that period, is placed at the level of the woman's heart.
Specifically for the Belarusians, it is important that Lithuania, in the vision of the author, and hence the Christian rulers, was perceived as an integral part of the body of Europe. This was not honored, for example, by England and "stricken by heresy" Scandinavia. Moreover, in allegorical sense Lithuania, like Poland, Livonia, Hungary, is represented by the feet of the continent, on which the whole of Europe stands. The Asiatic Muscovy, Scythia and Tartaria, which are on the same level with the captured Ottoman Empire Greece and Bulgaria.
Map "Europe, a new description by Willem Blaeu" 1650 on the sides are engravings that masterfully describe the traditional costumes of the nobility of the European peoples. Among them there is also a fragment of the gentry culture of the Commonwealth. However, the map leaves many mysteries. According to the author, the borders of Lithuania reached the Black Sea, which was not true. It is hard to imagine that such an experienced and authoritative cartographer as Willem Blau made a mistake by "returning" the lost southern lands. Moreover, years earlier, he published the Radziwill map and, like no other European cartographer, had the most accurate information on the political borders of the Grand Duchy. The author was well aware of the claims of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to these lands in the person of his largest magnates, and in particular, Nikolai Radziwill. The "mistake" he made may indicate that the author shared the views on the historical justice of the rulers of Lithuania. It can also be a thank you to the customer of the card with the hope of a possible cooperation in the future.
ON on vintage maps of the world
The most valuable and largest historical artifact of medieval cartography that has survived to this day is Ebstorf world map- refers presumably to 1290. It contains perhaps the first cartographic image of such toponyms as Polotsk (Plosceke), Smolensk (Smalentike), Neman (Memela), Livonia (Livonie), Riga (Riga). Although the author made a mistake: Polotsk and Smolensk ended up on the same river - the Dvina, and Smolensk turned out to be closer to the sea than in reality. Novgorod and Kyiv were also on the same river.
"Planisphere Fra Mauro" 1450 - the crown of medieval cartography. The lands of the Grand Duchy are displayed in sufficient detail on the map: there are the main water transport arteries of the country (Dvina, Neman, Dnieper) and some roads connecting cities and provinces. In the map, ancient toponyms (Sarmatia, Black Russia, Red Russia) are adjacent to modern - Lithuania. In addition, this is the first of the known maps where White Russia was indicated.
However, the biggest methodological mistake is the idea that somewhere in the West there was a super-civilized Lithuania with advanced statehood, which was ruled by a progressive king - a purebred Lithuanian Mindovg. The Balts did not have any principality as a feudal state, even the Prussians, as the most numerous tribe. At the time of the formation of the Lithuanian principalities, all the Balts had a tribal system with a strong influence of pagan priests, and their small number was explained by the fact that they had not yet really mastered agriculture. The Russian boyars chose Mindovg not for his literacy, but for the strength that stood behind him in the form of his squad and his influence among the leaders of the Baltic tribes.
The civilization and industrialization of Lithuania is a product of the USSR, which it is now happily losing in the United Europe. Lithuania is gradually returning to the position it had before joining Russia. To consider yourself Germans through kinship with the Prussians, which the Lithuanian nationalists declare, is obviously unique look patriotism, since all the Prussians were completely assimilated by the German colonists who moved to the native lands of the Balts, captured by the order states. Unfortunately, the ancestors of the Lithuanians did not know about the passionate desire of their descendants to merge with the Germans, and therefore fought for hundreds of years against the Teutonic and Livonian orders, who came to the lands of the Baltic peoples in a crusade.
Apparently, in the Middle Ages, the Eastern Slavs did not single out the Balts as an alien tribe, especially since the lands of the Balts have long been located in the depths of the territory Eastern Slavs. Part of the Balts participated in the formation of the Polish and Belarusian nations, but thanks to the formation of the Principality of Lithuania, the Balts had a chance to subsequently create Lithuania and Latvia as national states.
You just need to be aware that national feelings are a VALUE that the "national" elite inspires in the people in order to maintain their dominant position. For the elite itself, nationality is an empty phrase (a vivid example is Ukraine), however, if you inspire it as a value to citizens, you can get ownership of a whole nation united by this value. Paying tribute to national feelings, one should not be mistaken about their origin.
To those readers who are looking for an answer to the question - How was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania formed?, I advise you to look at the map, which clearly shows that takes place in the northwestern part of the Russian land (so called - Black Russia, according to the coloristic designation of the cardinal points among the Slavs - black \u003d north), which at the time of the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was OUTSIDE Mongol-Tatar Empire. Independence (1) from the Russian princes and (2) from the Mongol yoke - was the main condition appearance.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia
However, the consequence of MOSCOW-CENTRISM is the fact that story
Galician and Lithuanian Rus fall out of the orthodox Russian history Russia as a history of exclusively Muscovite Russia, and then - this one-sidedness does not allow to understand that ripened precisely in these "shards" of Kievan Rus, alien to the idea of \u200b\u200bunifying Russian lands under the rule of Moscow.
Today, a frenzied war is being waged against the real and Russia, where the fact that Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia was a Russian-speaking state to hide more important fact, what Rus Lithuanian was a Russian state , the main population of which were Kievan Rusyns. In the minds of the Russians and the inhabitants of Europe, the invasion of Batu - did not lead to the division of Russia into separate parts. Western Russia , Southwestern Russia and Northeast Russia always remained the country of Russians, only much later the political struggle of the ruling elites of these parts of Russia divorced history Lithuanian Rus, Galician Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus (Muscovy) according to the main criterion - who will collect united Russia again .
And, here, people’s ideas about the state in antiquity fully corresponded - as a community of people, of no interest to anyone in a nationality in some territory - under the rule, for the individualization of which everyone was primarily interested in nationality, at least primary. Nationality passed into the name of the state for the reason that so could be personalized, which in those days were entirely captured by force, inhabited by many different tribes and, more often, unrelated peoples. In conditions of impossibility to determine the ethnic composition of the people of a certain state - nominally it was assigned the nationality of his elite.
