In the territory former USSR was probably the only republic where there were actually no religious organizations. Only 2 Orthodox churches operated on the territory of the republic, which huddled in unsuitable dilapidated premises. The culture-forming people of the republic are the Kalmyks, who profess Buddhism and carry the synthesis of the multicolored unique Eastern culture, did not have by this time either a house of worship or khurul. Several generations of the Kalmyk people, including those who went through the hardships of the Siberian exile of 1943-1956, grew up without a spiritual guide, did not have the opportunity to know their national and cultural origins.
Already by 1940, all khuruls in Kalmykia were closed and destroyed, the clergy were repressed. Attempts by the public, upon returning from Siberia, to restore at least a small particle of the past - to open a prayer house for believers - ended in failure.
Not surprisingly, after that, they were soon closed. national schools and classes, the system of national-cultural upbringing and education was gradually destroyed, and the consequence of this was the loss of spirituality by the people, mother tongue.
The liberalization of the state's attitude towards religions and Buddhism in particular, which began in the late 80s and early 90s, did not inspire confidence in its irreversibility, and it was this doubt that had a slowing effect on the return of religion to life. modern society.
Only in 1988, the first Buddhist community was formed in the city of Elista, the population of the republic began to show interest in Buddhism as a religion, and the number of people participating in rituals increased. AT public opinion, in means mass media ideas about the positive role of religion for modern society were promoted. She was seen as one of effective means exit society from the state spiritual crisis. This position is increasingly beginning to manifest itself among people who considered themselves unbelievers.
The widespread growth of the popularity of religious views among the population of the republic was facilitated by the ideological vacuum that formed after the departure from the stage of communist ideology.
Despite some revival religious life no major changes were observed in the republic. Fundamental changes in the religious life of Kalmykia have taken place since 1993.
Within the framework of the current federal and republican laws, effective measures were taken to implement the rights of citizens to freedom of religion. The positive attitude towards religion on the part of the leadership of the republic had the most positive resonance. It is during the period since 1993 that the peak of activation religious activities. Everywhere in the villages, cities of the republic are formed religious communities, khuruls, Orthodox churches are being built, sent to study in Buddhist monasteries India and Buryatia young men from Kalmykia. All this work was not of a spontaneous nature, but was directed by the state. To coordinate this work in the republic, by the Decree of the President of the Republic, the Department for Religious Affairs, which was subsequently transformed from the Ministry of Culture into the Ministry of Culture, National Policy and Religious Affairs. Under the aforementioned ministry voluntary there is a Council for Religious Affairs, which includes the heads of religious denominations, who at their meetings discuss the pressing problems of religious life in the republic.
Work this Council contributed to mutual understanding and religious tolerance between various religious organizations.
There are currently 79 registered religious organizations and about two dozen religious groups in the republic. Freely, within the framework of the laws, not only religious communities of the Buddhist, Orthodox, Muslim confessions operate, but communities of Catholics and Protestants.
The revival of traditional religions essentially started from scratch. In general, there was no material base. In this regard, the main emphasis at the initial stage of the development of traditional religions, especially Buddhism, was placed on the material base, namely the construction of khuruls, Orthodox churches.
The construction of a Buddhist temple, one of the three main temples of the khurul complex "Geden Sheddub Choikhorling", has become truly popular. This religious building was built in optimal short time- for 1 year. The state allocated more than 2.5 billion rubles for the construction of khurul, about 1.3 billion rubles (in 1996 prices) was contributed by the President of the Republic from his personal funds. New khuruls at the expense of local budgets and sponsorship funds were built in the city of Lagan, in the villages of Tsagan-Aman, Iki-Chonos, Baga-Chonos, Tsekerta, Yashkul, Arshan-Zelmen. The construction of khuruls in the settlements of Bolshoy Tsaryn and Ulan Khol is nearing completion. The Exaltation of the Cross Orthodox Church in the village of Priyutnoye was built at the expense of the personal funds of the President of the Republic. At present, Orthodox religious communities operate in all regions, and local authorities have allocated premises for their work, in which churches have been opened.
As can be seen from these examples, the authorities, despite the existing difficulties, are looking for opportunities to develop the material base of religious organizations. The development of the material base of the Buddhist and Orthodox confessions will continue, despite the existing financial and economic difficulties, to continue, and the state intends to play a leading role here.
A special role in the revival of traditional religions is given to Buddhist and Orthodox clergy. From our nearby past history We know that in the beginning of the 20th century several thousand Buddhist clerics served in khuruls of Kalmykia. The fate of the vast majority of them is sad. During mass repression In the 1920s and 1930s, many of them were shot, some were sent to camps, where many of them died of disease, cold and hunger. Only a few representatives of that generation of Buddhist clergy have survived to this day, where in everyday life, secretly from the official authorities, they spent religious rites.
What happened to the Buddhist clergy is a tragedy for the Kalmyk people.
But despite all this, during the period of the revival of Buddhism, when the first recruitment of young men into Buddhist spiritual educational establishments Mongolia and Buryatia, 15 young men decided to link their fate with Buddhism. Despite financial difficulties, some of them completed their studies and are now successfully working in khuruls and enjoy respect and authority among believers. These include Rinchen Dagva, lama of the Union of Cossacks of Kalmykia, Balzhinim lama, rector of the Tsaganaman khurul, Luuzng lama, rector of the Yashkul khurul, Agvan Ishey lama, rector of the Trinity khurul,
Sanzh Lamu - the rector of khurul "Syakyusn Sume" and some others. The training of clergy received its widest scope in 1993. In February 1993, 16 young men from Kalmykia were sent to study at the "Drepung Gomang" monastery, in subsequent years 10 more people went to study.
Currently, 7 young men have completed their studies and are working in khuruls of the republic, 7 more young men continue their education. in addition, 3 young men from Kalmykia are currently studying at the higher theological educational institution of Buryatia. Despite the fact that the church is separated from the state, the authorities seek various opportunities from extrabudgetary funds and provide assistance to students outside the republic. This systematic work is yielding positive results. Currently, 27 Buddhist clergy are working in the khurulas of the republic, including 7 Tibetan lamas, who provide the most significant assistance in the revival of Buddhism. All are created for the Buddhist clergy the necessary conditions. All of them have good living conditions. In particular, for the monks of khurul "Syakyusn Sume" the government of the republic allocated a new semi-detached house with all conveniences.
Much is being done by the Elista and Kalmyk Orthodox diocese to train clergy. In 1996-2002, Bishop Zosima sent 11 young men to study at religious educational institutions in the cities of Moscow and Belgorod, some of them, having completed their studies, work in the Orthodox churches of the republic. At present, the vast majority of churches in the republic are staffed by local priests.
The craving for the Buddhist religion as a philosophical view is very great. Considering the great interest in Buddhism, in 1995 a branch of the Karmapa International Buddhist Institute (New Delhi, India) was opened in Elista. This is the only institution of its kind in Russian Federation prepares buddhologists, translators. In addition, several people study at the Buddhist Institute in the city of Varanasi (India). Such an initiative of young people who have expressed a desire to study the philosophy of Buddhism is only welcomed by us and the state provides all kinds of assistance in their studies.
Behind last years the connections of traditional confessions with the religious centers of Russia and far abroad have significantly expanded. Visits of religious delegations from various countries of the world have become traditional. Only in recent years Kalmykia has received friendly visits from the State Oracle Thupten Ngodrup, the Minister of Culture and Religion of the Central Tibetan Administration Kirti Rinpoche, the President of the Xinjiang Buddhist Association (PRC) Shalvan Gegyan, His Eminence Khalkha Jeptsun Damba (Bogdo Gegyan) and many others. Along the line Orthodox Church The republic was visited in 1997 by His Holiness Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexy 2 , in June 2002 Metropolitan Kirill of Kaliningrad and Smolensk visited. Regular visits to Kalmykia by hierarchs of the Buddhist religion gave impetus to the formation of Dharma centers - centers for the study of the foundations of Buddhism. In a short period of time, manage to get recognition from believers Dharma Center (head Elistaev B.), Tilopa Center (head Mangaev B.). It was on their initiative and with the help of the authorities state power visits of high Buddhist lamas are organized, religious prayers are held. For example, in July 1999, in the city of Elista, in a solemn atmosphere with the participation of more than 3 thousand Buddhist believers from different cities of Russia, countries of near and far abroad, the Buddhist Stupa of Enlightenment was opened. Substantial assistance was provided by local authorities Buddhist community Karma Kagyu in land acquisition, solving many organizational issues during the construction and opening of this Stupa. Similar stupas were built in the villages of Tsagan-Nur, Baga-Burul, Ovata, Arshan-Zelmen, Gojur, Sheering. The construction of the stupa at khurul "Syakyusn Syume" was completed. It is dedicated to the memory of Kalmyk and Tibetan lamas.
