B. Formation of a unified state of Russia. Ivan III. Formation of a unified state of Russia, etc.

Formation of a unified state of Russia. Ivan III.

1. The heirs of Dmitry Donskoy.

The heir of Dmitry Donskoy Vasily I Dmitrievich successfully continued his father's policy. In the 70s. 14th century one of the minor Central Asian rulers Timur (Tamerlane) began the conquest of Central Asia, and at the turn of the 80-90s. subjugated the Golden Horde. After the death of Timur (1405), feudal troubles began, and his empire broke up into separate possessions headed by the descendants of the conqueror - the Timurids. Of these, Timur's grandson, Ulugbek (1409-1449), who ruled in Maverannahr, should be especially singled out. Feudal lords who moved to the position of grand-ducal servants, who received appointments as governors and governors, but who retained full princely rights in their lands (princes Starodubsky, Obolensky, Belozersky) were called service or service princes. Administrative-territorial units appear - counties, former independent principalities. The death of Vasily I made his son Vasily Grand Duke of Moscow-Vladimir II (1425-1462). The process of political unification of the Russian lands and the transformation of the Grand Duchy of Moscow-Vladimir into a single state was slowed down by the feudal war that lasted about 30 years in the second quarter of the 15th century. In 1448 The Russian Church became autocephalous (independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople). In 1456 Vasily the Dark defeated the Novgorod troops and in Yazhelbitsy concluded an agreement with Novgorod, according to which the power of the prince in Novgorod was strengthened, Novgorod was deprived of the right to external relations, etc.

2. Ivan III. The formation of a single state - Russia. The overthrow of the yoke of the Horde.

Explosion in political relations realized in the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505), the son of Vasily the Dark, a smart and even talented politician, power-hungry and, in accordance with the spirit of the era, often insidious and cruel. On the Shelon River (July 1471), the Novgorodians were defeated. In January 1478 the Novgorod authorities capitulated; the veche was canceled, the veche bell was taken to Moscow, instead of posadniks and thousandths, Moscow governors now ruled the city. September 8, 1485 Moscow troops approached the city, and already on the night of September 11-12, Mikhail Borisovich, with a handful of boyars loyal to him, fled from Tver to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Thus was born one Russian state, and the name "Russia" appears for the first time in the sources of that time. The unification policy was continued by Ivan's successor III his son Vasily III (1505-1533). Under him, Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514) and Ryazan (1521) were completely annexed. This is how the territory of the united Russian state was formed. Sudebnik 1497. - the first code of laws of united Russia - fixed a single device and management in the state. supreme institution was Boyar Duma- council under the Grand Duke; its members managed individual branches of the state economy, acted as governors in regiments, governors in cities. Volostels exercised power in rural areas - volosts. The first orders appear - central government bodies, they were headed by boyars or clerks, who Grand Duke“ordered” to be in charge of certain matters. Sudebnik for the first time on a national scale introduced a rule restricting the output of peasants; their transfer from one owner to another was now allowed only once a year, during the week before and the week after Yury's autumn day (November 26), after the completion of field work. In addition, natives were obliged to pay the owner of the elderly - money for the "yard" - outbuildings. Instead of squads, a single military organization is being created - the Moscow army, the basis of which is the noble landowners. Along with the unification of the lands of Russia, the government of Ivan III solved another problem of national importance - liberation from the Horde yoke. The ruler of the Great Horde Khan Ahmed in 1480. led an army in Moscow.

In the Smolensk direction, Prince Daniil Shchenya, an outstanding commander of that time, utterly defeated the Lithuanian hetman Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky on the Vedrosha River (July 14, 1500).

3. non-Russian peoples.

Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands :

- "gathering" of Russia around Moscow;

The need to unite all the forces of the state to fight an external enemy;

The nobles were supporters of a strong centralized power;

Development of cities and trade;

Orthodox religion and culture common to all principalities.

External environment :

Weakening of the Golden Horde;

Strengthening the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;

Lithuanian princes establish control over the lands of Western Russia;

Crimea actually becomes independent.

The historical significance of the formation of a unified Russian state :

Ensuring the security of the state;

Development of the economy and culture, strengthening of economic ties within the country;

Expansion of political and trade relations with the countries of Europe and the East;

Strengthening the power of the feudal lords over the peasants;

The Russian Church became independent.

Culture and life of the 14th-15th centuries.

1. Folklore.

2. Literature. Historical thought.

On the basis of the story about Alexander Nevsky, "The Life of St. Alexander Nevsky" was created. From the second half of the 14th century. a significant number of works speak of the struggle against the Horde - the Battle of Kulikovo (“Zadonshchina”, chronicle stories), the devastation of Tokhtamyshev in 1382, the arrival of Tamerlane in Russia, the invasion of Edigei. (“The Tale of the Devastation of Moscow by Khan Tokhtamysh”) An account of world history, including Russian history, is given in the “Russian Chronograph”.

3. Architecture, painting. Andrei Rublev.

4. Gen.

The wooden "log" hut, which stood on the ground, often had a basement - a lower room for livestock and property. The owners, more or less wealthy, lived upstairs - in the upper room. Even richer ones had cages with basements - summer rooms, unheated; lived in them in the summer, kept things. The upper room, which had not portage, but “red” windows, which let in more daylight, was called a room. Finally, in a very rich house there was a third tier - a tower. A canopy was provided in front of the entrance to the living quarters.

The reign of Ivan the Terrible.

1. Beginning of Ivan's reign IV.

In 1533 Vasily died III , leaving three-year-old Ivan as heir IV under the regent - mother Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya. Elena Glinskaya died soon after (1538).

2. Crowning the kingdom.

In the summer of 1547 an uprising broke out in Moscow. The new title of tsar, which Ivan IV shortly accepted the house of the Moscow uprising - in January 1547.

3. The reforms of the Chosen One are glad.

Around 1549 surrounded by Ivan IV a government circle was formed, which went down in history under the name of the Chosen One. In 1550 a new Law was adopted. The creation of the first functional governing bodies - orders (originally they were called "huts") belongs to the time of the Chosen One. In 1550 created under Basil III the pishchalnikov detachments were transformed into the archery army. In 1556 feedings were cancelled. Even under Elena Glinskaya, the lip (territorial) reform began, and during the years of boyar rule, the lip (territorial) reform continued. Russia, thus, developed in the direction of a class-representative monarchy. In 1549 The first Zemsky Sobor was convened, which consisted of the Boyar Duma, representatives of the clergy and feudal lords. Localism was ordered. The decision to create a single pantheon of saints in a single state was approved by the Stoglavy Cathedral. According to the Sudebnik of 1550, which replaced the old code of Ivan III , eliminated the privilege of monasteries not to pay taxes to the treasury, forbade turning boyar children from the nobility into slaves. In the middle of the century, the government organized a description of the land, introduced a certain unit of land tax - a large plow. The main part of the armed forces was the horse militia of the feudal lords.

Economy of Russia in the first half of the 16th century.

Economic upsurge: people settled in the south of the Oka, where there were fertile lands; monasteries played a role in the development of agriculture;

The abundance and cheapness of products;

The economy of the village strengthened;

Cities are centers of trade and handicraft;

In Moscow, numerous settlements were formed, inhabited by artisans of certain professions.

4. Russia in the middle of the 16th century

5. Eastern politics.

First of all, they sought to achieve the accession of the Kazan Khanate. October 2, 1552 Kazan was taken by storm, the last Kazan Khan, Yadigar-Magmet, was captured, was soon baptized, and as "Tsar Simeon Kasaevich" became the ruler of Zvenigorod and an active participant in Russia's wars in the West. In 1556 Astrakhan was annexed: Khan Derbysh (Dervish) Ali fled at the approach of Russian troops. The Russian government retained their lands for the Bashkirs, setting a tax in kind - yasak - for them. In the 50s. Circassian, Kabardian and Dagestan princes turn to Russia for help, some of them accept Russian citizenship. To protect against the raids of the Crimeans, who devastated the southern Russian districts, they built the Tula notch line - a line of fortresses, prisons, forest blockages (notches) from half-cut trees south of the Oka.

6. Yermak's campaign and the conquest of the Siberian Khanate.

The Siberian Khanate, which owned Western Siberia, was a vast state, which, in addition to the Siberian Tatars, included Khanty, Mansi, Trans-Ural Bashkirs and other peoples. About 1581-1582. The Cossack ataman Yermak, who was in the service of the Stroganovs, with his detachment (about 600 people) set off on a campaign against Kuchum. In the 80-90s. 16th century Western Siberia became part of Russia.

7. non-Russian peoples.

COURSE WORK

The reign of Ivan III. Formation of a unified Russian state. Domestic and foreign policy.

Plan.

Introduction

I . Rise of the Moscow Principality (end XIII - the end of the XIV centuries).

1.2. The first successes of the Moscow princes

1.4. Feudal War

II III

2.1. Completion of the political unification of Russian lands around Moscow

2.3. Fight with Novgorod

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

I would like to pay special attention in the course work to the issue of the formation of a unified centralized state. Consideration of this issue is advisable to begin with the definition of the concept of "centralization" and characteristics of the features of this process in Russia.

Centralization is the process of unification of lands, the result of which is the formation of a single supreme power, establishing a single administrative apparatus controlled by the center, uniform laws, common armed forces, etc. A natural and progressive stage in the economic and socio-political development of society.

The history of the emergence of united states is one of the central themes of historical science.Topic term paper o you are directly connected with o leniya feudal fragmentation and the emergence of a centralized state - Russia. One of the bright options for centralization is the formation of the Russian state on the basis of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow. The versatility of the topic in historical science requires a variety of approaches to its study.