If we consider "nationality" by belonging to a tribe, then population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was very diverse in ethnic composition, however, the Slavonic speakers always prevailed in numbers, keeping its dialect as a western dialect of the Old Russian language of Kievan Rus. If the modern Russian language developed under the great influence of the church language of Cyril and Methodius, which was actually the literary language in Northern Russia, then the modern Belarusian language developed from the Western Russian dialect under the influence of Polish.
Principality of Lithuania and Russia
The Balts have always constituted an insignificant part of the population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, even at the birth of the Lithuanian state, a separate Lithuanian tribes, apparently - was not (actually, see below about the origin of the name Lithuania). The territory of the birthplace of the Lithuanian state was inhabited by well-known Balto-speaking tribes - Aukshtaites, Samogitians, Yotvingians, Curonians, Latgalians, villages, who fled from the forced Christianization of the Semigallians in the 13th century, Prussians (Bortei or Zuks, Skalovs, Flyers), among which there is no Lithuania. Today one can only guess - where did it come from the word Lithuania(like Russia), but we can say for sure that the union of the Baltic tribes, formed on the territory bordering Russia, transferred the collective name to the state - Lithuania, the state language of which, due to multinationality, became the Old Russian language, in which, by analogy with the word Rusyn- and the old Russian word was formed litvin- Litvin - in the sense subject Lithuanian principality. Later unity on the basis of allegiance to one state pushed the national self-consciousness of the kindred Baltic-speaking tribes to feel unity in one nationality Lithuanians.
This is confirmed by the appearance of the first references to Lithuania as an adjective Lituae in Latin for the name of the border of some previously unknown state with Russia. Then the term appeared in Europe lithuanians to designate citizens of a state that appeared on the political arena, the core of whose elite, judging by the place of origin, became aukshtaites, in the sense of some UNION of the Balts tribes close to the Prussians. As we know, all the other Prussians were colonized by the Teutonic Order, so much so that they simply dissolved, leaving us not even a language.
History of Lithuania Wikipedia contains an article Lithuania (tribes), which actually proves only THAT, that no tribe named Lithuania did not have, but just a few different tribes of the Balts, moreover, from different ethnic groups, on the lands adjacent to Black Russia formed a territorial union, which received the external name of Lithuania. This Union Lithuania fought with his neighbors - the union of the Balts Yatvyag, Aukshtaity and Samogitia, although the tribes of these same peoples were part of Union Lithuania. Members of the Lithuania union had the name Litvin, which directly comes from the word Lithuania, but from which word the word was formed Lithuanians I don't quite understand. The term Lithuania in the sense union of lithuanian tribes of the balts- is quite legitimate, and the existence of a separate Lithuanian tribe not fixed.
In fact, the full name is Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Zhemoytskoye- reflected the multinational composition not of the population of the Principality of Lithuania, which was much more diverse, but the specific composition of its elite. The names of the main nationalities are sewn into the name of the state - Principality of Lithuania- for the reason that (1) the union of the Baltic tribes called Lithuania gave the first princes, (2) Principality of Lithuania and Russia not so much because of the numerical predominance of the Rusyns, since the territory of the Principality of Lithuania was formed precisely at the expense of the Russian lands of the weakened Kievan Rus, but due to the presence of Russian boyars, on which the Novogrudok principality was based, and additions (3) - Principality of Zhemoytskoe(Zhomoytsky, Zhemaytsky, Zhyamaytsky, Zhmudsky - various transcriptions of the name of the second union of the Baltic tribes, known in Russia as Zhmud - were introduced by a new dynasty of princes Gediminoviches, originating from the Samogitian tribes.
The first mention of Lithuania in the European Annals of Quedlinburg is under 1009 year when describing the death of a certain missionary Bruno of Querfurt, who was killed "on the border of Russia and Lithuania", which itself is referred to as Lituae, i.e Lithuania in the shape of indirect case(in what sense - Lithuanian- for the border name).
Perhaps the terms Lituae and lithuanians spread in Europe from the crusaders of the Teutonic Order, who seized the lands of the Prussians, which for neighboring related Baltic tribes became factor for the formation own state. The Russian chronicle mentions the Litvins almost at the same time, but in connection with the campaigns of Prince Yaroslav the Wise in 1040 against the Yotvingians. It seems to me that the reason for the punitive campaign of the powerful Kyiv prince was the predatory raids of the squads of the emerging Lithuanian state, as an alliance of tribes on the outskirts of Russia, since the Baltic lands themselves were hardly of particular economic interest to Russia. It was during Yaroslav's campaign that the Novgrudok fortress was laid as an outpost, which later turned into the Russian city of Novogrudok, which became the first capital of the Lithuanian principality.
Actually, Lithuanian tribes lived surrounded by Eastern Slavs from the Krivichi tribe, who were paid tribute, so the Western Russian dialect of the Krivichi was understandable to the Balts. To designate the Balts from Lithuanian union of tribes in Russia constructed the term litvin , litvin- by analogy with the Russian self-name - Rusyn, Rusyn, and in Europe they constructed the term - lithuanians to designate the subjects of the Lithuanian proto-state.
For us it is no longer so important where it came from the word Lithuania- it is most likely that this was the self-name of the tribe that once ruled in the union of the Baltic tribes and was able to nominate the first rulers from its ranks - elite, which gave its own name litvin to all subjects. Already later - from the word litvin ethnonym occurred Lithuanians, when the population of the main indigenous lands () needed to somehow separate themselves from their neighbors.
I do not insist on authenticity, and for Russian history the issue of the emergence of the state among the Balts is relevant only in the plane of the emergence of Lithuanian Rus, which became a competitor to the Muscovite kingdom, ripening inside Vladimir-Suzdal Rus.
In this article, the reader will need an idea of the empire as a state entity, the whole essence of which lies in the unlimited expansion of borders. This "spring" sewn into Lithuanian principality allowed him to turn from an unknown tiny city-state of Novogrudok into the most powerful state in Eastern Europe.