The basics of traditional religions are also comprehended through their teaching in schools as part of the optional course "History of the Native Land" in the historical and informational aspect. And all this is carried out within the framework of both federal and republican laws on religious issues.
great place in the media is given to religious and educational programs. Became regular on radio and television programs "Clear Light", "Middle Way", "Conversations about Religion". Buddhist and Orthodox clergy willingly speak to TV viewers and radio listeners to explain certain provisions of traditional religions. In general, these programs are popular among the believers of the republic.
Played a major role in the spread of Buddhism print media information. In this matter, the most constructive position is taken by the republican newspapers Izvestia Kalmykii and Khalmg Unn. Any visit of high Buddhist lamas does not go unnoticed by republican newspapers, interviews with them constantly appear on their pages, which arouses great interest among readers. The newspaper "Halmg unn" pays much attention to the issues of national religious holidays, in particular Tsagan-sar, Zul, Urs-Sar. In recent years, several round tables have been held in the editorial office of this newspaper with the invitation of scientists and clergy. For more in-depth information on Buddhism, religious Buddhist organizations and scholars of Kalmykia publish the magazines "Mandala" and "Shambhala", the newspapers "Lotus Breath" and "Padma".
Kalmykia - the only republic not only in Russia but throughout Europe, where the titular Kalmyk nation belongs to the group of Mongolian peoples. But unfortunately in the external appearance of the cities and villages of the republic there was no noticeable national oriental flavor. Even the capital of the republic - the city of Elista appearance and architecture was no different from cities, for example, in central Russia. The leadership of the republic, with the support of the people, carried out a lot of work to give the appearance of our capital a national oriental flavor. In 1997, a Rotunda with a statue of Buddha was installed in the center of the city. It has become the norm for the townspeople to visit this place, pray before the Buddha, lay flowers at its foot. According to the projects of craftsmen, two beautiful arches were built in oriental style, which adorn the city center and are its calling card. And there are more and more such beautiful monuments of architecture and construction in Elista. Our artists became seriously interested in the theme of Buddhism, in particular, in 1999, on the occasion of the anniversary of the Kalmyk educator and spiritual leader Zai Pandita, a play of the same name was staged, which aroused great interest among the public.
The revival of traditional beliefs is not an end in itself. Everything that is done in this spiritual sphere has a specific goal and task - to instill in the younger generation, which grows in the conditions of the dominance of Western mass culture, love to native land, love for national traditions, rituals, language.
Already today it can be seen that the people have become liberated, have gained confidence and a sense of national dignity.
Through the revival of religion, it is possible to revive the national spirit of the peoples living in Kalmykia. Only a self-confident person, relying on national roots, traditions and customs, can solve the tasks that life sets before him.
Information and photos from the site.
The Kalmyks themselves call themselves halmg(meaning "remaining") or yoord(from dervn yoord, which means "four close", "four allies"). The Kalmyks of the People's Republic of China (Oirats) also call themselves Oirat-Mongols, because in the PRC, all Mongolian-speaking peoples (Oirats, Khalkhas, Buryats, etc.) are called Mongols. The Kalmyk people are divided into four large divisions, or generations, as the Russians called them - Torguts (Torgouts), Derbets (Dervyuds), Khoshouts (Khoshuts) and Olets (Zyungars). Some of the Torgouts, Derbets and Olets (Zungars), who lived next to the Don Cossacks and actively interacted with them, took the name Buzava.
Territory of settlement
Kalmyks (Torgouts, Derbets, Khoshouty, Zungars (Olet), Buzavs) live in the Republic - 173,996 thousand people. (more than 50% of the population) according to the All-Russian population census 2002. Large groups Kalmyks (Torgouts, Derbets, Hoshouts, Zungars (Olet)) are also in Western China (Baingol-Mongolian and Borotala-Mongolian Autonomous Regions of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; Qinghai Province of China) - according to various sources, from 170 to 250 thousand people, and Western Mongolia (Khovd and Uvs aimags) - about 150 thousand people. There are small groups of Kalmyks in Central Asia(in Kyrgyzstan - over 10 thousand people) and in the Caucasus, from the countries of the so-called "far abroad" - in (2 thousand people) and (1 thousand people)
population
The number of Volga Kalmyks at the time of their arrival in the places of their current residence in the early 17th century. is estimated at about 270 thousand people. Then, in the composition of the population of the country, their number changed as follows: 1926 - 131 thousand, 1937 - 127 thousand, 1939 - 134 thousand, 1959 - 106 thousand, 1970 - 137 thousand. , 1979 - 147 thousand people, 1989 - 174 thousand people, of which in the Republic of Kalmykia - 166 thousand people. Oirats (Kalmyks) also live in Afghanistan, who remained there after the conquests of Genghis Khan.
Ethnic and ethnographic groups
Until the 20th century The Kalmyks were characterized by the presence of tribal groups - Derbets, Torgouts, Khosheuts and Olets (Zyungars). On the present stage there is an active mixing of genera and the formation of a single Kalmyk nation.
Race, anthropological type
Racially, the Kalmyks are Mongoloids, but unlike the classical Mongoloids, as a result of mixing with the Turkic and North Caucasian peoples, they often have wavy soft hair, a slightly more developed beard, and a higher nose bridge.
Language
Writing
Religion
Kalmyks profess Buddhism (Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism).
Ethnogenesis and ethnic history
The ethnogenesis of the Kalmyks is not well understood. But Kalmyks are widely mentioned in connection with the rise of the legendary conqueror. According to Timur's biographers, his youth was spent in the struggle against the Kalmyks (Gets) of the Kashgar Khan who occupied his homeland. A matured Timur expels the conquering Kalmyks-Goths from his country and begins campaigns to the West and South. English researchers of the 18th century (Gibbon and others) identify the Getae-Kalmyks of the time of Timur with the Massagets of ancient times, who stopped the advance of Alexander the Great in Central Asia. Kalmyks are also mentioned in the work Genghis Name which is traditionally dated to the 13th century.
According to one version, the Kalmyks were formed as a result of coming to the beginning. 17th century to the Lower Volga from Western Mongolia, part of the Oirat tribes - Derbets, Torguts, etc. It is believed that they accepted Russian citizenship there and from 1667 a relatively autonomous Kalmyk Khanate existed as part of Russia, which was liquidated in 1771, when part of the Kalmyks, dissatisfied with oppression from side of the Russian administration, went to their historical homeland.
Opponents, in particular, pay attention to the fact that the Kalmyks are mentioned in Russian sources as early as the 16th century, that contacts with the Kalmyks have always been carried out through the Collegium of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire, and the transfer of Kalmyk affairs to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs occurred only in 1825.
Be that as it may, the first mention of the Kalmyks in Russian sources refers to the beginning, the time of the reign. Sebastian Münster, who published his Cosmography in 1544, received information about the Kalmyks from Russian informants.
economy
The basis of the traditional economy of the Kalmyks was nomadic cattle breeding. The herd was dominated by sheep, fat-tailed and coarse-haired, and horses of the Kalmyk steppe breed, distinguished by their unpretentiousness, cattle were also bred - red cows raised for meat, as well as goats and camels. Cattle were kept on pasture all year round, since the 19th century. began to store food for the winter. With the transition to a settled way of life (with the exception of Russian Kalmyks and Kalmyks living in the West, the rest of the Oirat-Kalmyks continue to lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle), pig breeding began to be practiced. Fishing played a significant role in the Volga region and the Caspian. Hunting was of no small importance, mainly for saigas, but also for wolves, foxes and other game. Some groups of Kalmyks have been engaged in agriculture for a long time, but it did not play a significant role. Only with the transition to settled life did his role begin to grow. Cereals were grown - rye, wheat, millet, etc., industrial crops - flax, tobacco, garden, garden and melons. Since the 20th century Kalmyks are also beginning to engage in paddy rice cultivation. Crafts were developed, including leatherworking, felting, wood carving, etc., including artistic ones - leather stamping, chasing and engraving on metal, embroidery.