This topic has been the subject of deep study by a wide range of historians and jurists. The works of such authors as: Cherepnin L.V., Karamzin N.M., Klyuchevsky V.O., Grekov I.B., Shakhmagonov F.F., Bushuev S.V., Mironov G.E., Sharov V., Solovyov S.M., etc.

Considering the reasons for the rise of Moscow, one can pay attention to the different points of view that exist in historiography on this issue. For example, S. F. Platonov associated the strengthening of Moscow primarily with the revision of the former order of succession to the throne, which remained from Kievan Rus. Then he singled out a favorable geographical position, since Moscow was at the intersection of transport routes.

A. A. Zimin believed that the favorable geographical position of Moscow cannot be considered the reason for the political unification of the Russian lands.

B. A. Rybakov, V. A. Fedorov and other scientists explain the role of Moscow mainly by its geographically advantageous position in relation to other Russian lands, which gave it the importance of the most important junction of trade routes.

Despite different points of view, most modern historians see a decisive role in the process of Moscow's rise in such factors as the personal qualities of the Moscow princes and their skillful policy, which allowed Moscow to enlist the support of the church and become the center of the liberation struggle against the Mongols. Tatar yoke.

The Russian centralized state took shape gradually and became such only after freeing itself from the dependence of the Horde. The process of centralization captured individual lands and principalities at different stages of its development. Some of them were attached to a stronger principality quite early, while others submitted already at the final stage of the formation of a single centralized state. Such unevenness ensured the uniqueness of the path traveled by each region and the long-term preservation of significant local differences.

The study of this topic helps to realize the importance and significance of creating a single centralized state.

The purpose of the course work: is to study the historical process of formation of a centralized Russian state.

Tasks:

- to study the factors that contributed to the formation of a centralized Russian state;

– consider the main stages in the formation of a centralized Russian state.

- to show the importance of the unification of Russian lands for domestic science.

I . The rise of the Moscow principality

1.1. Reasons for the rise of the Moscow principality

One of the traditional themes in Russian historiography is the explanation of the increased role of Moscow, which for a long time did not have its own prince. In search of an answer to this question, historians turn to clarifying the benefits that Moscow received from its geographical position.

Moscow and the lands adjacent to it occupied a small area along the middle course of the Moscow River. Located on the western outskirts of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the principality was intensively populated. First of all, attracted by the relative safety of the territory. Fenced off from the east from the Golden Horde by rich neighboring principalities, which were hit by the blows of the Horde raids, covered by dense forests and swamps, Moscow became a place of attraction for the people's forces.

The relative security thesis is not an empty fiction of historians. The chronicles testify that after the Batu invasion, the subsequent Horde rati bypassed Moscow for a long time. Only in 1293 did the Tatar detachments ravage the future capital of the Russian state.

Trade routes did not bypass Moscow either. But for a long time they had a transit character, which made it very difficult to control them and receive rich duties. This factor forced the rulers of Moscow to accelerate the process of expanding their principality.

It must be admitted that the superiority of Moscow's advantageous location is not enough to explain its rise. Moscow's rivals, primarily the Tver Principality, were not inferior in these parameters and even surpassed it in some ways. Nevertheless, it was the Moscow principality that became the center of the collection of Russian lands. It can be concluded that the main reason for the rise of Moscow is the policy of the Moscow princes, which turned out to be more effective, more productive in comparison with what their opponents were able to offer.

Moscow princes had little chance of taking the grand prince's table. Deprived of the opportunity to get ahead of their rivals, relying on law and customs, the Moscow rulers were more likely than others to be ready to transgress generally accepted norms.

Since the time of N. M. Karamzin, researchers have been talking about the tenacity, the "remarkable" will of the Moscow rulers, the consistency of their political course, the ability not only to preserve, but to increase the accumulated.

1.2. The first successes of the Moscow princes.

By the middle of the XIII century. Moscow had its own prince, Mikhail Yaroslavich, nicknamed Khorobrit, the son of Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. This fact indirectly testifies to the growth of Moscow, which became the capital of a specific principality. Little is known about Horobrit's reign. In 1247 he died in battle with the Lithuanians. Such a short reign prompts us to start counting the history of the rise of Moscow from another reign - Daniil Alexandrovich.

Daniil Alexandrovich received the Moscow principality as an inheritance according to the will of his father, Alexander Yaroslavich. 1 Daniel was the first prince who raised the importance of Moscow, which until now was an insignificant suburb of Vladimir. Participating in the civil strife of his brothers, Daniel by cunning captured the Ryazan prince Konstantin. This event was the first manifestation of self-reinforcing techniques. At the same time, Daniel laid the foundation for that expansion of possessions, which all his successors so consistently led. 2

Important changes took place at the end of Daniel's reign. It was then that Daniel managed to lay the first stones in the foundation of the growing power of Moscow. The capture of Kolomna opened control over the middle course of the Oka.

Equally important in its consequences was the expansion of Moscow at the expense of the Principality of Pereyaslavl. Its last owner, the childless prince Ivan Dmitrievich, before his death in 1302, blessed "his place" to Prince Daniil "Moscow". The acquisition of the Pereyaslav principality made Moscow one of the largest principalities in the Vladimir-Suzdal land and raised its political significance.

1.3. Fight for the throne

In 1303, Daniel's eldest son Yuri (1303-1325) became prince of Moscow. Having conquered Mozhaisk from the Smolensk principality, he felt so strong that he decided to join the struggle for the grand prince's table.

Possession of a great table promised benefits in the struggle for leadership among the northeastern princes, for example, the opportunity to communicate with the ruler of the Horde. AT Mongol Empire there was a political system of unconditional vertical subordination. Demanding slavish obedience from the Grand Duke, the khan unwittingly raised his importance as the main representative of the khan's power in Russia. The Grand Duke thus received power, became the owner of the Grand Duke's domain, and his boyars could receive profitable governorships here. In the XIV century. Kostroma and Yuriev principalities became part of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

In addition to power, the prince received the right to collect "exit" from almost the entire territory of the Zalessky Horde (Russian lands as part of the Golden Horde). This made it possible to raise large sums of money.

Yuri Danilovich began to challenge the rights to reign in Vladimir from his cousin uncle, Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver. But the fate of the great reign also depended on the will of the khan. Yuri Danilovich, having been defeated in an open clash with the prince of Tver, began to seek his fortune in the Horde. Circumstances favored him, he received the long-awaited great table.

But Mikhail Yaroslavich opposed the Khan's will. A war broke out between Moscow and Tver. In 1318, the princes went to the Horde for the khan's court. By order of Khan Uzbek, the prince of Tver was put to a painful execution.

Having got rid of a dangerous opponent, Yuri Danilovich went to Novgorod. Here he had to wage war with the Swedes, who attacked the northwestern borders of the Novgorod land.

Prince of Tver Dmitry Mikhailovich again acted as a rival to Yuri Danilovich. He managed to seize the initiative, accusing the Moscow prince of concealing the "exit". The denunciation was recognized as justified and the prince of Tver received a label for a great reign. During a meeting in the Horde, Dmitry Mikhailovich dealt with the Moscow prince, considering him the main culprit in the death of his father. For the fact that Dmitry Mikhailovich killed Yuri "without the king's word", he was executed. The label for the great reign went to the brother of the deceased Prince of Tver, Alexander Mikhailovich.

The Moscow table was occupied by Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340). His role in the rise of the Moscow principality turned out to be so significant that the Moscow grand dukes, descendants of Ivan Kalita, began to be called Kalitovichi.

Ivan inherited the entire overgrown father's "fatherland". By this time, the rivalry of lone princes for leadership in North-Eastern Russia was a thing of the past, now the struggle was waged by princely dynasties, which relied primarily on the resources of their hereditary estates. A cautious and prudent politician, Ivan Kalita accumulated strength gradually, trying to enlist the support of two powerful forces - the Horde and the Orthodox Church. 3

During the reign of Ivan I, the struggle between Moscow and Tver flared up with renewed vigor. The Tver prince Alexander Mikhailovich was superior in power and authority to the Moscow prince. Considering tradition, the Horde returned the label to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir Tver. At the same time, the khan decided to achieve complete obedience from the Prince of Tver, Alexander, and for this purpose, in 1327, he sent Tsarevich Cholkhan to Russia with an armed detachment. Appearing in Tver, he expelled the prince of Tver from his court and himself settled in the palace. The violence of the Tatars caused a popular uprising. Cholkhan and his squad were killed. Ivan I brought the Tatar rati to Russia, and the Tatars defeated the Tver land. Alexander Mikhailovich went to bow to the Horde and regained the throne of Tver. But here Moscow intervened again. According to Ivan Kalita's denunciation of Alexander of Tver, Khan in 1339. executed him. Ivan Danilovich received a label for a great reign and gained a reputation as a devoted and obedient tributary of the khan. Behind him was approved the right to collect the "Horde exit". Moscow collectors began to dispose of the cash flow directed to the Horde.

With the growth of the treasury, the Moscow prince got the opportunity to expand his possessions in such a way as buying land. "Kupli" Kalita gave V. O. Klyuchevsky a reason to notice that the Moscow prince "beat his opponents not so much with a sword as with a ruble." Perhaps Ivan Kalita managed to buy labels for Uglich and Beloozero in the Horde. The Kostroma lands with rich salt deposits in the Galich region came under the control of the Moscow prince.