Further article Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia from Wikipedia, which still had to be edited a little. It is possible to understand the history of the Lithuanian-Russian state only by imagining a clear periodization, since at different stages we are dealing with a completely different state, which changes not only the size of its territory, but the political vector of development. Initially Lithuanian principality arises and acts as a typical principality of Kievan Rus, participating in the civil strife of Russian princes, which continues despite the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
However, soon two global forces - the European empire (papal throne and German emperors) on the one hand and the khans (elite) of the Golden Horde begin to "pull" the Russian principalities left without a center on opposite sides of the "barricade", both on the issue of choosing a faith, and political orientation. Moreover, a feature of those times is the literal undisguised coincidence of "the interests of states" with the personal interests of their rulers in full accordance with the theory of elites.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia
History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania is an Eastern European state that existed from the middle of the 13th century to 1795 on the territory of modern Belarus and Lithuania, as well as partly Ukraine, Russia, Latvia, Poland, Estonia and Moldova.
Periodization of the history of the Principality of Lithuania
1. ON from 1240 to 1385 - as an independent Russian principality, fighting against Southwestern (Galician) Russia and Northeastern (Vladimir-Suzdal) Russia for the collection of Kievan lands for yourself. The death of Alexander Nevsky and the flare-up between his heirs allowed the Principality of Lithuania to seize the middle lands of Kievan Rus, and later to annex almost the entire territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality. becoming the most powerful state in Eastern Europe.
2. Since 1385, after the conclusion of a personal union with the Kingdom of Poland, the Principality of Lithuania has been included in the union state, where the main role belongs to the Polish gentry. The reason was the weakening of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the wars against Muscovy, which openly announced the gathering of Russian lands.
Since 1385 it was in a personal union with the Kingdom of Poland, and since 1569 - in the Sejm Union of Lublin as part of the confederal state of the Commonwealth. In the XIV-XVI centuries - a rival of the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the struggle for dominance in the Russian lands. It was abolished by the Constitution on May 3, 1791. It finally ceased to exist after the third partition of the Commonwealth in 1795. By 1815, the entire territory of the former principality became part of the Russian Empire.
Russia and Lithuania
In the Russian chronicles, the first dated mention of Lithuania dates back to 1040, when the campaign of Yaroslav the Wise against the Yotvingians took place and the construction of the Novogrudok fortress began - i.e. a Russian outpost was founded against the Litvins - New town, whose name later became Novogrudok.
Since the last quarter of the 12th century, many principalities bordering Lithuania (Gorodenskoe, Izyaslavskoe, Drutskoe, Gorodetskoe, Logoiskoe, Strezhevskoe, Lukomskoe, Bryachislavskoe) have left the field of view of ancient Russian chroniclers. According to the Tale of Igor's Campaign, Prince Izyaslav Vasilkovich died in battle with Lithuania (earlier in 1185). In 1190, Rurik Rostislavich organized a campaign against Lithuania in support of his wife's relatives, came to Pinsk, but due to snowmelt, the further campaign had to be canceled. Since 1198, the Polotsk land has become a springboard for the expansion of Lithuania to the north and northeast. 
Lithuanian invasions begin directly in Novgorod-Pskov (1183, 1200, 1210, 1214, 1217, 1224, 1225, 1229, 1234), Volyn (1196, 1210), Smolensk (1204, 1225, 1239, 1248) and Chernigov (1220) lands with which annalistic Lithuania had no common borders. The Novgorod first chronicle under 1203 mentions the battle of the Chernigov Olgoviches with Lithuania. In 1207, Vladimir Rurikovich of Smolensk went to Lithuania, and in 1216 Mstislav Davydovich of Smolensk defeated the Litvins, who were plundering the outskirts of Polotsk.
article Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Wikipedia. had to be corrected because in the period before no formations of the principality of Lithuania Lithuanians did not exist but were Lithuanians ka collectively the name of the Balts, who raided deep into the Russian principalities.
History of the Principality of Lithuania
If you follow the chronicles, then at the beginning of the second millennium, the Baltic tribes often raided the nearest Russian principalities, which allowed the Russian chroniclers to correlate the robbers with the territory already known in Russia, for which the generalized name Lithuania. However, the Balts themselves have not yet been united into a single union, since we know at least about TWO unions - a separate union of Samogitian tribes, and we are interested in - a Lithuanian union based on Aukshaits, which, after the Yotvingians entered it, just received a common the name of Lithuania. In those ancient times, when no one asked the nationality of the robbers, all the gangs of robbers from the side of the Varangian Sea in Russia were called the same and without distinction - Litvins from Lithuania. Lithuania, running out of its forests to the border villages of Pskov, was devastating.
Actually, already THAT Lithuanian tribes pursued only purely predatory goals, tells us that the state organization of Lithuania was loose - the meaning of allied relations was to create a single detachment of armed men to carry out robberies of neighbors who clearly already had a higher level state structure in the form of principalities, headed by all means princes from the same Rurik family, which united them into one confederation of principalities, which had the name Rus.
The chronicles tell us that the Russian princes, in order to pacify the Litvins, themselves carried out punitive raids on the lands of the Balts, erecting defensive fortresses on the borders with the lands of the Balts, one of which was Novogrudok, which turned into the center of a small newly formed Russian principality. However, against the backdrop of expansion by the Crusaders, and especially after the defeat of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars, the policy of the elites of this border Russian principality towards neighboring unions of Lithuanian tribes begins to change. Armed squads from the Balts, who have already gained experience in waging war, begin to invite the Russian border city for defense, which is expressed in chronicle form as an "invitation to reign" their leaders (which had already happened before Mindovg).
It should be noted that - history of the Lithuanian state, most likely, it would never have started like this, because the Balts had already been pushed back from all sides by the Order of the Crusaders - the Teutonic and Livonian, well, why hide - Russia itself, if in a small Russian principality - the boyars (read correctly - the elite) would not have dared to invite the Lithuanian leader Mindovg with his retinue to reign. This is how TWO problems were solved at once - (1) the armed guards appeared and (2) the raids stopped, the raids from Lithuania, since they themselves Lithuanians began to defend Novogrudok.
They were able to break the inexorable rule about the possibility of reigning only members of the Rurik family in Novogrudok due to the circumstances of the weakening of Russia, when the clan of the princes of Rurik, who owned Russia, was severely reduced as a result of defeats in battles with the Mongols-Tatars. Actually, both in relation to the crusaders, chained together with horses in armor, and in relation to the unusual deceptive tactics of the Tatar cavalry, Russia was faced with an unfamiliar technology of warfare. Moreover, the almost unarmed Tatars on small horses turned out to be even more invulnerable than the German knights clad in iron.