Traditional settlements and dwellings
Until the beginning of the 20th century the traditional Kalmyk settlements (Khotons) had a family-related character. They were characterized by a layout in the form of a circle of portable dwellings, cattle were driven into its center, and public gatherings were held there. Since the 19th century stationary settlements with a linear layout appeared. The main dwelling of the nomadic Kalmyks was a Mongolian-type yurt. Its wooden frame consisted of 6-12 folding lattices, a circle in the upper part, which was connected to the lattices by long curved slats. The door was made double-leaf. The side to the left of the entrance was considered male, there were horse harness, processed skins, a bed for the owners, bedding, to the left of the entrance there was a female half with kitchen utensils. There was a hearth in the center, a cauldron was placed on a tripod above it, behind the hearth there was a place of honor where guests were seated. The floor was covered with felt. Another portable dwelling of the nomadic Kalmyks was a wagon mounted on a wagon. Stationary dwellings at first were dugouts and semi-dugouts made of mud bricks or cut from sod bricks, and from the 19th century. buildings of the Russian type, log and brick, began to spread.
traditional clothing
The men's clothing of the Kalmyks was a shirt with long sewn-in sleeves and a round neckline; it had White color, and blue or striped pants. Over them they wore a beshmet sewn into the waist and another pair of trousers, usually cloth. Beshmet was girded with a leather belt, richly ornamented with silver plaques, it was an indicator of the owner's well-being, a knife in a sheath was hung from the belt on the left side. The men's headdress was fur hat type of papakha or lamb earflap. Ceremonial headdresses had a red silk tassel, which is why the neighboring peoples called the Kalmyks "red tassels". Shoes were soft black or red leather boots with slightly upturned toes, worn with felt stockings in winter and linen footcloths in summer. Women's clothing was more varied. It consisted of a long white shirt with open collar and a slit in front to the waist and blue pants. Girls from 12-13 years old wore a camisole over a shirt and trousers, tightly tightening their chest and waist and making the figure flat, they did not take it off even at night. Women's clothing there was also a biiz made of calico or woolen fabric in the form long dress, at the waist it was pulled together with a belt with metal patch plaques, women also wore birz - a wide dress without a belt. The girl's headdress was a cap, the women's headdress resembled a beret with a wide solid hoop at the bottom. married women they braided their hair into two braids and passed them into black or velvet braids. Women's shoes were leather boots. Women's jewelry was numerous - earrings, hairpins, hairpins, etc. made of gold, silver, bone, precious and semi-precious stones, men wore an earring in their left ear, a ring and an amulet bracelet.
Food
The traditional food of the Kalmyks was meat and milk. Meat dishes were made from lamb and beef, the rest of its types were less common. Boiled meat broth, seasoning it raw onions, noodles with meat and onions, bereki - large dumplings, dutur was popular - finely chopped entrails stewed in water, meat was baked in a sealed container, earlier - a whole carcass in the ground. Dishes made from milk were varied - cheese, cottage cheese, sour cream, curdled milk from cow's milk and koumiss from mare's. Jomba was a daily drink - tea with milk, butter, salt, nutmeg and bay leaf, it quenched thirst in the heat, warmed in the cold. They prepared flour products - unleavened cakes in lamb fat, bortsog - ring-shaped cakes, round in cross section, tselvg - a thin cake fried in boiling oil or fat. Where the Kalmyks lived near water sources, fish dishes prevailed. Alcoholic drink there was ark (araka) - milk vodka ..
social organization
The traditional Kalmyk society had a developed social structure. It consisted of noyons and zaisangs - hereditary aristocracy, Buddhist clergy - gelungs and lamas. Clan and tribal relations were preserved, patronymic associations, which occupied separate settlements and consisted of small families, played a significant role in social relations.
Spiritual culture and traditional beliefs
The marriage was concluded by collusion between the parents of the future husband and wife, the consent of the guy and the girl was usually not asked. The girl was given in marriage outside their hoton. There was no kalym, but the values that the groom's family passed on to the bride's family could be significant. Previously, the gelung determined whether the marriage would be successful. For this, the years of birth of the bride and groom were compared according to Eastern calendar. It was considered good if the bride was born in the year of the hare, and the groom - the dragon, but not vice versa, since "the dragon will devour the hare", that is, the man will not be the head of the house. A separate wagon was set up for the new family, and the groom's side prepared the dwelling itself, and the bride's side provided interior decoration and household items. To reduce wedding expenses, by mutual agreement of the parties, an imaginary kidnapping of the bride could be arranged. The matchmakers came to the bride's family three times to formalize the agreement; these meetings were accompanied by a festive meal. Whether the marriage would be successful and the “happy” wedding day was determined by the zurkhachi (astrologer) by special fortune-telling.
In the religion of the Kalmyks, along with Lamaism, traditional beliefs and representations - shamanism, fetishism, the cult of fire and the hearth. They were reflected, in particular, in calendar holidays. One of them was associated with the beginning of spring, it was celebrated in February and was called Tsagan sar. During it, they put on the best clothes, ate plentifully and went to visit each other with mutual congratulations and good wishes.
In the spiritual culture of the Kalmyks big role folklore played, especially the heroic epic "Dzhangar", performed by dzhangarchi storytellers, this work contains several tens of thousands of poems.
see also
Links
- Library of Congress Cartographic Collection: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675-1726); The map shows the territories of the Kalmyks as of 1706.
Faces of Russia. "Living Together, Being Different"
The multimedia project "Faces of Russia" exists since 2006, talking about Russian civilization, the most important feature which is the ability to live together, remaining different - such a motto is especially relevant for the countries of the entire post-Soviet space. From 2006 to 2012, as part of the project, we created 60 documentaries about representatives of various Russian ethnic groups. Also, 2 cycles of radio programs "Music and songs of the peoples of Russia" were created - more than 40 programs. Illustrated almanacs have been released to support the first series of films. Now we are halfway to creating a unique multimedia encyclopedia of the peoples of our country, a picture that will allow the inhabitants of Russia to recognize themselves and leave a picture of what they were like for posterity.
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"Faces of Russia". Kalmyks. "Waiting for Maitreya", 2008
General information
KALM'YKI, halmg (self-name, apparently, from the Turkic term, literally - "remnant", denoting the Oirats who did not convert to Islam; there are other versions; in Russian official documents the ethnonym Kalmyks appeared from the end of the 16th century, from the end of the 18th century the Kalmyks themselves began to use it) - a Western Mongolian people living mainly in the Republic of Kalmykia (Russia). The number of 166 thousand people. The main population of Kalmykia (146 thousand people), also live in the Astrakhan, Volgograd, Rostov, Orenburg regions, Stavropol Territory, Siberia, etc. Small groups in Central Asia, in the USA (about 2 thousand people), in France (about 1 thousand), in Switzerland, Germany, etc. (several families). The total number is over 177 thousand people. According to the 2002 census, the number of Kalmyks living in Russia is 174 thousand people, according to the 2010 census. - 186 thousand 372 Kalmyks.
They speak the Kalmyk language of the Mongolian group of the Altaic family. Writing since 1925 on the basis of the Russian alphabet, previously they used the common Oirat, the so-called Old Kalmyk, writing todo bichig. The main part of believers are Buddhists (Lamaism, Gelugpa school), some are Orthodox.
The ancestors of the Kalmyks are the Western Mongols-Oirats. Until the 12th century, they were localized mainly in the Baikal region and the upper reaches of the Yenisei; gradually moved to the west. At the beginning of the 17th century, part of the Oirat taishas (rulers of uluses) moved to Russia. In 1608, the embassy of the Derbet taishas was received by the Russian Tsar Vasily Shuisky and, in response to their request to accept Russian citizenship, allocate places for nomadism and protection from the Kazakh and Nogai khans, received full consent.
The process of the entry of the Kalmyks into Russia was completed in 1657. Initially, lands along the Irtysh, Om and Ishim were allocated for the nomadic Kalmyks. Gradually, they settled in the lower reaches of the Volga in the territory they now occupy. From 1664 to 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate existed, headed by a khan, and later by a governor. According to rough estimates, the number of Kalmyks who accepted Russian citizenship was 270 thousand people. Among them were Derbets, Torgouts, Khosheuts, Khoyts, and Choros. For the first time these names are found in the Mongolian chronicle "The Secret Legend" (1240). After many generations, they acquired a certain ethnic and linguistic specificity. By the time they came to Russia, these were ethnic groups with significant property and social stratification. The ethnic principle in the creation of the Kalmyk uluses in Russia to some extent contributed to their preservation. The specificity of "small ethnic groups" is preserved even now, denoted by the term "ulusism" and manifests itself in everyday life, political life not only among Russian, but also among foreign Kalmyks.
In 1771, part of the Kalmyk taishas, dissatisfied with the ever-increasing oppression from the Russian government, left for Dzungaria, taking with them about 125 thousand Kalmyks. Most of them died on the way. The Kalmyk Khanate was liquidated, its territory was included in the Astrakhan province. The 9 Kalmyk uluses remaining in Russia were each controlled by their own taisha, which had a Russian bailiff. October revolution and civil war The Kalmyks were divided into 2 camps: a part adopted a new system, the other (especially the Kalmyks of the Don Army Region) ended up in the ranks of the White Army and, after its defeat, went into exile. Their descendants now live in the USA, France and other European countries.