Successfully evolved for the Moscow prince and relations with the church. At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, the successor of the Kyiv Metropolitan Cyril III (1243 - 1280), Metropolitan Maxim, a Greek by birth, arrived in Russia in 1283 in the rank of metropolitan. In 1301, Metropolitan Maxim arrived in Constantinople for the Patriarchal Council, where, by the will of the saint, Bishop Theognost proposed to resolve questions about the needs of the Russian Church. Concerned about strengthening the forces of enslaved Russia, the saint urged the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich to reconcile with the Tver prince Mikhail Yaroslavich and did not advise Yuri to go to the Horde to receive the grand throne. In 1304, the hierarch in Vladimir installed Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy on the grand-ducal throne. Metropolitan Maxim established a rule on fasting, appointing, in addition to Great Lent, the Apostolic, Dormition and Nativity fasts. The special care of the holy metropolitan was the confirmation of legal marriage. Maximus died on December 6, 1305; his body was buried in the Dormition Vladimir Cathedral. 4

In fact, the Metropolitan's move was an acknowledgment that the center of the political and religious life of Orthodox Russian lands had shifted to the northeast.

The successor of Metropolitan Maxim - Peter (1308-1326), established friendly relations with the Moscow princes - Yuri and Ivan Danilovich.

In 1312 the saint made a trip to the Horde, where he received from Khan Uzbek a letter protecting the rights of the Russian clergy. In 1325 Saint Peter, at the request of Grand Duke Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1328-1340), transferred the Metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow. This event was of great importance for the entire Russian land. Saint Peter prophetically predicted the liberation from the Tatar yoke and the future rise of Moscow as the center of all Russia.

With his blessing, in August 1326, a cathedral was laid in the Moscow Kremlin in honor of the Assumption of the Most Holy Theotokos. 5

Metropolitan Theognost (1328-1353), who received consecration in Constantinople in 1328, and settled in Moscow, becomes Peter's successor.

In 1329 he visited Novgorod and declared a curse on the people of Pskov, who received the disgraced prince of Tver Alexander Mikhailovich. The old desire of Pskov to gain church independence intensified: the Pskovites chose a certain Arseniy as their bishop and sent him to be consecrated to the metropolitan, but Theognost refused them.

Like his predecessors, Theognost traveled around his metropolis. Theognost went to the Horde twice. On the second trip (1342), someone told Khan Dzhanibek that the metropolitan was collecting large incomes from the clergy and that he had a lot of money. Khan demanded payment from him from all the clergy. Theognost suffered all sorts of tortures in the Horde, gave away up to 600 rubles to various strong people and insisted that the khan approved for the church all its previous benefits with a new label. 6

For contemporaries, this was a significant event. Moscow, long before becoming the political capital of the unified Russian state, became the religious center of the country. This raised the authority of the Moscow princes, opened up the possibility for them to act in concert with the metropolitan, relying on the strength of the church.

During his reign, Kalita visited the Horde several times, reflecting the intrigues of his rivals and strengthening his ties with the "king". In the late 1330s, the princes, dissatisfied with the Moscow policy, led by the Tver prince Alexander Mikhailovich, tried to undermine Kalita's position in the Horde. Ivan Danilovich managed to avert the threat. Apparently, he took advantage of the Khan's suspicion about Alexander Mikhailovich's ties with Lithuania, the growing power of which worried the Horde. The accusations turned out to be so serious that in 1338, on the orders of Khan Uzbek, Alexander Mikhailovich was killed.

The policy of appeasement allowed Kalita to avoid the devastating raids of the Tatars on Russian soil. To the merit of the Moscow prince, the chroniclers wrote down: "The silence is great" - "prestasha filth to fight the Russian land." Realizing that the strength of the prince was in the number and wealth of the grand duke's servants, Ivan Danilovich began to grant land for temporary use on terms of service. Emphasizing the merits of the Moscow prince, one should not idealize him and forget that he built his well-being on seeking before the Horde rulers. 7

The Moscow sovereigns spared no effort and did not hesitate to use bribery, deceit, and violence to expand their possessions. These princes, devoid of talent and characterized by persistent mediocrity, behaved like small predators and hoarders (V. O. Klyuchevsky).

The rapid rise of Moscow delayed the process of fragmentation of North-Eastern Russia, made it possible to collect "crushed parts into something whole." (V. O. Klyuchevsky). In his study of the Moscow state, A. E. Presnyakov drew attention to the formation of the foundations of a new statehood under the immediate successors of Ivan Kalita, to the collection of power by the Moscow grand dukes. 8

The sons of Ivan Kalita, Semyon Ivanovich Proud (1340-1353) and Ivan Ivanovich Krasny (1353-1359), retained the Grand Duke's table and continued the work of their father, collecting new lands under their own hands. During these years, the Yuriev Principality, whose territory was famous for its fertility and rich salt springs, passed into the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Strong point Moscow princes became their unity. For the first time, the title appeared on the seal of Semyon Ivanovich: "Grand Duke of All Russia."

In 1352, a plague epidemic claimed the lives of the Grand Duke and his two sons. The throne passed to Semyon Proud's brother, Ivan Ivanovich Krasny. The chroniclers described this prince, adding the terms "meek", "merciful", but in November 1359 he died. 9

In 1359, John of Moscow died, 33 years old, leaving young sons Dmitry and Ivan and a young nephew Vladimir Andreevich.

It seemed that early death John will be disastrous for Moscow, because his little son could not fight with other princes. And, indeed, when all the princes appeared in the Horde and, one Moscow prince was missing, the khan gave the great reign of Vladimir to the Suzdal prince Dmitry Konstantinovich.

But Moscow was already so strong that even such an unfavorable circumstance as the prince's infancy could not harm her. The Moscow boyars did not want to descend to the lowest level or move off to the new Grand Duke, to the new principality, where nothing was known to them and provided for; they began to try to get a label for their prince. 10

The Great Table was handed over to the Suzdal and Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich. Then, in full, the results of the activities of the first Moscow princes made themselves known. It was not so much the personal qualities of the ruler that came to the fore, but the accumulated potential of the principality and the interest of secular and spiritual elites in supporting their prince. The change in the status of the Moscow prince also did not suit Metropolitan Alexei (1353-1378), a consistent supporter of the union of the church with the Moscow princes. Having headed the government during the years of Dmitry Ivanovich's infancy, Metropolitan Alexei began to vigorously defend the supremacy of Moscow.

Taking advantage of the civil strife in the Horde, the Moscow boyars already in 1362 achieved the expulsion of Dmitry Konstantinovich from Vladimir. A few more years passed, and the Nizhny Novgorod prince was forced to abandon the Vladimir table himself.

With the growth of the power of the Moscow principality, its rulers increasingly resorted to violence. In the early 1360s, Dmitrov was captured and annexed. This was followed by the expulsion from the Rostov, Galich and Starodub lands of princes hostile to Moscow.

Having matured, Dmitry Ivanovich began to interfere in the affairs of the great Tver principality. He entered into a protracted struggle with Prince Mikhail Alexandrovich, whose ally was the powerful Lithuanian prince Olgerd. Olgerd twice approached Moscow (1368, 1370), but on the eve of the war, Dmitry Ivanovich was not in vain in a hurry with the construction of the Moscow Kremlin. Built of white stone in an incredibly short time, the Kremlin walls turned out to be impregnable for the Lithuanian troops. The last, third, campaign (1372), as well as the previous two, ended in failure. The guard regiment of the Lithuanians was defeated, after which Prince Olgerd preferred to make another peace with Dmitry Ivanovich.

In 1371, Mikhail Alexandrovich Tversky managed to get a label for a great reign. However, the people of Vladimir, at the call of the Moscow prince, did not let the governors of the prince of Tver. The weakening of the Horde opened up the possibility of maneuver between the warring factions of the Horde nobility and their henchmen to the khan's throne. At the same time, Moscow, which had solid material resources, had advantages over its rivals. The envoys of the Moscow prince in the Horde settled the conflict with generous gifts. As a result, the great table was left to the grandson of Kalita.

Many Russian princes went over to the side of Dmitry Ivanovich in his struggle with Mikhail Alexandrovich. In 1375, in addition to the Moscow regiments, troops from Yaroslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Smolensk and even Kashin, the specific principality of the Tver land, moved to Tver - a total of 22 squads. In fact, this was the first all-Russian campaign led by Dmitry Ivanovich. Weakened in the struggle, the prince of Tver was forced to recognize the supremacy of Moscow.

Under Dmitry Ivanovich, the former search in the Horde is gradually being replaced by a desire for greater independence. The church played an important role in this transformation, actively supporting the unification process. A descendant of Kalita stood at the head of the national struggle for independence, and this gave him a huge advantage over his rivals: the latter, speaking out against the Moscow princes, involuntarily found themselves in the camp of opponents of the faith. 11

The Principality of Moscow was constantly growing stronger, while the Horde was apparently weakening due to internal unrest, strife, and the khans were losing more and more their significance, ceased to inspire fear. 12

The disobedience of Dmitry Ivanovich to the Horde Khan led to an increase in the number of Horde raids on Russia. The Nizhny Novgorod principality suffered especially from them. Allied princes came to the aid of Nizhny Novgorod. In 1377, taking advantage of the carelessness of the Russian governors, the Tatars defeated the army on the Pyan River. On the next year Dmitry Ivanovich met the Horde army on the Vozha River, a tributary of the Oka. The brutal slaughter ended with the victory of the Moscow prince. But this success was the beginning of a decisive battle.

Preparing for it, Mamai mobilized all his forces. Russian chronicles, obviously exaggerating, determined their number, almost a quarter of a million. Modern researchers call a more modest figure - about 60 thousand. For that time it was a huge army. Mamai's ally was the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello, who was interested in the mutual weakening of Russia and the Horde.