The third condition for the success of the first Lithuanian prince was the almost immediate support from the Pope of Rome and the European Empire, which, with the assistance of Poland, were colonizing the Baltic lands. Giving Mindovg the title of king was an advance to attract Lithuania to the side of Catholic Europe. Although the heirs of Mindovg were no longer crowned kings, they by all rights acquired the title of grand dukes, even according to the concepts adopted in the empire of the Eastern Slavs. The royal title was never required by the Lithuanian princes, since the Lithuanian principality was Russian, and Russia had its own tradition of glorifying rulers, in which only the title "Grand Duke" was supreme.
What are the reasons for the formation of the Principality of Lithuania
Reasons for the formation of the Lithuanian principality- in changing the policy of the Russian elite of the Russian city of Novogrudok in relation to the leaders of the unions of neighboring Lithuanian tribes with a hostile one - to the creation of a single state association - Russian-Lithuanian state- in the form of the Novgrudok principality, in which - in principle, "Russian" in its location - the invited Litvin began to rule Mindovg, as first Lithuanian prince.
I think then no one really thought about what to call the new Russian-Lithuanian state- it turned out that the adjective Lithuanian placed before the word principality, especially since the Mindrvgu had no choice but to accept the Western Russian language as the state language - simply, formation of the Lithuanian-Russian state began in the Russian city of Novogrudok. Any Baltic language was of no interest to anyone, since the language of communication between Rusyns and Litvins, probably, had long been the Rusyn language.
Now, after answering the question - what are the reasons for the formation of the Lithuanian principality, I want to give an idea of the states themselves in the era of feudalism. In Russian orthodox history, they put forward in the first place as something unusual - features of Kievan Rus as a confederation of almost independent principalities, which allows some anti-Russian historians to argue that the state itself - Kievan Rus- in fact, it was not. Actually, they appeal to today's idea of the structure of the state as centralized, the creation of which in Russia only Ivan the Terrible will be able to complete.
First of all, Kyiv Russia is just a term for a period in the history of Russia called Kyiv or pre-Mongolian- from before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, when the political center and capital ancient Russian state was Kyiv. Then feudal fragmentation, with which they are worn like with a written bag - was not unique feature the ancient Russian state - in Europe, all states were separate fiefs as some kind of territory that the feudal lord COULD PERSONALLY BYPASS to collect taxes. Because, just physical reasons, feudal lord large area could not control, then the European principalities were small in size. The states in Europe were like a nesting doll - small fiefs formed a larger fief of a signora, larger in relation to the fiefs of vassals, since it overlapped them. Even larger were the fiefs of lords, princes or dukes, which together constituted the fief of the king or grand duke, whose fief was considered the state.
Secondly, the principle according to which only members of the exclusively Rukovichi family could reign in the Russian principalities was also not unique, although it was fulfilled unquestioningly for hundreds of years after the bloody lesson taught by Prophetic Oleg to the Kyiv "imposters" - from simple warriors who took the place of the Kyiv princes and sentenced to death only for the lack of kinship with Rurik. After all, the whole history of the European empire just shows us the struggle of the princes for the device of themselves or their descendants to the vacant place of the monarch.
Features of the Lithuanian state were typical of territorial empires which undoubtedly was Lithuanian principality 13th-15th century, since it was formed by the leader of the pagan Balts, who became a prince in a Christian Orthodox principality, inhabited by Rusyns, but outside the principality they were already called Litvins. The main feature of the Lithuanian state thing is great state of lithuania became a "melting pot" in which two current nations were formed - Lithuanians and Belarusians, as the descendants of those Litvins and Russians who were united by the Great Russian-Lithuanian state, which became one of the three parts of Russia during the period of the Mongol yoke under the name.
To understand the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, some periodization should be carried out, since Lithuanian principality in the 13th century is "Great" only in the dreams of his princes, while Grand Duchy of Lithuania 15th century- the largest state in Europe in terms of territory (except for the Golden Horde or, perhaps, North-Eastern Russia, which did not have any fixed borders in the East).
Grand Duchy of Lithuania 13th century
The consolidation of the Principality of Lithuania took place against the backdrop of a gradual offensive by the crusaders of the Order of the Sword in Livonia and the Teutonic Order in Prussia, leading a crusade for the conversion to Christianity of the pagan Prussians, who stubbornly continued to adhere to their ancient pagan beliefs. Unfortunately, the details of the existence of statehood among the Baltic tribes themselves remained out of the attention of chroniclers, since the Teutonic Order did not keep records of events among the conquered Baltic tribes, and Russian chroniclers since the campaign of Yaroslav the Wise have lost interest in the peoples of this region of Kievan Rus, since the main Crusaders of the Teutonic and Livonian orders become enemies, the fight against which belongs to the prerogatives of the princes of the Novgorod land and the Pskov principality. The rest of Russia focused all its attention on the strife between the brothers princes and the first attack of the Mongol-Tatars, which destroyed the flower of the Russian army.
Princes of the Principality of Lithuania
I hope the reader understands that History is a description of the activities of the elite of society, which makes decisions and is often responsible for the correctness of the choice with life. Everything is in full accordance with the theory of elites - representatives of the people living in different parts of the state are not only unable to assess the event (which is important when writing history), but they do not even know about it if it has not touched them personally. Knowing and evaluating is a function of the elite, which, in order to make life easier for their descendants, only for the sake of keeping them in power as long as possible, begins to write history as an instruction based on accumulated experience. Chronicles were written by literate people in ancient times by order of the authorities, today the intelligentsia offers variants of history - and the elite chooses the option that is beneficial to it in today's conditions.
Therefore, there is no history objective or "in general" - each is written from some point in space and time - to know, from a certain angle, which is necessarily present and determines the assessment of events, and the role of elite representatives in them. The first Lithuanian princes, not burdened with obligations to any numerous parties of the elite or officials, acted on the basis of their purely personal interests, disposing of the state as personal property.
The world is diverse, therefore we are interested in the character, personal qualities and even the appearance of the princes of Lithuania, which definitely influenced the course of history. The logic of development goes by itself, and the mistakes or tactical successes of the princes are a retreat or following the strategy of this logic, which sometimes changes the goals of the logic itself.