In 1920, the Kalmyk Autonomous Okrug was formed, and in 1935 it was transformed into the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1943, the Kalmyks were subjected to forcible deportation to the regions of Siberia, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, and Altai, which lasted more than 13 years. Its consequence is the death of more than 1/3 of the people, the loss of many elements and features of material and spiritual culture. In 1957-58, autonomy was restored, a significant part of the Kalmyks returned to their former places of residence. In 1990, the Kalmyk ASSR declared its sovereignty, since 1992 it was called the Republic of Kalmykia - Khalmg Tangch, since 1994 - the Republic of Kalmykia.
The basis of the traditional economy was nomadic pastoralism (sheep, horses, cattle, goats, camels predominated). In the middle of the 19th century, with the emergence of stationary settlements, the Kalmyks began to breed pigs. The Torgouts and Khosheuts, who settled in the coastal regions of the Volga and the Caspian Sea, were engaged in fishing. From the 2nd quarter of the 19th century, the impoverished Kalmyks began to switch to settled agriculture or to engage in farm work. Rye, wheat, millet, buckwheat, oats, industrial crops (mustard, tobacco, flax) were sown on the lands of Kalmykia. In the middle of the 19th century, horticulture appeared, from the beginning of the 20th century - melon growing and gardening, then paddy rice cultivation on the Sarpinsky lowland.
Artistic crafts are developed - embroidery (special multi-colored seams on women's clothing), metal processing (chasing and engraving of metal parts of a saddle, bridle, cases and knife handles, smoking pipes, rifle butts, bracelets, earrings), leather embossing, wood carving (furniture, architectural details of the houses of noble Kalmyks). The basis of the modern economy is pasture-pasture cattle breeding, combined with commercial fishing, agriculture and the industry for processing agricultural products. A diversified industry is developing.
The traditional settlement had a circular layout - the most convenient in terms of defense in a nomadic way of life. Cattle were driven into the center of the circle for the night, property was stored there, and public gatherings were held. By the time they came to Russia, the Kalmyks retained a patronymic organization that united several families. They settled in khotons - family-related settlements. Married children put their wagons not far from the father's wagon. Since the beginning of the 19th century, stationary settlements with a linear layout appeared.
Three types of traditional dwellings are known: wagon, dugout and semi-dugout. Kibitka is a Mongolian-style yurt. Initially, it was installed on a 4-wheeled wagon and so moved during the migration. Over time, the wagon disappeared, but the term "kibitka" was preserved. Dugouts and semi-dugouts - dwellings of the poor, with walls made of mud bricks or cut from turf bricks, clay or sod roofs. At the end of the 19th century, wealthy and noble Kalmyks had buildings of the Russian type: wooden in the Caspian regions, brick - in the western ones. In the modern villages of Kalmykia, typical two- or three-apartment houses predominate. For workers' settlements, 2- and 3-storey houses with 4 to 12 apartments are more typical. In cities - typical multi-storey buildings.
Men's clothing - fitted caftan, shirt, pants, soft leather boots with felt stockings for winter and canvas footcloths for summer. Women's clothing - a long to-toe dress with a sleeveless jacket, under them a long shirt and pants, boots. Special meaning was attached to women's embroidered and men's typesetting metal belts, which served as an indicator of the nobility and well-being of their owners. Headdresses for men and women are varied depending on the season, the wealth of the family, etc. Ceremonial headdress with a red silk tassel (hence the nickname of the Kalmyks among neighboring peoples "red tassels"). Women's jewelry - earrings, hairpins, hairpins, rings made of gold, silver, bone, precious and semi-precious stones; for men - an earring in the left ear, a ring on ring finger, a bracelet that played the role of an amulet. The traditional hairstyle for men and women is braids: for men and girls - one, for women - two.
The basis of nutrition is meat and milk. Meat dishes: broth with meat seasoned with raw onions; meat baked in a sealed container (in the past - a carcass that was baked for a day without air in a pit sprinkled with earth on which a fire was made); noodles with meat and onions; dumplings; finely chopped lamb innards. Dairy products - cheese, cottage cheese, sour cream, butter, foam, koumiss from mare's milk, milk kvass and a sour drink from cow's milk. Everyday drink - tea (jomba) with milk, butter, salt and spices, of which it was especially appreciated nutmeg. flour products- unleavened cakes, pieces of dough cooked in lamb fat (bortsogs), later - pancakes and bagels borrowed from Russians and Ukrainians.
The Kalmyk families of the 17th century (the time they came to Russia) were large patronymics. Kalmyk families had many children (10 or more children), but with high mortality, no more than 3-4 children survived. Adult children, as a rule, lived separately from their parents.
The main genres of folklore: lingering songs, good wishes, sayings, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, the heroic epic "Dzhangar" performed by dzhangarchi storytellers.
Back in the 13th century, the ancestors of the Kalmyks, the Oirats, got acquainted with Buddhism. In the 16th century, its northern branch, Lamaism of the Gelugpa school, became the national religion of the Mongols and the Kalmyks who broke away from them. Kalmyk Lamaists maintained direct contact with Tibet, where the top hierarch of the Gelugpa school, the Dalai Lama, was located. Groups of Kalmyks, who from the end of the 17th century began to break away from their main body, to settle on the Don, the Urals, and Ukraine, adopted Orthodoxy. In relation to the lamaist clergy, the tsarist government pursued a policy of limiting its numbers, but at the same time organized repressions against the remaining various folk beliefs: shamanism, fetishism, the cult of fire and the hearth.
By 1917, there were 92 khurulas (monasteries, temples) and 3 theological academies in Kalmykia. By 1936, 13 khuruls remained; in December 1943, when the deportation of the Kalmyks began, there were none. Since the late 80s of the 20th century, the revival of the Buddhist community began. In 1989 a prayer house was opened in Elista. By the end of 1995 there were already several of them (including the Kalmyks of the Astrakhan region). The term "Lamaism" is gradually disappearing from circulation, being replaced by "Buddhism" (a common process for the Buddhist territory of Russia and Mongolia). The Institute for the Revival of the Kalmyk Language and Buddhism was opened in Elista, and the Mandala magazine began to be published, dedicated to the history of Buddhism in general and its Kalmyk variety. Simultaneously reborn National holidays Tsagalgan, Uryus Sar, interest in the study of the Kalmyk language and traditional culture, national cadres of kindergarten teachers and teachers are being trained primary schools, lyceums and universities.
N.L. Zhukovskaya
Essays
And all the people play chess
Is there a riddle about chess? There is also a very expressive one. Here it is: "In a waterless area, bloodless warriors fight."
Try to guess who came up with this riddle? What people? The question is complex, but quite solvable. These are Kalmyks. In the city of Elista (this is the capital of the Republic of Kalmykia) there is even a whole district, which is called City-Chess. It is dominated by chess symbols.
Do you feel how this seemingly disparate information (mystery, chess, Kalmykia) is put together in a system? And, of course, we will not limit ourselves to chess. To get to know the nature of the Kalmyks, as well as to get an idea of their picture of the world, let's listen to a fairy tale. It is very different from the fairy tales that we had to listen to or read.
Unawarded award
Many years ago there lived an old widow. She had four children: three sons and a daughter. The sons are good-looking, the daughter is even better. Such beauties cannot be found for a thousand miles around. Whoever saw this girl at least once - remembered her beauty all her life.
Both her mother and brothers loved her deeply, cherished her more life their own, cherish it like the apple of their eye.
The hunting brothers, strong and brave, sharp-sighted and quick, never returned home without plentiful prey.
Once the fellow brothers gathered for a distant hunt. We decided to make a supply of meat, stuff different animals, get fur for the mother and sister for the winter. We ate yogurt, took a mutton leg with us, said goodbye to my mother and sister, and left.
The mother and daughter remained.
By evening, the mother came out of the wagon. While she was doing housework, a terrible mongoose (this is such a dragon) flew into the wagon through the smoke hole and carried the beauty away.
The mother entered the dwelling, but the wagon was empty. No daughter. I searched, I searched, I didn't find it. Mother guessed what had happened. She fell to the ground, crying.
The night dragged on for a long time. The old woman did not close her eyes; she shed bitter tears.
In the morning the brothers returned from the hunt, happy and cheerful. Met the mother of her sons at the entrance to the wagon. How to talk about misfortune? The old woman greeted them and said:
- My beloved sons! Like your father, you are brave, strong and dexterous, you will not yield to him in kindness and honesty! Only and good people misfortune can befall. I want to know your mother what each of you is capable of, if necessary. native person help!