The Russian army was hardly inferior in number to Mamai. In addition to the Moscow regiments, rati from Beloozero, Serpukhov, Pereyaslavl, Kostroma, Vladimir, Murom, Yaroslavl and other destinies came to the gathering place. It is fashionable to conclude that almost all of Russia came together under the banners of the Moscow prince.

The battle took place on September 8, 1380 and ended with the defeat of Mamai. Six days after the battle, the dead were buried. 13 The historical assessment of the significance of the Battle of Kulikovo is ambiguous. The following main points of view can be distinguished:

According to the traditional point of view, dating back to Karamzin and generally accepted by most historians, the Battle of Kulikovo was the first step towards the liberation of Russian lands from the Horde dependence.

Supporters of the Orthodox approach, following the unknown author of the Legend of Mamaev massacre, see in the Battle of Kulikovo the opposition of Christian Russia to the steppe infidels.

The largest Russian historian of the 19th century, S. M. Solovyov, believed that the Battle of Kulikovo, which stopped another invasion from Asia, had the same meaning for Eastern Europe that the battle on the Catalaunian fields in 451 and the battle of Poitiers in 732 had for Western Europe. 14

Gumilyov and his followers see Mamai as a representative of the trade and political interests of a hostile Europe; Moscow troops objectively defended the legitimate ruler of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh. In this interpretation, the Battle of Kulikovo appears to be just an intermediate stage in the struggle for power within the Golden Horde.

Some modern historians, who by no means share Gumilyov's views, nevertheless agree that the significance of the battle is greatly exaggerated in the historiographical tradition. In the realities of 1380, there could still be no talk of the liberation of Russian lands from the power of the Golden Horde. The tasks of the Moscow government included: to change the alignment of forces in the region in their favor and to rise among other Russian principalities, taking advantage of the protracted internal political conflict in the Horde. 15

The first victory over the Tatars accelerated the process of formation of self-consciousness and instilled confidence in the liberation of Russia from the khan's power. The position of the Moscow prince was strengthened, who, according to the definition of V. O. Klyuchevsky, finally acquired "the significance of the national leader of Northern Russia in the fight against external enemies." The status of Moscow also rose - it turned into a national capital.

The defeat of Mamai allowed Khan Tokhtamysh to seize power in the Horde and even restore its unity for a short time. 16 Hostile activation against Moscow reigned in the Horde. For almost two years, Tokhtamysh, in deep secrecy, was preparing to deal a crushing blow to Russia in order to bring her to her knees.

Using the strife between the Russians, the khan attracted the Ryazan and Nizhny Novgorod grand dukes to his side. The invasion of the Tatars in 1382 was like a flood. The cavalry poured into the Russian borders, sweeping away everything in its path. The border princes tried to save their lands from the pogrom and spread to the camp of the enemy. 17

Dmitry Ivanovich went to Kostroma, probably to gather an army. There is another version: he tried to avoid a collision with Tokhtamysh. At the end of August, the khan laid siege to Moscow. Muscovites met the Horde with stones, arrows and even shots from mattresses (small-caliber guns). Unable to break the resistance, Tokhtamysh resorted to deceit. He promised to lift the siege after an expression of submission. When the gates of the city were opened, the enemy broke into the Kremlin. The massacre was terrible.

Dmitry Ivanovich was forced to recognize the power of the khan and resume the payment of the "exit". But the military-political potential of the Horde was so undermined that the restoration of Horde dominion in full was impossible. Tokhtamysh not only retained the great table for the Moscow prince, but, in fact, approved the transformation of the Vladimir reign into a Moscow patrimony.

Dmitry Donskoy reigned for thirty years. The first victories over the Horde speak of the military talent of Dmitry Donskoy. But he showed himself as a big statesman, strong-willed and independent ruler.

The territorial results of the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich are also impressive: he not only finally secured the great reign for Moscow, but also made major acquisitions in the Trans-Volga region, in the Klyazma and Oka basins. Thus, the base for the unification of the Great Russian lands around Moscow was expanded materially and territorially. Before his death, Dmitry divided the principality between his sons. He “blessed” the eldest son Vasily with “his fatherland with a great reign.” Vasily received most of the Moscow principality and Moscow, fifteen-year-old Yuri - Galich and Zvenigorod, seven-year-old Andrei - Mozhaisk and Beloozero, four-year-old Peter - Dmitrov and Uglich. The Grand Duke acted in the spirit of appanage ideas and, although he sought to prevent clashes between his sons, punishing them to obey “the elder brother in my place of his father,” unwittingly created the basis for a future internecine war.

1.4. Feudal War

From the end of the XIV century. Moscow's unification policy is acquiring a number of new features. The rulers of Moscow are increasingly resorting to violence, sanctioning their actions by the will of the khan. The Horde itself is going through a deep crisis, breaking up into warring parts, each of which claims its rights to the "Russian ulus". In this regard, the number of robbery campaigns against Russia is multiplying. The need for a prince capable of organizing a common effective defense becomes an urgent need at the end of the 14th century.

Lithuania had a great influence on the political processes of Russia. The Lithuanian princes took full advantage of the weakening of the Horde, gathered the main ancient Russian lands under their own hands. At the same time, the process of rapprochement with Poland was going on in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which led to the growth of Polish and Catholic influence in Lithuania. The Orthodox elite faced a difficult political, religious and cultural choice, prompting many to turn their eyes to Moscow.

Basil I (1389-1425) successfully continued the work of his father. In his youth, he spent four years in the Horde captivity. When the prince came of age, well-wishers helped him escape from the Horde to Lithuania. Apparently, there he was engaged to the daughter of the ruler of Lithuania, Prince Vitovt. Having ascended the throne, Vasily I pursued a policy of obedience to the Horde and tried to use its power to expand Moscow's possessions. 18

Taking advantage of the complications in the Horde, he did not miss the opportunity to expand the boundaries of his possessions. Basil I received labels for the Murom and Tarusa principalities, an important acquisition was the Nizhny Novgorod principality.

Once in isolation, the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh and his supporters began to seek refuge in Lithuania. Here he concluded an agreement with Vitovt, according to which the Lithuanian prince was to contribute to the return of Tokhtamysh to the Horde throne, and Tokhtamysh to the reign of Vitovt "on the whole Russian land." It was a dangerous union for Moscow. However, in August 1400 in the battle on the river. Vorskla, the left tributary of the Dnieper, Vitovt and Tokhtamysh were defeated by the new Horde Khan Timur.

The Lithuanian prince was forced to abandon his extensive plans, but this did not prevent him in 1404 from conquering the Smolensk principality. Basil I , avoiding an aggravation with Lithuania, did not protest this accession. But when Vitovt tried to strengthen his position in the Novgorod and Pskov lands, Moscow strongly opposed. In 1390, Vasily married Sofya Vitovtovna, Vitovt's daughter. The dynastic marriage undoubtedly influenced Basil's relationship with the powerful Lithuanian prince. Nevertheless, Vasily Dmitrievich did not abandon his independent policy. The war that broke out between Moscow and Vilna in 1406-1408. did not reveal a winner. In anticipation of a clash with the Teutonic Order, Vitovt agreed to conclude peace.

The overthrow of Tokhtamysh by the Horde Khan Timur allowed Vasily I to stop paying the "exit". Another Horde ruler who aspired to power, Edigei, did not want to put up with this. In December 1408, his army invaded Moscow. 19 Basil I he did not take heed, hoping that the Horde was weakened, and did not take measures in advance against the cunning enemy. Like his father, Vasily Dmitrievich fled to Kostroma, but better than his father, he ordered the defense of Moscow, entrusting it to his brave uncle, Prince Vladimir Andreevich of Serpukhov. Muscovites themselves burned down their settlement. Edigey could not take the Kremlin, but the Horde devastated many Russian cities and villages. Moscow experienced that if the Horde was not able to keep Russia in its subordination, as before, then for a long time it could be terrible for her with its sudden raids, devastation and captivity of the inhabitants. 20 The news of another turmoil in the Horde changed the plans of the Horde henchman. He moved back, having previously taken a huge "payback of 3,000 rubles" from the Muscovites. The scale of the ruin was such that contemporaries compared them with the invasion of Batu. But the main thing is Vasily I was forced to renew the payment of "exit".

By the end of his life, Vasily Dmitrievich was the undisputed leader among the northeastern princes. He strengthened his positions along the border of the Novgorod land, putting Volok Damsky, Torzhok, Vologda, and others under control. His great success was the capture of Veliky Ustyug. Most of the specific princes, who retained their independence, remained in relation to the Grand Duke in the position of “young brothers”. A considerable number of princes turned into "handmaids" of the Grand Duke. Usually they went as governors to their former destinies. Such feudal lords began to be called service or service princes. However, the question of the center of the unification of Russian lands was not finally resolved. It seemed that the leadership in this process was captured by the Lithuanian prince Vitovt.

He united not only Central and Southern Russia, the Tver and Ryazan princes became dependent on him. Vasily Dmitrievich was forced to reckon with this circumstance.

The process of political unification was interrupted by the feudal war that broke out during the reign of Vasily II Vasilyevich (1425-1462). The reason was the dynastic conflict between the Moscow princes. In 1425, after the death of Vasily I, Prince Yuri Zvenigorodsky refused to swear allegiance to his nine-year-old nephew. He justified his rights to the Moscow throne with references to "seniority" and to the will of Dmitry Donskoy, according to which, in the event of the death of Vasily I, the next brother became his successor.

A clash was avoided thanks to the mediation of Metropolitan Photius and the pressure of Vitovt, who, as the grandfather of Vasily II, acted as his patron. Yuri retreated. However, Vytautas defended not so much the rights of his grandson as he sought to take advantage of the situation and strengthen his position.