The first Lithuanian princes
First Lithuanian prince first mentioned in the treaty of 1219 between the Galicia-Volyn principality and the "princes" of Lithuania, devils and Samogitians ( lithuania- in the sense of the name of the union of Lithuanian tribes). In Russian, the agreement appears Prince Mindovg, as fourth leader on the list of leaders of the Balts, which immediately raises the question of the reasons why the future first prince of Lithuania occupied by 1240 a leading position among the rest of the Lithuanian leaders-princes.
We must understand that the Lithuanian princes mentioned in the annals were still leaders tribal unions, as concept of prince suggests that he has a personal castle - a fortress or in the old Russian detinets, around which a city grows. Since we do not know about Lithuanian cities, the Lithuanian leaders have not yet distinguished themselves so much from among their fellow tribesmen as to have a fortified personal dwelling with a warehouse for storing the collected tribute. However, the further history of Mindovg's approval as the first among the five leaders mentioned in the annals confirms the fact that among the Balts there are already families or clans that have seized power or have hereditary advantages to take the place of the leader. Perhaps someone else, due to their personal courage or wisdom, could still take the place of the leader, but the story of the rise of Mindovg shows that the men of his family already realize the value of supporting each other in order to find the whole family in a privileged position among the rest of the tribe. The chronicle mentions Mindovg as the fourth, and shortly after his becoming a reigning, his brothers and nephews are listed, who occupy key places in power among the Baltic tribes. The rest of the leaders from the annalistic list of leaders disappear from the historical scene, apparently pushed aside by a close-knit group of men from the Mindovga clan.
Actually, the above paragraph is the beginning of a separate article - as an insert into this article, which has already become too large. The first Lithuanian princes they also acted as leaders of the squad from the Balts, since it was important for them to receive support precisely among their fellow tribesmen and, accordingly, members of their own family, who occupied key positions in the alliances of the Baltic tribes. Obviously, the resource of the Russian Novogrudok Principality was immediately used to strengthen the position of Mindovg's relatives in the power structures of the Lithuanian captive unions.
On the other hand, an invitation to a principality had only the force of an agreement of a hired leader of a military squad, and the practice of invitation itself had ancient traditions, when the squad was expelled. Therefore, the first prince of Lithuania should be regarded as a successful adventurer who, like Rurik, managed to realize the opportunity and gain a foothold in the place of the prince, without relying on any party or family ties among the Russian boyars. Most likely, the first Lithuanian prince was a member of the dynasty of the Polotsk princes through the female line, as the chronicle hints at. The Principality of Polotsk itself lost its significance, but a century earlier it was in second place among the Russian principalities, the lot of the first heirs to the throne of the Kyiv Grand Dukes.
I single out Mindovg both as a person and as the leader of the Baltic tribes, who became the first prince and for the Balts themselves, who became citizens of the state he created on the Russian lands of Black Russia and the adjacent lands of the Balts themselves.
Board of Mindaugas
So, once again, let us recall the geopolitical situation in the Baltic region, when the Russian principalities, weakened by the defeat from the Tatar-Mongols, leave the border lands out of their sphere of attention, where, in violation of the rule, it became possible to invite princes not from the Rurik dynasty. According to one of the hypotheses, the boyars of the Russian city of Novogrudok and Lithuanian prince Mindovg begin negotiations on an invitation to reign closer to 1240, when Mindovg is nominated for the role of chief leader among the leaders of the Baltic tribes. The main danger for Novogrudok came from Prince Daniel of Galicia, since the Galicia-Volyn principality, in its expansionist aspiration to dominate the whole of Russia, itself - the most southwestern principality, "reached out" even to the northern outskirts of Russia. The eastern direction for the expansion of the Galician principality was blocked by the Tatars, in the western direction the prince of Galicia was looking for friendship with Hungary, only the northern direction remained.
The first Lithuanian prince successfully used the opposition of the Principality of Pskov, and most importantly, of Alexander Nevsky, who reigned in Novgorod, with Daniil of Galicia, but in the end, Lithuania fell under the influence of the Galicia-Volyn principality, which became the main fighter against the crusaders invited by the Polish king to Prussian lands. Novgorod and Pskov would simply have annexed the principality of Novogrudok, and the union with the strong principality of Galicia provided the principality of Lithuania with the possibility of independence from the Russian principalities, and help in the fight against the crusaders. In addition, the remoteness from the Golden Horde allowed the Principality of Lithuania not to pay tribute and accumulate resources, even providing it with security from the sudden raids of the Tatars. All history of the Principality of Lithuania- this is its expansion due to the weakening Galicia-Volyn principality, which did not have such a successful geopolitical position.
Considering the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the aspect of its formation as Lithuanian Rus, we must remember that immediately after the invasion of the Tatars, Kievan Rus broke up into TWO parts - the long-standing unauthorized Galicia-Volyn principality and the northeastern confederation of Russian principalities. Galician Russia came into contact with the European empire, from which it began to seek protection in the confrontation with the Golden Horde, and North-Eastern Russia, at the hands of Alexander Nevsky, entered into a close alliance with the Golden Horde. Moreover, the help of the Western European empire demanded from Galician Rus a profound change in cultural and religious foundations , while the Tatars did not seek to change anything in the states they captured, in which their original way of life was preserved. As history has shown, CHOICE Alexander Nevsky turned out to be more effective for the self-preservation of Russia. The core for the revival of Russia was preserved precisely in the northern principalities, among which Moscow became the main collector of Russian lands.
The most likely reason for inviting Mindovg to reign in Russian Novogrudok was his hypothetical belonging to the Russian dynasty of Polotsk princes (see Mindovg's biography), since at that time kinship with princes and dynastic marriages were crucial for occupying the princely throne. Occupation by a pagan of the place of a prince in an Orthodox city was not something unusual, since no one paid attention to this. Baptism of Mindaugas Orthodox rite not recorded, but most likely it was with his family, since his son Voyshelk makes a pilgrimage to Athos and becomes a monk, but the baptism of Mindovg according to the Catholic rite in 1251 is a recorded fact that clearly served the political goals of easing pressure from the order of Catholic states .