The eldest son said: “There is no such thing in the whole world that I could not find. I’ll see a needle in the steppe, I’ll find a pinhead at the bottom of the sea, behind a stone wall in a chest, locked for a family of seven locks, I’ll find a sharp pin tip.
“But I can kill any bird with one shot at any height, I can hit a raindrop under a cloud, I can kill ten birds with one stone on the go,” the middle son told his mother.
The youngest son did not lag behind the brothers.
- I, - he says, - can catch everything with my own hands, I can hold it. I will catch a stone from the mountain, I will grab a rock on the fly. If a huge and heavy mountain fell from the sky, and caught it whole, the lump of earth would not fall off.
She hugged the mother of her sons in turn and confessed her misfortune to them.
- Not more daughter with me, sisters with you. Woe to us, my sons! Look for your beloved sister as soon as possible, forgive me, the old one, that I overlooked my only daughter.
Weapons and hunting prey fell from the hands of the brothers to the ground. No sister...
The elder brother spoke first:
- Well, there is nothing to do! There is no point in wasting time. We will say goodbye to our mother and go around the world to look for our sister. Until we find it, we will not be at home. If only we could find a mongoose before it ate our sister.
A day has not passed, as the elder brother found the cloud in which the mongoose hid.
The middle brother took aim, pulled the string so that the ends of the bow came together, and shot up a singing arrow. It pierced right into the heart of the mongoose, struck the evil monster to death.
Released the mongoose girl. The sister collapsed down like a white stone. Three-quarters of a step was left to the ground - the younger brother picked up his sister, put him unharmed on the ground.
The rumor about how the brothers rescued their sister from a terrible misfortune, saved from the mongoose himself, spread throughout the earth.
Wise old men from different settlements gathered and decided to award the award to the brother who deserved it the most.
- Reward the middle one - he killed the dragon, - says one.
- What did he kill! If the elder brother had not found the dragon, the middle brother would have had no one to shoot at, others say.
– Younger brother deserved more, - others insist, - if not for him, the girl would have broken, neither the older nor the middle brothers would have helped.
“The younger one wouldn’t even have to catch if it weren’t for the older and middle brothers: the mongus would have devoured the girl long ago, and he would have been looking for his sister all his life until he died,” some object.
So the wise men argue today- they still can’t decide which of the brothers should be given the award.
What do you think? Everyone knows how to listen to stories. Help me decide which of the brothers should be rewarded.
All three? It is forbidden. Not according to the rule. Wise men will be against. One of three? So who exactly?
An interesting story with an open ending. Its action takes place in fairy world, and then imperceptibly flows into everyday life, where there are really a lot of controversial, and sometimes simply unsolvable problems. On this occasion, the Kalmyks themselves say this: “The head is cracked - but it is in a hat; the elbow is broken - but it is in the sleeve. Which, translated into ordinary language, means: it doesn’t matter, any problem will eventually be resolved. Life is much wiser than any puzzles...
Kalmyks settled in the lower reaches of the Volga
In Kalmykia itself, which is located in the south of the European part of the Russian Federation, according to the 2002 census, 156,000 Kalmyks live. In total, there are about 180 thousand of them in Russia. In addition to Kalmykia, small groups of this people also live in neighboring regions, Astrakhan, Rostov, Volgograd and in the Stavropol Territory.
The word "Kalmyks" comes from the Turkic language. It literally means "remainder". In Russian official documents, this word appeared from the end of the 16th century. With late XVIII For centuries, the Kalmyks themselves began to use it. The process of entry of the Kalmyks into Russia was completed in 1657. Initially, lands along the Irtysh, Om and Ishim were allocated for nomadic Kalmyks. Gradually, the Kalmyks settled in the lower reaches of the Volga in the territory they now occupy.
Kalmyks have been living in Russia for several centuries, but their picture of the world is different. Which? To understand the world order of the Kalmyks, one must get acquainted with their mythology.
How did earth, water, fire and air appear? These "elements" (substances) were formed from the chaos thickened by the wind. There is a separate version about the origin of the earth.
The earth arose in the form of a film on the surface of the oceans. And then, as happens in myths, the creative process began. And this is what is available in the established picture of the world of the Kalmyks.
The land is surrounded by a stone belt or ridge. It is flat and round. In the center is the world mountain Sumer-ula. The earth rests on an elephant standing on the back of a huge turtle floating in the oceans.
From the movements of the turtle, earthquakes occur.
A slightly different version is recorded in Kalmyk fairy tales. The bull-frog holds the earth. He starts to roar and fidget when he gets hungry. It takes whole herds of cattle to calm him down.
Of course, modern Kalmyks have different ideas about the world and about solar system. Quite scientific. But why are myths good? The fact that they still influence the consciousness of the people. Not directly, but indirectly. It's just that something like that suddenly flares up, arises in the depths of the archaic memory of the people and makes itself felt. In epics, legends, fairy tales, songs, poems.
The universe, according to ancient Kalmyk ideas, is three-layered. There are upper, middle and lower worlds. The earth also has several layers. In the epic tales of Jangar, the earth has seven layers. The sky consists of 49 layers. The gods live at the top.
But even higher than the sky is the abode of the Buddha and those beings who have reached nirvana. Only virtuous souls enter nirvana (or Buddhist heaven).
The Kalmyks have developed a cult of the sun, moon and stars. According to beliefs, the number of stars in the sky is equal to the number of people on earth. Each person has his own star. The North Star is called by the Kalmyks Altan gasn (literally: golden stake). Around it, as around a stable celestial center, the universe rotates.
The celestial center is covered by a giant bull
Interestingly, the so-called "navel of the earth" corresponds to the celestial center. It is covered by a giant bull. If you move it, then water will gush out of the "navel" and flood the earth.
No matter how distant myths and legends may be from us, the connection with them still exists, very often even at the everyday level. For example, we know about the effect of silver on water. We know that silver purifies "ash-two-o", that is, water. And the Kalmyks have a cult of water, water spirits. The water master bears the name Usun-khadyn ezen. He is portrayed gray-haired old man. To appease him, the Kalmyks threw into the water silver coins. And since ancient times, silver began to have a beneficial effect on water. Maybe by itself, under the influence chemical processes. Or maybe under the influence of a water host. This is his handiwork... Or chemistry...
The rich and varied epic of the Kalmyk people, of course, is reflected in music and songs. But in fact, until the 20th century, Kalmyk music existed only in the oral tradition.
Epic stories about heroes and their exploits were sung by special storytellers (duuchi and dzhangarchi). The folk song was monophonic and performed in a special manner of localization on a guttural sound.
The Kalmyks have short and drawn-out songs. Short ones (akhr dun) are simpler. Usually they are couplet-shaped and have a clear rhythm. They are adjoined by songs-jokes similar to ditties, songs-dances - vocal singing (keldg bilj dun), performed to the accompaniment of dombra and Saratov harmonica. Men's dances are characterized by a motor-brisk pace. Women's dances are associated with more melodious and rounded melodies.
Long songs (ut dung) are distinguished by their improvisation, their sound volume often exceeds an octave. The performers add vowel sounds and syllables, thereby expanding the melodic line.
They speak the Kalmyk language of the Mongolian group of the Altai family. Writing has existed since 1925 on the basis of the Russian alphabet, previously they used the so-called old Kalmyk writing “todo bichig”. The majority of believers are Buddhists, but there are also Orthodox. By 1917, there were 92 khurulas (monasteries, temples) and 3 theological academies in Kalmykia. By 1936, 13 khuruls remained. In December 1943, when the forced deportation of Kalmyks began, there was not a single one.
This is a tragic period in the history of Russian Kalmyks.
Since the mid-1950s, Kalmyks began to return to their homeland, to places of traditional residence. And later, from the end of the 80s, the revival of the Buddhist community, and hence the traditional beliefs, began.
In 1989 a prayer house was opened in Elista. By the mid-90s, there were already several of them (including the Kalmyks of the Astrakhan region). The term “Lamaism” is gradually disappearing from circulation, being replaced by “Buddhism” (a common process for the Buddhist territory of Russia and Mongolia). In Elista, the capital of Kalmykia, the Institute for the Revival of the Kalmyk Language and Buddhism was opened, and the Mandala magazine began to be published, dedicated to the history of Buddhism in general and its Kalmyk variety. At the same time, the national holidays Tsagalgan, Uryus Sar are being revived. There is a growing interest in the study of the Kalmyk language and traditional culture, national cadres of kindergarten teachers, teachers of elementary schools, lyceums and universities are being trained.