The death of Vitovt in 1430 changed the situation in North-Eastern Russia. The Lithuanian princes were drawn into the internecine struggle, which untied the hands of the rivals of Vasily II. The dispute about seniority was transferred to the Horde. The Khan of the Golden Horde again received the functions of the supreme arbiter. The struggle for the label in the Horde was won by Vasily II. Yuri Dmitrievich did not accept this decision and went into open conflict.

The war, which began in 1433, continued intermittently until the mid-1950s. It is surprising that Vasily II, who won it, was inferior to his opponents in experience, talent, even luck: he survived several defeats, lost the Moscow table many times and nevertheless won. Thus, the outcome of the struggle depended not so much on the personal qualities of the rival Moscow princes, but on the power of those social strata and power institutions that supported them.

The Zvenigorod prince, Yuri Dmitrievich, twice occupied the grand prince's table and faced opposition from the Moscow princes, but two months after the second ascension to the grand prince's table, he died (1434).

At a new stage of the feudal war, Vasily II encountered the sons of Yuri Dmitrievich - Vasily and Dmitry. At the same time, Dmitry Yuryevich (Shemyaka) acted in alliance with Vasily II against his older brother Vasily Yurievich, who declared himself the Grand Duke. The struggle ended with the capture of Vasily Yurievich, who was blinded by order of Vasily II.

Taking advantage of the strife of the Russian princes, Tatar detachments often appeared on the borders of the Russian state. Tokhtamysh's grandson Ulu-Mukhammed captured Kazan in 1438 and became the founder of a new dynasty of Kazan khans. In 1445 he ravaged Nizhny Novgorod. In a battle near Suzdal, the sons of Ulu-Mohammed inflict a crushing defeat on the Grand Duke's army, capturing Vasily II himself.

The plans of Dmitry Shemyaka to take advantage of the situation and take the throne of the Grand Duke were prevented by the return of Vasily II from captivity. However, the conditions of liberation turned out to be so difficult that they caused strong dissatisfaction among the population: it was necessary to pay a huge ransom, and the Horde was granted the city and parish as a pledge. This allowed the conspirators to accuse Vasily of "guiding" the Horde to Russia. In February 1446, supporters of Dmitry Shemyaka captured Moscow, he became the Grand Duke. Vasily II (Dark) was blinded and sent to prison in Uglich. 21 It is noteworthy that the nature of the reign of Vasily II since then it has completely changed. Using his eyesight, Vasily was the most insignificant sovereign, but since he lost his eyes, the rest of his reign has been distinguished by firmness, intelligence and determination. 22

The Moscow boyars did not want the rulers of other principalities to be strengthened on the grand prince's table. This threatened the elite with serious changes in the established system of the service-parochial hierarchy, ousting it from the helm of power. The land policy of Vasily II, who united the Moscow boyars around him with generous distributions of estates, ensured the stability and strength of his power. Of great importance for Vasily II was the support of the church. Condemning the actions of Dmitry Shemyaka, the hierarchs unanimously spoke in favor of releasing Vasily from Uglich imprisonment.

In the middle of 1446, Vasily the Dark appeared in Tver. The union with the Tver prince Boris Alexandrovich was sealed by the betrothal of children - the future Ivan III and Mary. With the help of supporters, Vasily the Dark returns to the great reign and brings charges against Shemyaka, which two years earlier they helped him remove Vasily from power II and that Shemyaka brought detachments of Tatars to Russia. The dramatic struggle continued until 1453, in which Dmitry Shemyaka died.

The war undoubtedly slowed down the unification processes. Nevertheless, its result is indisputable - the strengthening of the positions of the grand duke's power. As a result of military campaigns, other lands hostile to the Grand Duke, Novgorod and Vyatka, were also brought into submission. Having drawn conclusions from what was happening, Vasily II distributed the lands among the heirs in such a way that the eldest son received a decisive advantage over the brothers. Ivan, who ascended the throne, owned 16 large cities, while his four brothers together - 12. This became a serious guarantee against new strife.

Characteristically, even during the civil strife, the Moscow principality continued to expand. The size of the new acquisitions was not impressive, but important from the point of view of the strategic position. Strengthening the Oka outskirts, the Moscow prince acquired Venev and Tula in the south. An important defensive measure was the creation of a special "kingdom" - the Kasimov kingdom, which was headed by Kashima with his horde, whose responsibility was attributed to the protection of Russian borders. The son of Kasima - Mahmud, having seized power, completed the process of formation of the Kazan kingdom independent of the Horde, begun by his father. The creation of the Kingdom of Kasimov is a new phenomenon in Russian-Horde relations: for the first time, Horde princes appear among the service people of the Moscow prince. From the end of the XIV century. began numerous "departure" of the Tatars in the Russian service. They accepted Orthodoxy, many of them became the founders of noble noble families.

At the end of the reign of Vasily II, the conflict with Novgorod was resolved. In 1456, the defeat at Russa forced the Novgorod boyars to begin peace negotiations. The peace of Yazhelbitsky preserved the political system of Novgorod, but the positions of the Moscow prince and his deputies strengthened. The power of Vasily the Dark was also consolidated in Pskov, where a grand princely governor appeared.

Thus, by the end of the reign of Vasily II, important prerequisites were created for overcoming specific fragmentation and creating a single state. The unification of Russia was still on the agenda, but this process was already moving towards its logical conclusion. Largely due to the policy of the Moscow princes, including the acquisition of territory, the purchase of lands or even principalities, the religious factor that unites the people, the formation of Moscow not only as a political, but also as a religious center - everything went to the fact that Moscow would become the capital of a future state, with centralized control system in all spheres of life, it only remained to make a little more effort. But the main thing has already been done - the process of unification has begun ...

II . The formation of a unified Russian state in the reign of Ivan III

2.1. Completion of the political unification of Russian lands around Moscow

The reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505) is the final stage in the formation of the Russian centralized state. At the beginning of his reign, his principality was surrounded almost everywhere by Russian possessions: Novgorod the Great, the princes of Tver, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Ryazan. Ivan III subjugated all these lands thanks to successful foreign political and diplomatic qualities . At the end of his reign, he had only heterodox and foreign neighbors: Swedes, Germans, Lithuania, Tatars. 23 There were three major tasks before the prince. Firstly, to unite around Moscow the lands that still retained their independence, secondly, to put an end to the position of the Khan’s “ulusnik” and become an independent sovereign, thirdly, qualitative changes in society and the state entailed corresponding changes in the government itself and its institutions. If in the first two cases Ivan III to a certain extent acted as a successor to the work of his predecessors, then the last task required innovation and courage. 24

The events of civil strife could not but affect little Ivan and later on his policy. He felt an irreconcilable hatred for the remnants of the old appanage freedom. He was a man of strong disposition, cold, judicious, with a callous heart, power-hungry, adamant in the pursuit of his chosen goal, secretive, extremely cautious; gradualness is visible in all his actions; he was not distinguished by either courage or bravery, but he knew how to perfectly use circumstances; he never got carried away, but he acted decisively when he saw that the matter was ripe to the point that success was undoubted. 25

Ivan III revealed himself as a statesman in his ability to accurately and clearly realize goals and find the best means to achieve them. Despite the resources that Ivan Vasilievich inherited and multiplied, the problem of leadership acquired great importance under him. This was due to the fact that an external threat prompted a high rate of unification. The fate of Father Ivan III showed how important a talented ruler is in such a historical situation and how dangerous mediocrity is. 26

... The local communities themselves, for various reasons, began to openly gravitate towards Moscow. So, in Veliky Novgorod, the people took the side of Moscow, as opposed to the local aristocracy; on the contrary, in the principalities of northern Russia, the highest service class gravitated toward Moscow, tempted by the benefits of Moscow service; finally, in Chernigov, which depended on Lithuania, princes and societies joined Moscow in the fight against Catholic propaganda, which began in Western Russia from the 14th century. with the intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian intervention. Thanks to the desire of the local authorities to become part of the Moscow principality, the collection of the Russian land by Moscow became a national-religious movement and was accelerated. 27

By the beginning of the reign of Ivan III, the Tver, Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities were not included in the Moscow patrimony from the Upper Volga principalities (or were included in separate volosts and appanages). In 1463, the Yaroslavl prince ceded his principality with volosts to Ivan III. The loss of independence was accompanied by a political reorganization, which in turn emphasized the dependence of local feudal lords on the Grand Duke. So, according to the remark of researchers of the era of Ivan III, methods were approved for incorporating the territories of specific principalities into a single state. In 1474, the Moscow prince acquired the remaining half of the Rostov principality from local princes. 28

For a century and a half, Moscow tried to undermine the independence and prosperity of Novgorod: Novgorod endured frequent extortion of money, seizures of land, the ruin of Novgorod volosts, and therefore it was clear that Novgorod had not tolerated Moscow's domination for a long time. Dissatisfaction with Moscow reached a high degree during the reign of Vasily the Dark. The independence of Veliky Novgorod aroused fears among Novgorodians. Then, having united in the name of a common cause, they decided at all costs to repulse the Moscow princes. Since it seemed to the Novgorodians that they were unable to protect Veliky Novgorod from Moscow, which could push the lands already subordinate to it beyond the power, the patriots of Novgorod came to the conclusion that it was best to surrender under the patronage of the Lithuanian Grand Duke and King of Poland Casimir.

Ivan Vasilyevich, having learned about the decision of the Novgorodians, sent ambassadors with an appeal that Novgorod was the fatherland of the Grand Duke.

At the end of 1470, the Novgorodians invited the prince from Kyiv, Mikhail Olelkovich, to their place.