History of the Lithuanian state begins with the wars that Prince Mindovg organizes to turn his tiny Novogrudok principality into the Principality of Lithuania, for which, first of all, he eliminates rivals among the leaders of the Baltic tribes, forcing his nephew Tovtivil (mindovk’s protege in the Principality of Polotsk) together with the rest of the leaders to make a campaign against the Smolensk lands, promising the occupied lands to their control. Having learned about the failure of the campaign, Mindovg seized the lands of the prince-leaders and tried to organize their murder. Most likely, the leaders from the failed Smolensk campaign returned not to their own, but to other tribes of the Balts.
Lithuanian king
To weaken the coalition of his enemies, which included the Livonian Order, Prince Mindovg goes to the trick - he "gives" the Livonian Order the lands of the recalcitrant Baltic tribes in exchange, first for baptism according to the Catholic rite, and then in 1253 coronation of Mindaugas by order of Pope Innocent IV. Having presented the Livonian Order with part of the Samogitian and Yatvingian lands, Mindovg strengthens its power over all Black Russia (the word "Black" goes back to the ancient designation of the cardinal point - Server - y, for what reason the name Bela Rus will initially denote North-Eastern Russia, and Red Russia- southern Galich lands of Russia).
It is necessary to understand the political situation of Western (Black) Russia, which became the historical center of the Mindovga principality, as the northwestern wedge of Russian lands, on which the interests of the Catholic German orders and Veliky Novgorod, which opposes them, led by Alexander Nevsky, the Kingdom of Poland and Daniel of Galicia, converged, moreover , for the latter, Mindovg turned out to be a natural ally. For Galicia-Volyn Principality of Lithuania as an independent one, it was of interest to oppose rivals, which in no way canceled Daniil's claims to reign by the right of the Rurikovichs, therefore, as we know, Mindovg was forced to transfer the rule in Novogrudok to Daniel's son - Roman, which, together with the rebaptism of Mindovg to Catholicism, leads him to confrontation with his own son Voyshelok, who led the Orthodox party.
Voyshelka's biography confirms the thesis that the Lithuanian princes became Russian princes already in the second generation, since son of Mindovg demonstrates exceptional fidelity to Orthodoxy. In addition, Voyshelk goes against the pagan father, who was baptized several times for political purposes and returned to paganism before his death, and returns to reign only for the sake of becoming a truly Russian principality of Lithuania, since he himself recognizes the right of the Ruriks to reign and voluntarily transfers the reign to Shvarn, son Daniil Galitsky. From Voyshelka, the Principality of Lithuania is firmly included in the "clip" of the Russian principalities on the rights of an appanage principality.
Actually, it is difficult to show the borders of the Lithuanian-Russian state under Mindovga and Voyshelka on the map - I depicted the area that captures the Russian lands and the lands of the Balts. It is more important for me to show that literally after a few years of reign (in 1254), Mindovg recognizes his Russian principality as part of the empire of the Galician prince Daniel, planting in Novogrudok, former capital principality, - Roman Danilovich, son of Daniel. In fact, this was the recognition of the laws of Russia on the reign, according to which only a member of the Rurik dynasty could reign. In fact, a strange situation arises when King Mindovg, having transferred the capital to Rurikovich, himself is in an unknown residence - most likely precisely because of the unknown - on the territory of the Lithuanian tribes. The dual power will continue under the son of Mindovg - Voyshelka, who will kill Roman Danilovich, but then voluntarily give the Principality of Lithuania to another son of Daniel - Shvarn Danilovich, in turn recognizing the unconditional rights of the Ruriks to reign in any Russian principality.
The first Lithuanian princes could not fight against the rules of Galician Rus, which was not only the hegemon in the region, but also almost the only natural ally of the Lithuanian princes. Most likely, the Principality of Novogrudok would have simply been annexed by the Russian neighbors, but as an outpost of the Principality of Galicia-Volyn in the northwestern corner of Russia, it was preserved as a state entity. The patronage of Galician Rus had to be paid for by the transfer of power to the sons of Daniel of Galicia, but they also contributed to the expansion of the territory and the strengthening of the principality as not a specific, but a Grand Duchy.
Another thing is that the Galicia-Volyn principality itself, for which the Lithuanian principality became a lot, begins to fall apart for several reasons at once, which, in the face of the weakening influence of the Galician princes, allows a new generation of Lithuanian impostors from the Zhmud leaders to seize power in the Lithuanian principality and create a new dynasty of Lithuanian princes - Gediminovichi.
The murder of Shvarn as a legitimate Russian prince from the Rurik dynasty opposed the Lithuanian principality to the rest of Russia. After several political assassinations of the new princes, obviously self-promoted by their military squad, the princely power is finally consolidated under Gediminas, as the prince of the Lithuanian principality, independent of the Galician grand dukes.
As I already said, activities of the Lithuanian princes covered in a separate article - but we note that with Gediminas, the expansion of the Lithuanian principalities begins due to the annexation, first of all, of the southern Russian lands. After the death of the main (from our point of view) political figures - Alexander Nevsky and Daniil Galitsky, their states were fragmented into inheritances of heirs who did not particularly show themselves, except for Daniil Alexandrovich, who, with his peace-loving policy, brought the seedy specific Moscow principality to the first row of the most influential principalities.
Lithuania's entry for a couple of decades political system Catholic Europe allowed Mindovg to strengthen his power among the Baltic tribes, and create an alliance with the Galicia-Volyn principality by transferring the reign in Novogrudok to the son of the Galician prince Roman Danilovich (Novogrudok prince 1254-1258). The union was not overshadowed by the joint campaign against Poland and Lithuania by the Horde and Galicians, organized under pressure from the khans of the Zola Horde, who did not forgive Mindovga for accepting the title of king from the pope. Daniil Galitsky himself evaded the campaign, transferring command to his brother, Prince of Volyn Vasilko Romanovich, which did not save his son Roman Danilovich from being captured by Voyshelka, the son of Mindovg, who led the Russian party in Novogrudok. Roman Danilovich was killed in 1258, which coincides with the renunciation of Mindovg from Christianity (it is not clear whether only from Catholicism) and the return to open struggle against the Catholic Orders. After supporting several uprisings of the Prussians, the Litvins under the leadership of Midovg won the Battle of Durba, which became the stage for the accession of Samogitia to the GDL. However, in 1263, Mindovg, along with his younger sons, was killed as a result of a conspiracy organized by the Polotsk prince Tovtivil and Mindovg's nephews - Troynat and Dovmont, which ended with the occupation of the place of Grand Duke Troynat (1263-1264), who soon killed the head of the conspirators Tovtivil.