From branch to branch, from the roof to the ground
And fairy tales play an important role in this process. Let's listen to one more farewell about the Merry Sparrow.
From branch to branch, from roof to ground - lope. Chick-chirp! Chick-chirp! - Sparrows flutter from morning to evening. Cheerful, restless. All to him, small, nothing. There the grain will bite, here the worm will find. And so it lives.
An old crow was sitting on a tree. Black, sullen, important. She looked with one eye at the sparrow and envied him, always cheerful. Sit down - flutter, sit down - flutter. “Chick-chirp! Chick-chirp!" Insufferable sparrow!
“Sparrow, sparrow,” the crow asks, “how are you doing?” How do you get your food?
A sparrow cannot sit still for a minute.
“Yes, I gnaw at the reed heads,” the sparrow answers on the fly.
- And if you choke, then what? Will you have to die?
Why die right now? I'll scratch, scratch with my nails and pull it out.
“And if there is blood, what will you do?”
- I'll drink water, wash it, stop the bleeding.
- Well, if you get your feet wet in water, you freeze, you catch a cold, will your legs hurt?
- Chick-chirp, chirp-chirp! I will make a fire, I will warm my legs - I will be healthy again.
- What if there is a fire? What then?
- I will flap my wings, I will put out the fire.
- And you will burn the wings, then how?
I'll fly to the doctor, the doctor will cure me.
The crow is not appeased:
What if there is no doctor? Then how will you do it?
- Chick-chirp! Chick-chirp! There, you see, a grain will turn up, there a worm will fall into your mouth, there for a nest cozy place there, the gentle sun will warm, the breeze will stroke. So without a doctor I will be cured, I will stay alive!
The sparrow said so, fluttered - and was like that. And the old crow puffed up, closed her eyes, and leads with her beak to the sides with displeasure.
Good life, wonderful! We must live without despair. Be persistent, be cheerful, be cheerful! Like an optimistic sparrow...
Altaic language family and Russian.Name
Name Kalmak appeared in the Turkic languages, it means "remaining". So the Western Turks called their neighbors who lived east of the Irtysh, in and around Altai. In Russian written sources, the ethnonym Kalmyk appeared at the beginning of the 16th century, from the end of the 18th century. Kalmyks themselves began to use it.
Kalmyks are also known in Russian as Oirats (the distorted self-name of the Kalmyks is "Өөrd"; the ethnonym Oirats was used before in relation to the Altaians, who were traditionally called Russians as white Kalmyks), Dzungars, Western Mongols, Kalmyks, and in other languages as Kalmouks, Calmoucs, Calmucks, Kalmyks.
Auto-ethnonym (self-name)
Kalmyks ( European part Oirats) call themselves halmg(meaning "separated") Өөrd(oyirad - writing in Oirat literary language) or Dorvn Өөrd, which means “four close ones”, “four allies” (one of the versions, there are others). Oirats of the People's Republic of China The Oirats also call themselves Mongols. The Kalmyk people are divided into four large branches, or generations, as the Russians called them in the 16th century - Torgout (Torgud), Derbet (Dervyud), Khoshut (Khoshud), Zvvngar. On the European territory, a new branch "Buzava" (Don Kalmyks) was formed. Previously, this was the name of a part of the Torgouts, Derbets and Zvvngars who lived on the Don near the Don Cossacks. But in this moment Buzava make up the third largest group of Kalmyks and have distinct cultural features (their own dances, songs, etc.).
Territory of settlement
Distribution of Oirat dialects in China and Mongolia
Kalmyks (Dorvyuds (Derbets), Torgouts, Hoshouts, Buzavs) live in the Republic of Kalmykia - 173,996 thousand people. (more than 50% of the population) according to the 2002 All-Russian Population Census.
Large groups of Oirats (Torgouts, Derbets, Hoshouts, Zungars (Olet)) are also in Western China (Baingol-Mongolian and Borotala-Mongolian Autonomous Regions of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; Qinghai Province) - according to various sources, from 170 to 250 thousand people , and Western Mongolia (Kobdo and Ubsunur aimags) - about 150 thousand people.
There are small groups of Kalmyks in Central Asia (in Kyrgyzstan - over 10 thousand people) and in the Caucasus, from the countries of the so-called "far abroad" - in the USA (2 thousand people) and France (1 thousand people)
population
The number of Volga Kalmyks at the time of their arrival in the places of their current residence in the early 17th century. is estimated at about 270 thousand people. Then, in the composition of the country's population, their number changed as follows: 1926 - 131 thousand, 1937 - 127 thousand, 1939 - 134 thousand, 1959 - 106 thousand, 1970 - 137 thousand. , 1979 - 147 thousand, 1989 - 174 thousand people; of which in the Republic of Kalmykia (Khalmg Tanhch) - 166 thousand people. According to the 2002 census, 178,000 Kalmyks live in Russia, of which 164,000 live in Kalmykia.
Ethnic and ethnographic groups
Until now, the Kalmyks are characterized by the presence of groupings - Dorvyuds (Derbets), Torgouts, Khosheuts and Buzavs. From the middle of the 20th century there is an active mixing of various groups and the formation of a single Kalmyk nation.
Race, anthropological type
Racially, the Kalmyks are Mongoloids.
Writing
Oirat-Kalmyk alphabet todo-bichig ( clear letter) was created in 1648 on the basis of the old Mongolian script. In 1925, a new alphabet based on Russian graphics was adopted, in 1930 it was replaced by a Latinized one, and from 1938 to the present, the Russian graphic base is used again. The Kalmyks of China continue to use the old Kalmyk script.
Religion
Kalmyks profess Buddhism (Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism).
Ethnogenesis and ethnic history
Kalmyks who settled in Kyrgyzstan, or rather in Issyk-Kul, are Muslims, i.e. profess Islam. There is a whole village council where there is settlements like Chelpek, Boryu-bash and others where the Kalmyks live.
economy
The basis of the traditional economy of the Kalmyks was nomadic cattle breeding. The herd was dominated by sheep, fat-tailed and coarse-haired, and horses of the Kalmyk steppe breed, distinguished by unpretentiousness; cattle were also bred - red cows raised for meat, as well as goats and camels. Cattle were kept on pasture all year round, since the 19th century. began to store food for the winter. With the transition to a settled way of life (with the exception of Russian Kalmyks and those who lived in the West, the rest of the Oirat-Kalmyks continue to lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle), pig breeding began to be practiced. Fishing played a significant role in the Volga region and the Caspian. Hunting was of no small importance, mainly for saigas, but also for wolves, foxes and other game. Some groups of Kalmyks have been engaged in agriculture for a long time, but it did not play a significant role. Only with the transition to settled life did its importance begin to grow. Cereals were grown - rye, wheat, millet, etc., industrial crops - flax, tobacco, garden, garden and melons. Since the 20th century Kalmyks are also beginning to engage in paddy rice cultivation. Crafts were developed, including leatherworking, felting, wood carving, etc., including artistic ones - leather stamping, chasing and engraving on metal, embroidery.
Traditional settlements and dwellings
Until the beginning of the 20th century the traditional Kalmyk settlements (Khotons) had a family-related character. They were characterized by a layout in the form of a circle of portable dwellings, cattle were driven into its center, and public gatherings were held there. Since the 19th century stationary settlements with a linear layout appeared. The main dwelling of the nomadic Kalmyks was a wagon (a yurt of the Mongolian type). Its wooden frame consisted of 6-12 folding lattices, a circle in the upper part, which was connected to the lattices by long curved slats. The door was made double-leaf. The side to the left of the entrance was considered male, there were horse harness, processed skins, a bed for the owners, bedding; to the right of the entrance was the female half with kitchen utensils. There was a hearth in the center, a cauldron was placed on a tripod above it, behind the hearth there was a place of honor where guests were seated. The floor was covered with felt. Another portable dwelling of the nomadic Kalmyks was a wagon mounted on a wagon. Stationary dwellings at first were dugouts and semi-dugouts made of mud bricks or cut from sod bricks, and from the 19th century. buildings of the Russian type, log and brick, began to spread.
traditional clothing
Kalmyk men's clothing was a shirt with long sewn-in sleeves and a round neckline (it had a white color) and blue or striped trousers. Over them they wore a beshmet sewn into the waist and another pair of trousers, usually cloth. Beshmet was girded with a leather belt, richly ornamented with silver plaques, it was an indicator of the owner's well-being, a knife in a sheath was hung from the belt on the left side. The male headdress was a fur hat of the papakha type or a lamb earflap. Ceremonial headdresses had a red silk tassel, which is why the neighboring peoples called the Kalmyks "red tassels". Shoes were soft black or red leather boots with slightly upturned toes, worn with felt stockings in winter and linen footcloths in summer. Women's clothing was more varied. It consisted of a white long shirt with an open collar and a slit in front to the waist and blue pants. Girls from 12-13 years old wore a camisole over a shirt and trousers, tightly tightening their chest and waist and making the figure flat, they did not take it off even at night. Women's clothing was also biiz made of chintz or woolen fabric in the form of a long dress, at the waist it was pulled together by a belt with metal patch plaques, as well as birz - a wide dress without a belt. The girl's headdress was a cap: the women's headdress resembled a beret with a wide, solid hoop at the bottom. Married women braided their hair into two braids and passed them into black or velvet braids. Women's shoes were leather boots. Women's jewelry was numerous - earrings, hairpins, hairpins, etc. made of gold, silver, bone, precious and semi-precious stones. Men wore an earring in their left ear, a ring and an amulet bracelet.