The Novgorodians concluded an agreement with Casimir: Novgorod came under the supreme authority of Casimir, retreated from Moscow, and Casimir pledged to protect him from the attempts of the Moscow Grand Duke. 29

Upon learning of this, Prince Ivan Vasilievich tried to peacefully resolve the intensified struggle for independence, he sent his ambassadors to Novgorod to negotiate.

That was heard by the people of Novgorod, their boyars, and posadniks, and thousands, and wealthy people who did not want to break their ancient custom and the kiss of the cross. 30

After the unsuccessful return of the ambassadors from Novgorod, Ivan Vasilyevich decided to use weapons. On May 31, 1471, he sent his troops under the command of the voivode Obraztsa to the Dvina to seize this important volost from Novgorod; On June 6, a second army was advanced under the leadership of Prince Danil Dmitrievich Kholmsky to Ilmen, and on June 13 a third detachment was sent under the command of Prince Vasily Obolensky-Striga to the coast of the Meta River. The Grand Duke gave the order to burn all Novgorod suburbs and villages and kill indiscriminately. His goal was to weaken the Novgorod land to the extreme. At the same time, the forces of Pskov and Tver were involved in the campaign against Novgorod.

The Moscow troops, following the orders of Ivan Vasilievich, behaved inhumanly; having defeated the Novgorod detachment at Korostyn, on the banks of the Ilmen, the Moscow military leaders ordered the noses and lips of the captives to be cut off and in this form they sent them to appear to their brothers. The main Novgorod army consisted for the most part from people unaccustomed to the battle: from artisans, farmers, laborers. There was no agreement in this army. On July 13, 1471, on the banks of the Shelon River, the Novgorodians were utterly defeated. Ivan Vasilievich, having arrived with the main army after the detachments sent by him, stopped in Yazhelbitsy and ordered the heads of the four captured, the leaders of the Novgorod army, to be cut off.

The defeat of the Novgorod army made a revolution in the minds. The people in Novgorod were sure that Casimir would appear or send an army to help Novgorod; but there was no help from Lithuania. The people sent their archbishop to ask the Grand Duke for mercy. Novgorod renounced communication with the Lithuanian sovereign, ceded to the Grand Duke part of the Dvina land, where the Novgorod army was defeated by the Moscow one. In general, in the Dvina land (Zavolochye), which Novgorod considered its property, has long been divided. Among the Novgorod possessions were inhabited lands, which were claimed by other princes, especially those of Rostov. The Grand Duke of Moscow, as the supreme head of all the specific princes and the owner of their possessions, considered all such disputed lands to be his fatherland and took them away from Novgorod. Novgorod, in addition, undertook to pay a "penny" (indemnity). The amount of a kopey was indicated at fifteen and a half thousand. In all other respects, this agreement was a repetition of the one concluded under Vasily the Dark. "Eternal" letters were also destroyed. 31

In the first year after the subjugation of Novgorod, Grand Duke Ivan did not impose his disgrace on the Novgorodians and did not take drastic measures against them. 32

And the last page of the Novgorod liberty was turned over at the end of the 70s. In the spring of 1477, the Novgorod embassy, ​​allegedly sent from the archbishop and "the whole of Veliky Novgorod", called Ivan III not a master, but a sovereign. The difference was significant: if the appeal to "lord" expressed the attitude of feudal equality or, in extreme cases,unequal status vassalage, then the concept of "sovereign" meant the recognition of citizenship. 33

Achieving the complete subordination of Novgorod, Ivan III set out to liquidate the Novgorod court, replacing it with the Grand Duke. The question of the liquidation of the veche system was postponed for the future.

The emergence of a second government in Novgorod had important consequences. Residents who failed in the court of the "republic" immediately turned their claims to Ivan III. By the spring of 1477, a whole crowd of Novgorod complainers, who belonged to various strata of society, had gathered in Moscow. 34

However, this pacification did not stop at the removal of the bell and the prohibition of the assembly: the townspeople tried to rebel. So, in order to completely dispel the spirit of resistance to the new order, “in 1487, 50 of the best merchant families were transferred from Novgorod to Vladimir. In 1488, the Governor of Novogorodsky, Yakov Zakharyevich, executed and hanged many living people who wanted to kill him, and sent to Moscow more than eight thousand Boyars, eminent citizens and merchants who received land in Vladimir, Murom, Nizhny, Pereslavl, Yuryev, Rostov, Kostroma; and to their lands, to Novgorod, they sent Muscovites, service people and guests. With this resettlement, Novgorod was forever pacified. 35

Surrounded on almost all sides by Moscow possessions, the Grand Duchy of Tver was on the verge of its collapse. 36 Tver prince Mikhail Borisovich was in peace and union with John until the end of 1484. They learned in Moscow that the prince of Tver had begun to make friends with Kazimir of Lithuania and married his granddaughter; in an agreement with the king, Michael undertook to stand with him at the same time against everyone without exception.

This circumstance was a clear violation of the obligations previously concluded with the Moscow prince, and therefore the latter declared war on Mikhail, which began with the devastation of the Tver region; Tver alone could not fight with Moscow, Lithuanian assistance did not appear, and Mikhail was forced to ask for peace. Mikhail Borisovich re-entered into an alliance with Lithuania; in Moscow, having learned about this, they began to gather an army; the frightened Michael sent in vain to beat John with his forehead, he did not want to hear anything and laid siege to Tver; Michael fled to Lithuania at night, and Tver swore allegiance to John in 1485. 37

In the spring of June 11, 1489. the great of all Russia, John Vasilyevich, sent military detachments to Vyatka. Under the leadership of Prince Daniil Vasilyevich Shchen and Grigory Vasilyevich Morozov, the cities were taken, and the Vyatchians themselves were brought to kiss, and the Aryans were brought to the oath; and the Vyatchans brought out the greater people with their wives and children, and even the Arsk princes, and so they returned. And the great prince of the Vyatchans of the zemstvos in Borovets and in Klemenets planted and gave them land, and planted the merchants of the Vyatchans in Dmitrov; and the great prince granted the princes of Ar, let him go to his land, and executed the seditious by death .. 38

An integral part of the history of collecting lands around Moscow under Ivan III was his desire to reduce the number of specific principalities. After almost all independent principalities disappeared from the political map of Russia, a glance was cast on the destinies of the members of the Moscow ruling house. Part of the destinies passed into the possession of the Moscow prince after the death of their owners. It is important to emphasize that under Ivan III, all the territorial acquisitions of the Grand Duke were not subject to kinship division. Thus, the space reproducing specific antiquity was gradually reduced. By the beginning of the reign of Vasily III Ivanovich (1505-1533), only Pskov and the Ryazan principality remained unattached to Moscow.

2.2. The end of the Horde dominion. Russia and Lithuania at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries.

The creation of a single state was impossible without liberation from the Horde dominion. The latter meant not only the mobilization of all military resources, but also the intensification of foreign policy aimed at finding allies and frustrating the plans of hostile neighboring states, primarily the Great Horde and Lithuania. Thanks to the diplomatic efforts of Ivan III, the possibilities of the Moscow principality increased. Foreign policy contacts have increased, which allowed Moscow to influence the course of affairs not only in its own region, but throughout Eastern Europe.

The end of the 80s was a time of severe trials for Ivan III. The growing power of the Moscow principality, just confirmed by the annexation of Novgorod, led to serious complications. Khan of the Great Horde Akhmet and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir created a military alliance directed against Moscow. In turn, Ivan III concluded an agreement with the worst enemy of Akhmet, the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray. This far-sighted diplomatic move somewhat balanced the forces. 39

Khan of the Golden Horde Akhmet was not pleased with John because he did not go to him with a bow and did not satisfy his demands for tribute. Akhmet in 1472 attacked the Moscow borders from the Oka and, after burning Aleksin, retired. 40

On the eve of the invasion, the position of the Grand Duke was complicated by a conflict with his brothers, the specific princes Andrei Bolshoi and Boris Vasilyevich. The clash with the brothers was caused by the unwillingness of Ivan III to share the newly annexed regions. Nothing went to the brothers of the Grand Duke even after the conquest of the Novgorod land. Such a policy reflected the desire of Ivan III to expand his possessions. The brothers who rebelled proceeded from traditional ideas, according to which they became co-owners of the annexed or inherited territories.

Andrei and Boris, with their specific regiments, went to Velikie Luki, which made it possible for them, if necessary, to seek help from Casimir. In the midst of the conflict, news came of the speech of Khan Ahmet. The resolution of the internal political crisis became a top priority for Ivan III.

The Moscow prince did not allow further deepening of the conflict. He made concessions, at the same time relying on the mediation and authority of the church in negotiations. For this purpose, the archbishop of Rostov, the confessor of the Grand Duke Vassian Rylo, was sent to the rebels, who announced the readiness of Ivan III to cede to the brothers Aleksin and Kaluga. A compromise was found, and in the autumn, on the eve of the decisive clash, the specific regiments of the brothers stood next to the grand ducal detachments.

The appearance of the hordes of Akhmet in the spring of 1480 did not come as a surprise to Ivan III. 41 Long gone are the days when the Horde could field up to a hundred thousand horsemen. Ahmed Khan could hardly muster more than 30-40 thousand soldiers. Approximately the same forces had Ivan III. Troops of the Prince of Tver arrived to help him. Pskov, which was attacked by the knights, did not participate in the war with the Tatars. 42 At the turn of the Oka, the Khan's troops met the Russian regiments. Convinced of the reliability of the defense, Akhmet in early September headed for the left tributary of the Oka, the Ugra River. The maneuver had two goals: connection with the troops of Casimir and crossing the flank of the Russian troops through the shallow Ugra. Thanks tosuccessful military tacticsThe Moscow governor's regiments of the Grand Dukes went to the river bank before the Tatars and prevented the crossing. The "great standing on the Ugra" began.