In ancient times, Lithuanian tribes occupied the northern lands almost to the present Tambov. But then they merged with the Finno-Ugric and Slavic populations. Lithuanian tribes survived only in the Baltic states and Belarus. The central part of this range was occupied by the Lithuanian tribe or Lithuanians, Zhmud lived to the west, Prussians lived even further to the west. In the east of modern Belarusian lands, the Yatvags lived, and the golyad tribe was located in the Kolomna region.
From these disparate tribes, the Lithuanian prince Mindovg created a single principality. After his assassination by conspirators in 1263, the Lithuanian princes fought for power until the beginning of the 14th century. The winner in these internecine wars was Prince Gediminas (ruled 1316-1341). It was to him that the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century owed its successful policy of conquest.
The very first conquest was Black Russia. This area near the city of Grodno is the most West Side Russia. Then Gediminas subjugated Minsk, Polotsk, Vitebsk. After that, the Lithuanians penetrated into Galicia and Volhynia. But Gediminas failed to conquer Galicia. It was occupied by the Poles, and the Lithuanians settled only in eastern Volhynia and began to prepare for a campaign against Kyiv.
Black Russia on the map
At the time described, Kyiv had already lost its greatness, but Stanislav, who reigned in the city, decided to defend himself and the townspeople to the end. In 1321, he entered into battle with the army of Gediminas, but was defeated. And the victorious Lithuanians laid siege to Kyiv. The people of Kiev were forced to submit to the great Lithuanian prince on the basis of vassalage. That is, all property was left to the people of Kiev, but Kyiv prince fell into complete submission to the winners.
After the capture of Kyiv, the Lithuanian army continued its military expansion. As a result, Russian cities up to Kursk and Chernigov were conquered. So, under Gediminas and his son Olgerd, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania arose in the 14th century. It continued its policy of conquest after the death of Gediminas, when his sons Olgerd and Keistut entered the political arena.
The brothers divided spheres of influence. Keistut settled in Zhmudi and resisted the Germans, while Olgerd pursued an aggressive policy in the Russian lands. It should be noted that Olgerd and his nephew Vitovt formally accepted Orthodoxy. Lithuanian princes married Russian princesses and united around themselves the Rurikovichs from the Turov-Pinsk land. That is, they gradually included the Russian lands in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Olgerd managed to subjugate a vast territory to the Black Sea and the Don. In 1363, the Lithuanians defeated the Tatars at Blue Waters(Sinyukha River) and captured the western part of the steppe between the Dnieper and the mouth of the Danube. Thus, they went to the Black Sea. But Lithuania continued to be sandwiched between Orthodox Russia and Catholic Europe. The Lithuanians waged active wars with the Teutonic and Livonian Orders, and therefore Poland could become their ally.
Poland at that time was in a state of deepest crisis. She was periodically tormented by both anti-papist German orders and the Czechs who captured Krakow and the lands adjacent to it. The latter were hardly driven out by the Polish king Vladislav Loketek from the Piast dynasty. In 1370, this dynasty ceased to exist, and the Frenchman Louis of Anjou became the king of Poland. He gave the crown to his daughter Jadwiga. The Polish magnates strongly advised that she should be legally married to the Lithuanian prince Jagaila, the son of Olgerd. Thus, the Poles wanted to unite Poland with Lithuania and stop German expansion.
In 1385, Jagiello married Jadwiga and became the full ruler of Lithuania and Poland in accordance with the Union of Kreva. In 1387, the population of Lithuania officially adopted the Catholic faith. However, not everyone greeted it with enthusiasm. Those Lithuanians who linked themselves with the Russians did not want to accept Catholicism.
This was taken advantage of by the cousin of Jagiello Vitovt. He led the opposition and led the struggle for the throne of the Grand Duke. This man was looking for allies among the Lithuanians, and among the Poles, and among the Russians, and among the crusaders. The opposition was so strong that in 1392 Jagiello concluded the Ostrov agreement with Vytautas. According to him, Vitovt became the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Jagiello appropriated the title of the Supreme Duke of Lithuania.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV century on the map
Vitovt continued to conquer Russian lands and in 1395 captured Smolensk. Soon he refused to submit to Jagiello and, thanks to an alliance with the Tatars, annexed a large territory of the Wild Field to Lithuania. So the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV century significantly expanded its borders. However, in 1399 military happiness turned away from Vitovt. He lost Smolensk and part of other lands. In 1401, Lithuania was so weakened that it again entered into an alliance with Poland - the Union of Vilna-Radom.
After that, Vitovt again gained serious political weight. In 1406, an official border was established between Moscow Rus and Lithuania. The Principality of Lithuania waged a successful struggle against the Teutonic Order. In 1410, the Battle of Grunwald took place, in which the crusader knights suffered a crushing defeat. AT last years During his reign, Vytautas sought to separate Lithuania from Poland again and for this purpose decided to be crowned. But this idea ended in failure.
Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV century became a strong state militarily and politically. It united, noticeably expanded its borders and acquired high international prestige. Important historical event was the adoption of Catholicism. This step brought Lithuania closer to Europe, but moved it away from Russia. It played a big political role in later centuries.
Alexey Starikov
Some modern historians, challenging the conclusions of the Imperial geographical society(although without having access to his archives - no one worked with the Polotsk Chronicle after Tatishchev), they consider Gedimina a descendant of the Zhmudins, who "they have long been sitting on the princely thrones of the destinies of the Polotsk principality - it was weakened and princes from the strong Lietuva (Zhmud) were invited / appointed there, so the annexation of the Polotsk lands took place voluntarily and peacefully"
A question immediately arises, to which no answer is given.