Kalmyks (halmg) live compactly in the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, there are 65 thousand of them; the total number of Kalmyks in the CCLP is 106.1 thousand people (according to the 1959 census). outside the republic individual groups Kalmyks are found in Astrakhan, Rostov, Volgograd regions, Stavropol Territory, as well as in Kazakhstan, the republics of Central Asia and in a number of regions of Western Siberia.
Outside the USSR, compact groups of Kalmyks live in the USA (about 1,000 people), Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, France, and other countries.
The Kalmyk language belongs to the western branch of the Mongolian languages. In the past, it was divided into a number of dialects (Derbet, Torgout, Don - "Buzav"). The basis literary language lay Derbet dialect.
The Kalmyk ASSR is located on the right bank of the Volga and northwestern coast of the Caspian Sea, occupying mainly the semi-desert area, known as the Kalmyk steppe. The territory of the republic is about 776 thousand km2. The average population density is 2.4 people per 1 km 2. The capital of the Kalmyk ASSR is the city of Elista.
The Kalmyk steppe is divided into three parts according to the relief: the Caspian lowland, the Ergeninskaya upland (Ergin Tire) and the Kumo-Manych depression. In the Caspian lowland, descending from the Ergeninskaya upland to the coast of the Caspian Sea, there are countless lakes. In its southern part there are the so-called Black Lands (Khar Kazr), which are almost not covered with snow in winter. On the northwest- the dry steppe ends abruptly with the steep eastern slopes of the Ergeninsky Upland, indented by numerous rivers and gullies.
The climate of the Kalmyk steppe is continental: hot summer and Cold winter(average temperature in July +25.5°, in January - 8-5.8°); strong winds blow almost throughout the year, in summer - destructive dry winds.
In the Kalmyk ASSR, apart from the Kalmyks, there are Russians, Ukrainians, Kazakhs and other peoples.
The first scarce data on the ancestors of the Kalmyks date back to about the 10th century. n. e. In the historical chronicle of the Mongols "The Secret History"
Brief historical outline
(XIII century) they are mentioned under the general name of Oirats 1 . The Oirats lived to the west of Lake Baikal. At the beginning of the XIII century. they were subordinated to Jochi, the son of Genghis Khan, and included in the Mongol Empire. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Among the Oirats, there are usually four main tribes: Derbets, Torgouts, Hoshouts and Elets. As shown latest research, these are not tribal names, but terms reflecting military organization feudal Mongolian society.
The history of the Oirats has not yet been studied enough. It is known that they took part in the campaigns of Genghisides and by the 15th century. firmly occupied the lands of the northwestern part of Mongolia. In the subsequent period, the Oirats waged wars with the eastern Mongols (the so-called Oirat-Khalkha wars).
AT late XVI- the beginning of the XVII century. Oirats began to be subjected to military pressure from the Khalkha-Mongols and China - from the east, the Kazakh khanates - from the west. The Oirat tribes were forced to move from their former habitats to new lands. One of these groups, which included Derbets, Torgouts and Khoshuts, moved to the northwest. In 1594-1597. the first groups of Oirats appeared on the lands of Siberia subject to Russia. Their movement to the west was led by Ho-Orluk, a representative of the noble feudal nobility.
In Russian documents, the Oirats who moved to Russian lands are called Kalmyks. This name became their self-name. It is believed that for the first time the ethnonym "Kalmyk" in relation to some groups of Oirats began to be used by the Turkic peoples of Central Asia, and from them it also penetrated to the Russians. But exact data on the meaning of the word "Kalmyk" and on the time of its appearance in historical sources not yet discovered. Various researchers (P. S. Pallas, V. E. Bergmann, V. V. Bartold, Ts. D. Nominkhanov, and others) interpret these questions differently.
To early XVII in. Kalmyks moved west as far as the Don. In 1608-1609. their voluntary entry into Russian citizenship was formalized. However, the process of the entry of the Kalmyks into the Russian state was not a one-time act, but lasted until the 50-60s of the 17th century. By this time, the Kalmyks settled not only on the Volga steppes, but also on both banks of the Don. Their pastures extended from the Urals in the east to the northern part of the Stavropol plateau, the river. Kuma and the northwestern coast of the Caspian Sea in the southwest. At that time, the whole area was very sparsely populated. The small local population consisted mainly of Turkic-speaking Nogais, Turkmens, Kazakhs, and Tatars.
On the Lower Volga and in the Ciscaucasian steppes, the Kalmyks were not isolated from local population; they came into contact with various Turkic-speaking groups - Tatars, Nogais, Turkmens, etc. Many representatives of these peoples are in the process living together and as a result mixed marriages merged with the Kalmyks, as evidenced by the names found in various regions of Kalmykia: matskd terlmu, d - Tatar (Mongolian) clans, Turkmen tvrlmud - Turkmen clans. Close geographic proximity to North Caucasus led to a relationship with the mountain peoples, as a result of which tribal groups appeared among the Kalmyks, called Sherksh Terlmud - mountain clans. It is interesting to note that, in the composition of the Kalmyk population, there were Ors Tvrlmud - Russian clans.
Thus, the Kalmyk people formed from the original settlers - the Oirats, who gradually merged with various groups of the local population.
AT social order Oirats by the time of their resettlement in Russia, feudalism was established, but the features of the old tribal division were still preserved. This was reflected in the administrative-territorial structure formed by the 60s of the XVII century. Kalmyk Khanate, which consisted of uluses: Derbetovsky, Torgoutovsky and Khosheutovsky.
The Khanate of the Volga Kalmyks was especially strengthened under Ayuka Khan, a contemporary of Peter the Great, whom Ayuka Khan assisted in the Persian campaign with the Kalmyk cavalry. Kalmyks took part in almost all wars in Russia. So, in the Patriotic War of 1812, three regiments of Kalmyks participated in the Russian army, which, together with the Russian troops, entered Paris. Kalmyks participated in peasant uprisings under the direction of Stepan Razin, Kondraty Bulavin and Emelyan Pugachev.
After the death of Ayuka Khan, the tsarist government began to exert a stronger influence on the internal affairs of the Kalmyk Khanate. It instructed the Russian clergy to plant Orthodoxy here (even the son of Ayuka Khan, who received the name of Peter Taishin, was baptized) and did not prevent Russian peasants from settling the lands allotted to the khanate. This caused conflicts between Kalmyks and Russian settlers. The dissatisfaction of the Kalmyks was taken advantage of by representatives of their feudal elite, headed by Ubushi Khan, who in 1771 led the majority of the Torgouts and Khosheuts from Russia to Central Asia.
A little more than 50 thousand people remained Kalmyks - 13 thousand wagons. They were subordinate to the Astrakhan governor, and the Kalmyk Khanate was liquidated. Don Kalmyks, called "Buzava", were equated in rights with the Cossacks.
During peasant war under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775) in the area of Tsaritsyn (now Volgograd), more than 3 thousand Kalmyks fought in the ranks of the rebels; unrest also occurred among the Kalmyks who lived on the left side of the Volga. The Kalmyks remained loyal to Pugachev right up to the very last days peasant war.
In the XVIII-XIX centuries. many Russian peasants and Cossacks moved from other provinces of Russia to the Astrakhan region, occupying the Kalmyk lands. In the future, the tsarist government continued to cut the territories previously allotted to the Kalmyks. Thus, in the Bolypederbetovsky ulus, out of more than 2 million acres of land that were in use by the Kalmyks in 1873, by 1898 only 500 thousand acres remained.
At the beginning of the XX century. the majority of Kalmyks lived on the territory of the Astrakhan province. The governor of Astrakhan, who was simultaneously appointed "trustee of the Kalmyk people," ruled the Kalmyks through a deputy for Kalmyk affairs, who was called the "head of the Kalmyk people." By this time, the former uluses were fragmented into smaller ones; in the Astrakhan province. there were already eight uluses, which approximately corresponded to Russian volosts. All economic, administrative and judicial affairs of the Kalmyks were in charge of Russian officials.