In the environment of Ivan III there were heated debates about the prospects of the Horde policy. Some boyars insisted on negotiations with the khan, which meant maintaining dependence in one form or another. Ivan Vasilyevich himself experienced certain hesitation: as a politician, he did not like risk in cases where the outcome of the struggle was not clear. A decisive clash was advocated by the inhabitants of Moscow, prominent church leaders, military men led by the heir Ivan Molody.

The onset of cold put the khan before a choice: either decide on a general battle, or retreat to the steppe. In early November, the Horde turned their horses. On the way, the khan for violating the treaty - Casimir never came to his aid - ruined the Lithuanian possessions.

Standing on the Ugra completed the centuries-old history of the Horde dominion. The almost bloodless victory was partly achieved thanks to the diplomatic skill of Ivan III and his closest assistants. After liberation from the Horde dependence, Ivan III sought peaceful relations with the Crimea and Turkey. 43

Another important direction of Ivan's foreign policy III is to resolve the issue with Lithuania. The Moscow prince begins an offensive movement and expresses the idea that all western Russian volosts should belong to him as a descendant of St. Vladimir, and not to the princes of Lithuania.

Not having the means to wage an open war with Moscow, King Casimir forced to look for Ivan III allies against Lithuania: thus, sending his ambassadors to the Crimea, he ordered them to try so that Mengli Giray did not make peace with Casimir. The reason for hostile clashes between Lithuania and Moscow was given by petty border princes, continuing the old tribal strife, they constantly quarreled among themselves, passed from Lithuanian citizenship to Moscow.

In 1492, Casimir dies and Poland and Lithuania are divided between his sons: Jan Albrecht got Poland, Alexander - Lithuania. Ivan Vasilyevich immediately sent his commanders to Lithuania, insisted that Mengli-Giray send his detachments there too. It was difficult for Lithuania to fend off the joint actions of John Mengli Giray; the nobles began to think about peace with Moscow. They tried to persuade John to make concessions, they decided to offer him a marriage alliance with one of his daughters with Grand Duke Alexander.

But John replied that he did not want to hear about the matchmaking before the conclusion of peace, and for this Lithuania must give him all his acquisitions. The Lithuanian prince sends great ambassadors to Moscow to conclude peace at the behest of Ioannova. According to the peace treaty, the city of Vyazma, the princes of Novosilsk, Odoevsky, Vorotynsky and Belevskaya went to Moscow with estates; also in the treaty charter the prince of Moscow was written by the sovereign of all Russia.

In 1495, Alexander married Elena, daughter of Joan, and gave his father-in-law a promise not to force his wife to accept the Roman Catholic confession; John also demanded that Alexander set up a home Orthodox church for Elena in the palace itself, but Alexander did not want to fulfill this requirement, he also stopped calling his father-in-law the sovereign of all Russia and did not want the Moscow boyars to remain under Elena. All this led to a quarrel between father-in-law and son-in-law, and the renewed transfer of princes from Lithuanian citizenship to Moscow led to open war.

The war began successfully for Moscow. On July 14, 1500, the Moscow army under the command of Prince Daniel Schenya met at Dorogobuzh, on the river Vedrosha, with the Lithuanian army, which was under the command of the hetman Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky; thanks to a secret ambush, the Moscow governors won a decisive victory: the hetman Prince Ostrozhsky and other Lithuanian governors were captured; the Vedrosh victory was followed by the victory near Mstislavl, where the Lithuanians also lost many people. After that, the war continued for several more years; the Livonian master Walter von Plettenberg took part in it, who, thanks to his artillery, defeated the Pskov and Moscow troops near Izborsk, but then the Russians marked him with a strong defeat near Telmed. In the third battle, on the shores of Lake Smolina, the Germans, despite their small numbers compared to the Russians, fought desperately, held their ground, and Plettenberg retreated to their borders.

Alexander of Lithuania, who, after the death of his brother, Jan Albrecht, became king of Poland, had to ask for peace from Ivan III . Through the mediation of the Hungarian ambassador, a truce was concluded for six years - from March 25, 1503 to March 25, 1509; Alexander ceded to the Moscow prince the lands of all the princes who succumbed to Moscow - Starodubsky, Shemyachich and others. At the same time, a truce was concluded with the Livonian Order. 44

The completion of the unification of the Great Russian lands around the Moscow principality significantly changed the nature of the entire foreign policy of the heirs of Ivan Kalita. From the task of national liberation, Muscovite Rus moved on to solving problems related to ensuring the security of its borders, territorial expansion, both in the West and in the East. The rapid rise of Moscow meant not only the emergence of a new independent area of ​​the diplomatic game - the entire system of international relations in Eastern Europe, the entire balance of forces, interests, and traditional alliances was changing. 45

Conclusion

The territorial expansion had a powerful effect on the political position of the Moscow principality and its prince. Having imagined the new borders of the Moscow principality, created by the territorial acquisitions listed above, it is easy to see that this principality has now absorbed an entire nationality. In specific centuries, through colonization in central and northern Russia, a new tribe was formed as part of the Russian population, the Great Russian nationality was formed. But until the middle of the XV century. this nationality remained only an ethnographic fact, and not a political one: it was divided into several independent political parts; national unity was not expressed in state unity. Now all this nationality has united under one state authority. 46 As a result, this was an important historical significance of the reign of Ivan III, and also gave a new character to the Moscow principality.

The Moscow principality turned into a Russian state. The combination of many factors at once, coincidences of circumstances led to the fact that Moscow gradually, with careful steps, not only became the leader among the Russian principalities, but also became the center of the unification of the lands.

The creation of the Russian state took place in the bloody battles of internal strife, in a tough confrontation with the majority of neighbors. Russia found its place in the world in a grueling struggle with the Zotota Horde, Kazan, and from the beginning of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanates, the Principality of Lithuania, the Livonian Order, and the Kingdom of Sweden.

The emergence of a unified Russian state was of great historical significance.

Undoubtedly, the historical significance of the formation of a centralized Russian state is great:

• the period of feudal fragmentation ends;
• feudal strife ceased;
• favorable conditions for the development of the economy and culture appeared;
• the Golden Horde yoke was overthrown and the defense capability of the state was strengthened (a permanent military army was created);
• entry into Russia saved the peoples from the raids of warlike neighbors;
• the process of enslaving the peasants accelerated;
• increased international prestige.

Thus, the centralization of the Russian state was reflected in the apparatus of state administration, which contributed to its development in a progressive direction.

Bibliography.

1. Kostomarov N. I. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures / N. I. Kostomarov. - M., 2006. (electronic version of the encyclopedia) (http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kostom/kostlec.htm) Ivan III

2. Gumilyov L. N. From Russia to Russia/L. N. Gumilyov. - M., 2010.

3. Skrynnikov R. G. History of Russia in the 9th—17th centuries. / R. G. Skrynnikov. - M., 1997.

4. Cherepnin L.V. Formation of the Russian centralized state in the XIV-XV centuries / L. V. Cherepnin. - M., 1960.

5. Platonov S.F. Full course of lectures on Russian history. / Essay on Russian historiography Review of the sources of Russian history. - Petrograd, 1917. (electronic version - http://www.pstbionline.orthodoxy.ru/books/platonov.)

6. Tatishchev V. N. Russian history [V3v.]. T.3/V. Tatishchev. - M., 2005.

7. Klyuchevsky V. O. Course of Russian history: A course of Russian history in one volume / V. O. Klyuchevsky. - M., 2009.

8. Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004.

9. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian state. Volume VI. - M., 2006.

10. Solovyov S. M. Works: Book II History of Russia since ancient times [In 12 vol.]. T.3-4. - M., 2012.

Internet resources:

1 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 120.

2 Kostomarov N. I. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures / N. I. Kostomarov. - M., 2006. Chapter 9.

3 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 123.

4 http://days.pravoslavie.ru/Life/life3073.htm

5 http://days.pravoslavie.ru/Life/life3160.htm

6 http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/ruwiki/1318114

7 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. p. 125.

8 Skrynnikov R. G. History of Russia in the 9th-17th centuries. / R. G. Skrynnikov. - M., 1997. Chapter 4. Part 1.

9 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 126.

11 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 127.

12 Solovyov S.M. Educational book on Russian history. Chapter 21

14 Solovyov S.M. Educational book on Russian history. Chapter 21

15 Gumilyov L. N. From Russia to Russia / L. N. Gumilyov. - M., 2006.

16 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 128.

17 Skrynnikov R. G. History of Russia in the 9th-17th centuries. / R. G. Skrynnikov. - M., 1997. Chapter 4. Part 2.

18 Skrynnikov R. G. History of Russia in the 9th-17th centuries. / R. G. Skrynnikov. - M., 1997. Chapter 4, part 2.

19 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 141.

20 Kostomarov N. I. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures / N. I. Kostomarov. - M., 2006. Chapter 13.

21 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. Ibid.

22 Kostomarov N. I. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures / N. I. Kostomarov. - M., 2006. S. 142.

24 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 143

27 Klyuchevsky V. O. Course of Russian history: A course of Russian history in one volume / V. O. Klyuchevsky. - M., 2005. S. 59

28 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 144.

29 Kostomarov N. I. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures / N. I. Kostomarov. - M., 2006.

31 Kostomarov N. I. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures / N. I. Kostomarov. - M., 2006.

32 Platonov S.F. Full course of lectures on Russian history. / Essay on Russian historiography Review of the sources of Russian history. - Petrograd, 1917.

34 Skrynnikov R. G. History of Russia in the 9th-17th centuries. / R. G. Skrynnikov. - M., 1997. Chapter 5. Part 1.

35 Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian state. Volume VI. - M., 2006. Part 3.