How likely is an invitation (peaceful - there was no conquest) to the princely throne in the Christian center of the leaders of the aboriginal pagans
[
“The Samogites wear bad clothes, and, moreover, in the vast majority of cases they are ashy in color. They spend their life in low and, moreover, very long huts; It is customary to keep cattle, without any partition, under the same roof under which they themselves live. More noble people also use buffalo horns as goblets. ... They blow up the earth not with iron, but with wood ... When they are going to plow, they usually carry with them a lot of logs with which they dig the earth"
S. Herberstein, "Notes on Muscovy", XVI century, about contemporary Zhmudins. (In the XIII century it was even sadder)]
And what guided the inhabitants, preferring them to people from neighboring (Volyn, Kyiv, Smolensk, Novgorod, Mazovia) principalities, who
- represent a powerful public entity
- closer in culture
- closer in language
- dynastically related
- live in cities, know writing and the likeness of laws
And this despite the fact that at that time in Polotsk there was "freedom of Polotsk or Venice"- objectionable rulers were quite often simply expelled.
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a feudal state that existed in the 13th-16th centuries. on the territory of part of modern Lithuania and Belarus. The main occupation of the population was agriculture and cattle breeding. Hunting and crafts played an auxiliary role in the economy. The development of a craft based on iron production, internal and international trade(with Russia, Poland, etc.) contributed to the growth of cities (Vilnius, Trakai, Kaunas, etc.). In the 9th-12th centuries. feudal relations developed on the territory of Lithuania, the estates of feudal lords and dependent people were formed. Separate Lithuanian political associations- lands (Aukshtaitija, Samogitia, Deltuva, etc.) - had an unequal level of socio-economic development. The decomposition of primitive communal relations and the emergence feudal system led to the formation of the state among the Lithuanians. According to the Galicia-Volyn chronicle, the Russo-Lithuanian treaty of 1219 mentions an alliance of Lithuanian princes headed by the "oldest" princes who owned lands in Aukstaitija. This indicates the existence of a state in Lithuania. The strengthening of the grand ducal power led to the unification of the main Lithuanian lands in V. k. L. under the rule of Mindovg (mid-30s of the 13th century - 1263), who also seized some Belarusian lands (Black Russia). The formation of the V. k. L. was accelerated by the need to unite to fight the aggression of the German crusaders, which intensified from the beginning of the 13th century. Lithuanian troops won major victories over the knights in the battles of Siauliai (1236) and Durba (1260).
In the 14th century, during the reign of Gediminas (1316-1341), Olgerd (1345-77) and Keistut (1345-82), V. k. L. significantly expanded its possessions, annexing all Belarusian, part of Ukrainian and Russian lands (Volyn , Vitebsk, Turov-Pinsk, Kyiv, Pereyaslav, Podolsk, Chernihiv-Seversky lands, etc.). Their inclusion was facilitated by the fact that Russia was weakened by the Mongol-Tatar yoke, as well as the fight against the aggression of German, Swedish and Danish invaders. The inclusion of Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian lands with more developed social relations and culture into the V. to. L. contributed to further development socio-economic relations in Lithuania. In the annexed lands, the Lithuanian grand dukes retained significant autonomy and immunity rights for local magnates. This, as well as differences in the level of socio-economic development and the ethnic heterogeneity of individual parts of V. k. L., led to the lack of centralization in state administration. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke, with him - a council of representatives of the nobility and higher clergy. In order to join forces to fight the advance of the German knightly orders and strengthen his power, Grand Duke Jagiello (1377-92) concluded with Poland Kreva union 1385. However, the union was fraught with the danger of future transformation of Lithuania into a province of Poland. In Lithuania, where until the end of the 14th century. paganism existed, Catholicism began to spread by force. Jagiello's policy was opposed by a part of the Lithuanian and Russian princes, headed by Vitovt, who in 1392, after an internecine struggle, actually became the Grand Duke in Lithuania. The combined Lithuanian-Russian and Polish troops, with the participation of Czech troops in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, utterly defeated the knights of the Teutonic Order and stopped their aggression.
The growth of large feudal landownership and the consolidation of the ruling class in the 14th - 15th centuries. were accompanied by mass enslavement of the peasants, which caused peasant uprisings (for example, in 1418). The main form of exploitation of the peasants was food rent. Simultaneously with the growth of economic dependence, national oppression in the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands also intensified. Crafts and trade developed in the cities. In the 15-16 centuries. the rights and privileges of the Lithuanian lords are growing. According to the Union of Horodel in 1413, the rights of the Polish gentry were extended to the Lithuanian Catholic nobles. At the end of the 15th century a Rada of pans was formed, which actually put the power of the Grand Duke under its control by the privilege of 1447 and by the privilege of the Grand Duke Alexander in 1492. The formation of a general gentry Sejm (at the end of the 15th century), as well as the publication of the Lithuanian Statutes of 1529 and 1566, consolidated and increased the rights of the Lithuanian nobility.
The transition to cash rent at the end of the 15th-16th centuries. was accompanied by an increase in the exploitation of the peasants and an aggravation of the class struggle: escapes and unrest became more frequent (especially large ones - in 1536-37 in the grand ducal estates). In the middle of the 16th century a reform was carried out on the estates of the Grand Duke, as a result of which the exploitation of the peasants intensified due to the growth of corvee (see Volochnaya Pomera). From the end of the 16th century this system is being introduced in the estates of large landowners-tycoons. Mass enslavement of peasants, development of corvée economy, acquisition by Lithuanian landlords in the second half of the 16th century. the right to duty-free export of grain abroad and the import of goods hindered the development of cities.
The Lithuanian princes, from the moment of the formation of V. k. L., sought to seize Russian lands. However, the strengthening in the 14th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow and the unification of the Russian lands around it led to the fact that from the 2nd half of the 15th century. as a result of wars with Russia (1500-03, 1507-08, 1512-22, 1534-37) B. k. L. lost Smolensk (captured by Grand Duke Vitovt in 1404), Chernigov, Bryansk, Novgorod-Seversky and other Russians earth. The growth of anti-feudal actions in the lands of V. k. L., the aggravation of intra-class contradictions, the desire for expansion in V., as well as failures in Livonian War 1558-83 against Russia led to the unification of V. to. L. with Poland according to the Union of Lublin in 1569 into one state - the Commonwealth.