In the settlement of the Kalmyks, the features of the old tribal division were still preserved. Thus, the descendants of the Derbets continued to live in the north and west, the coastal (southeastern) regions were occupied by the Torgouts, and the left bank of the Volga by the Khosheuts. All of them were subdivided into smaller, related by origin groups.
The Kalmyks did not have private land ownership. Nominally, land ownership was communal, but in fact the land, its best pastures, were disposed of and used by the exploitative elite of the Kalmyk society, consisting of several layers. On the top step noyons stood on the social ladder - a hereditary local aristocracy, which, until the provision of 1892 on the abolition of the feudal dependence of commoners in Kalmykia, hereditarily owned and ruled uluses.
Noyons deprived of late XIX in. The tsarist administration of power, until the Great October Revolution, retained great influence among the Kalmyks.
Uluses were subdivided into smaller administrative units - aimags; they were headed by zaisangs, whose power was inherited by their sons, and the aimags were divided. Nose mid-nineteenth in. according to the decree of the tsarist government, the administration of the aimak could only be transferred to the eldest son. As a result, there were many zaisangs without a goal, who often became poor. belonged to the feudal elite most of Buddhist clergy, who lived at monasteries (khuruls), who owned the best pastures and huge herds. The rest of the Kalmyks consisted of ordinary pastoralists, most of them had few livestock, and some did not have any at all. The poor were forced to either be hired as laborers by rich cattle breeders, or go to work in the fisheries for Russian merchants. At the enterprises of the Astrakhan fishermen Sapozhnikovs and Khlebnikovs by the end of the 19th century. Kalmyks made up, for example, about 70% of the workers.
The Kalmyks professed Lamaism (the northern branch of Buddhism), back in the 16th century. penetrated from Tibet to Mongolia and adopted by the Oirats. Lamaism played an important role in the life of the Kalmyks. Not a single event in the family was complete without the intervention of representatives of the Gelung clergy. Gelung gave a name to the newborn. He determined whether a marriage could take place by comparing the years of birth of the bride and groom according to the animal cycle of the calendar. It was believed, for example, that if the groom was born in the year of the dragon, and the bride in the year of the hare, the marriage would be successful, and if, on the contrary, then the marriage could not be concluded, since “the dragon will devour the hare”, that is, the man will not head of the house. Gelung also indicated a happy wedding day. Only the gelunga was called to the patient; Gelung also participated in the funeral.
There were many lamaist monasteries (khuruls) in Kalmykia. Thus, in 1886 there were 62 khuruls in the Kalmyk steppe. They made up entire villages, including Buddhist temples, dwellings of the Gelungs, their students and assistants, and often outbuildings. The objects of Buddhist worship were concentrated in the khurul: statues of Buddha, Buddhist deities, icons, religious books, including holy books Buddhists "Ganjur" and "Danjur", written in a language incomprehensible to most Kalmyks. In khurul future priests studied Tibetan medicine, Buddhist mystical philosophy. According to custom, a Kalmyk was obliged to ordain one of his sons as a monk from the age of seven. The content of khuruls and numerous monks was a heavy burden on the population. Huruls received large sums of money as offerings and rewards for worship. Khuruls had huge herds of cattle, sheep and herds of horses that grazed on the communal territory. They were served by many semi-serf laborers. Buddhist lamas, bakshi (priests higher degrees) and the Gelungs brought up in the Kalmyks passivity, non-resistance to evil, humility. Lamaism in Kalmykia was the most important support of the exploiting classes.
Along with the lamaist, Christian clergy also operated in Kalmykia, trying to convert the Kalmyks to Orthodoxy. If a Kalmyk was baptized, he was given a Russian name and surname. The baptized was given minor benefits, a lump-sum allowance was issued for the establishment of a household. Therefore, part of the Kalmyks were baptized, forced to do so by necessity. However, baptism was a formal ceremony for them and did not change anything in their previously established worldview.
At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Kalmyk farms were rather intensively drawn into the system of the all-Russian economy, the impact of which increased every year. Kalmykia became a source of raw materials for light industry Russia. Capitalism gradually penetrated into Agriculture Kalmyks, which dramatically accelerated the process of social stratification of pastoralists. Along with the patriarchal-feudal elite (noyons and zaisangs), Kalmyk society capitalist elements- large cattle merchants, who bred hundreds and thousands of heads of commercial cattle, and kulaks, who used the labor of hired workers. They were the main suppliers of meat to domestic and foreign markets.
In the villages located on the Ergeninsky Upland, especially in the Maloderbetovsky ulus, commercial agriculture began to develop. Assigning land, the rich received income from arable land and herds. On the eve of the First World War, hundreds of wagons of bread, watermelons and melons were sent to the central provinces of Russia. Impoverished pastoralists went to work outside their aimaks, to fisheries and salt pans of lakes Baskunchak and Elton. According to official data, 10-12 thousand people left the uluses every year, of which at least 6 thousand became regular workers in Astrakhan fishing enterprises. Thus began the process of formation of the working class among the Kalmyks. The hiring of Kalmyks was very beneficial for the fishermen, "since their labor was paid cheaper, and the working day lasted from sunrise to sunset. Russian workers helped the Kalmyks to realize their class interests and involved them in a joint struggle against a common enemy - tsarism, Russian landowners, capitalists, Kalmyk feudal lords and cattle merchants.
Under the influence of the Kalmyk workers, revolutionary unrest arose among the cattle breeders in the Kalmyk steppe. They protested against the colonial regime and arbitrariness local administration. In 1903, there was an uprising of the Kalmyk youth studying in the Astrakhan gymnasiums and schools, which was reported in the Leninist newspaper Iskra. Performances by Kalmyk peasants took place in a number of uluses.
On the eve of the October Socialist Revolution, the position of the working masses of the Kalmyks was extremely difficult. In 1915, about 75% of Kalmyks owned very little or no livestock. Fists and feudal nobility, which accounted for only 6% total number Kalmyks, owned more than 50% of the livestock. Noyons, zaisangs, clergy, cattle merchants, merchants and royal officials ruled uncontrollably. The Kalmyk people were administratively divided into different provinces. Russian Empire. Eight uluses were part of the Astrakhan province. Back in 1860, the Bolypederbetsky ulus was annexed to the Stavropol province., From the second half of XVII in. about 36 thousand Kalmyks lived on the territory of the Don Cossack Region and carried Cossack service Until 1917, part of the Kalmyks lived in the Orenburg province, in the northern foothills of the Caucasus, along the Kuma and Terek rivers. The bourgeois Provisional Government, which came to power in February 1917, did not alleviate the plight of the Kalmyks. In Kalmykia, the former bureaucracy remained.
Only the Great October socialist revolution liberated the Kalmyks from the national-colonial oppression.
During the years of the civil war, the Kalmyks contributed to the liberation of the country from the Whites. In response to the appeal “To the Kalmyk brothers”, in which V. I. Lenin called on them to fight against Denikin, the Kalmyks began to join the Red Army. Special regiments of the Kalmyk cavalry were organized. Their commanders were V. Khomutlikov, X. Kanukov. On the fronts of the civil war, the son of the Kalmyk people, O. I. Gorodovikov, became famous. These names, as well as the name of the female fighter Narma Shapshukova, are widely known in Kalmykia.
Even during the civil war, the Kalmyk Autonomous Region was formed as part of the RSFSR (decree of the Soviet government of November 4, 1920, signed by V. I. Lenin and M. I. Kalinin).
In 1935, the Kalmyk Autonomous Region was transformed into the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
During the years of the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945 the best sons of the Kalmyk people fought against Nazi German invaders on many fronts various parts and in the Kalmyk cavalry division, as well as in partisan detachments operating in the Crimea, in the Bryansk and Belarusian forests, in Ukraine, in Poland and Yugoslavia. At the expense of the working people of the Kalmyk ASSR, a tank column "Soviet Kalmykia" was created. However, in 1943, during the period of Stalin's personality cult, the Kalmyk Republic was liquidated, the Kalmyks were evicted to various areas and the edge of Siberia. This was strongly condemned by the 20th Congress of the CPSU. In January 1957, the Kalmyk Autonomous Region was re-created, and in July 1958 it was transformed into the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
In 1959, for the successes achieved by the Kalmyks in economic and cultural construction, the Kalmyk ASSR was awarded the Order of Lenin in connection with the 350th anniversary of the voluntary entry of the Kalmyks into Russia.