36 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 145.

38 Tatishchev V.N. Russian History. Part 4. Chapter 57.

39 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 147.

40 Solovyov S.M. Educational book on Russian history. Chapter 25

41 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 148.

42 Skrynnikov R. G. History of Russia in the 9th-17th centuries. / R. G. Skrynnikov. - M., 1997. Chapter 5. Part 2.

43 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004. S. 149.

44 Solovyov S.M. Educational book on Russian history. Chapter 25

45 Pavlenko N. I., Fedorov V. A., Andreev I. L. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. - M., 2004.

46 Klyuchevsky V. O. Course of Russian history: A course of Russian history in one volume / V. O. Klyuchevsky. - M., 2005. S. 59.

Federal Agency for Education

Belgorod State University

Department of National History and Political Science

WORKSHOP ONDISCIPLINE "NATIVE HISTORY"

Belgorod 2011

Topic 1. Old Russian state inIX – XIIIcenturies

1. The problem of the ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs.

2. Formation and evolution of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus.

3. The adoption of Christianity in Russia and its influence on ancient Russian culture.

4. Feudal fragmentation of Russia.

First question. This issue should be considered in the context of the Great Migration of Nations. Students must understand the origin of the term "Slavs", to which group of peoples they belonged, and also to name the Slavic peoples. Regarding the origin and settlement of the Eastern Slavs, there are two main points of view: migratory and autochthonous. In the migration theory, three variants can be distinguished: Danubian, Baltic and Scythian-Sarmatian. Considering the migration theory, it is necessary to answer the question: what peoples did the Eastern Slavs have to face during their settlement. It is also necessary to name the East Slavic tribes, from which the Old Russian nationality was formed.

Second question. In studying this issue, it is necessary to understand why the state came into being and how this process took place.

The formation of the state was preceded by certain background . Name them. The desire of the Slavic tribes to unite was intensified under the influence of constant raids by nomadic tribes, as well as the desire to establish control over the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

Formation of the Old Russian state is the subject of intense scientific debate. In a simplified form, they boil down to two theories − « Norman» and " anti-Norman." Expand their content. Modern historians inclined, abandoning extremes, to combine the arguments of the opposing sides, believing that the state was formed as a result of the formation domestic preconditions, and role Varangians in this process was expressed in the fact that the state developed faster and over a larger territory.

Considering political system, understand the functions of Kyiv prince, squads, the role of city assemblies ( veche). Consider why Kievan Rus was early feudal monarchy .

The history of Ancient Russia can be conditionally divided into three periods . Name them. Give them a description of the first Kyiv princes. At the same time, note that until the end of the X century. former tribal centers were ruled by former tribal princes, who retained autonomy and paid tribute to the Kievan prince. Prince Vladimir (980-1015) changed this system, he planted his sons in large cities, who became his vassals. What is characteristic of vassal relations? Builds up "staircase" form of government in which Russia becomes collective possession of the Rurik family , because only representatives of this dynasty reigned throughout the country. A feature of Ancient Russia was that there was a custom of inheriting principalities according to the principle generic seniority (from the elder brother to the younger), which, despite the large number of the Rurik family, confused inheritance and gave rise to numerous civil strife.

In the social structure ancient Russian society, there are two main groups – servants (princes who were in the service of the Grand Duke and the boyars) and unserved - Peasants and townspeople. Peasants ( people) divided into free X community members and dependent from the feudal lords purchases, smerdy, ryadovichi). It should be emphasized that the bulk of the peasants were personally free. Living on the land of the prince, they paid tribute for this, and carried various duties.

It is also necessary to consider the question of the meta of Kievan Rus in world civilization. Consider the relationship of Ancient Russia with Byzantium and nomadic peoples.

Third question. The adoption of Christianity by Russia was of great importance and influenced all aspects of the life of our state and society. What were the reasons for adopting Christianity? When considering this issue, it should be taken into account that the formation of statehood among all peoples is accompanied by the rejection of paganism, because. it does not correspond to the new level of development of society. Adoption new religion was dictated by the need to spiritually unite numerous Slavic tribes (one faith - one people), as well as to strengthen the position of the state. The choice of Christianity was not accidental, it testified to the European orientation of Russia. The adoption of Christianity in its Eastern version ( orthodoxy) was largely the result of close ties with Byzantium. Tell us how and when the baptism of Kievan Rus took place. Reveal the meaning adoption of Christianity for the development of ancient Russian culture.

Fourth question. The feudal fragmentation of Russian lands was a pan-European phenomenon and had a number of reasons. Name them. As a result of crushing, 15 independent principalities were formed. What role did the congress of princes in the city of Lyubech in 1097 play in this process? Name the largest state centers that were formed in Russia. It is necessary to find out their geographical position, as well as the most important factors that contributed to their power and influence. Vladimir-Suzdal Principality- North-Eastern Russia. Pay attention to the active colonization of lands, the growth of cities, crafts and trade in the 12th century. Give a description of the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest. Here there is a trend towards strong princely power, which caused the resistance of the boyars . Galicia-Volyn principality was the strongest in the south of Russia. The proximity of European countries contributed to the flourishing of crafts and trade, and the mild climate and fertile lands- the development of agriculture. It happened here strong boyars, which fought with the prince for power. Novgorod boyar republic- Northwestern Russia, developed in a special way. Novgorod was one of the ten largest trading cities in Europe and was a major craft center. Power in Novgorod belonged to veche who elected prince, posadnik, thousand, archbishop. Find out their functions. Please note that virtually all major issues were resolved here boyars. What is the meaning of feudal fragmentation? Find data in the educational literature that testify to the flourishing of cities, crafts and trade during this period, and the further development of culture.

Main literature:

1. Gumilyov L.N. From Russia to Russia: essays on ethnic history / L.N. Gumilev. - M.: Ekopros, 1992. - S. 20-86.

2. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861: Proc. allowance for universities / N.I. Pavlenko, I.L. Andreev, V.B. Kobrin, V.A. Fedorov; Ed. N.I. Pavlenko. - M .: Higher. school, 2000. - S. 30-55.

3. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. -M.: OOO "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 14-49.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov, M.N. Zuev and others; Under. re. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. School, 2001. S. 10-46.

Additional literature:

1. Anisimov E.V. History of Russia from Rurik to Putin. People. Developments. Dates / E.V. Anisimov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - S. 17-35, 37-39, 43-44, 48-52, 55-58, 60-64.

2. Gorsky A.A. Old Russian squad / A.A. Gorsky. - M., 1989.

3. How Russia was baptized. – M.: Politizdat, 1989.

4. Klyuchevsky V.O. Works: In 9 vols. T. I. The course of Russian history. / V.O. Klyuchevsky. – M.: Thought, 1987.

5. Lukyanov L.P. Eastern Slavs: is it really us? Evolution of the VI-X centuries / L.P. Lukyanov. – M.: Kraft+, 2004.

6. Lyubavsky M.K. Review of the history of Russian colonization from ancient times to the 20th century. / M.K. Lyubavsky. - M .: Publishing House of Moscow. Univ., 1996. S. 88-128.

7. Pereverzentsev S.V. Russia. Great destiny / S.V. Pereverzentsev. – M.: White City, 2005. P.13-170.

8. Rybakov B.A. Kievan Rus and Russian principalities in the XII-XIII centuries. / B.A. Rybakov. - M., 1993.

9. Soloviev S.M. Works. In 18 books. Book. 1. T. 1-2. History of Russia since ancient times. T. 1-2. / CM. Solovyov. - M .: Voice, 1993.

Topic 2. Unification of Russia. The beginning of the formation of a centralized Russian state

1. The establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia and its consequences.

2. Alexander Nevsky: the fight against the Swedish feudal lords and German knights.

3. Rise of Moscow.

4. The specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state in the XIV - early XVI centuries.

5. Ivan IV. Search for alternative ways of socio-political development of Russia: reforms and oprichnina.

Question one. In the XIII century. Russian lands experienced the blows of the conquerors from the northwest - Swedish feudal lords and German knights, and from the east Mongol-Tatars.

The student needs to find out where they settled Mongolian tribes at the end of the XII-beginning of the XIII century, their social system, the main occupation, to characterize the Mongol-Tatar army. Tell about invasion Mongols on Northeast Russia in 1237-1238 and South Russia in 1239-1241. What are the reasons for the military successes of the conquerors? Where and when did the state of the Golden Horde arise?

Question about consequences Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russian lands is debatable. The recommended study literature will help you to find out the existing points of view. It is necessary to separate concepts "invasion" and "domination". In the first case, we are talking about the ruin of Russian lands, the death of people, material and spiritual values. In the second - about the system of relations between Russia and the Horde. Russia became part of the Golden Horde on the rights vassal. Political dependency Russian lands consisted in the issuance by the Horde of labels (letters) to the princes for the right to reign. Economic dependency consisted in the payment of tribute (horde output). What was the attitude of the Mongol-Tatars towards the Russian Church?

It should be noted that in western and southwestern Russia the Mongol-Tatar yoke lasted for about a century. They were replaced by the Lithuanians, who included the lands of the future Belarus and Lithuania into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Initially, the situation of the former Old Russian lands was prosperous. The princes and boyars, having retained their possessions, even took an active part in the political life of the principality. But with the establishment of the union of Lithuania and Poland in 1385 and the spread of Catholicism among the Lithuanians, the position of Orthodox people began to be gradually infringed upon.

Question two. When considering this issue, it is advisable to point out that the attack of the Swedish feudal lords and German knights should be considered not as local phenomena, but as an attack by Catholicism on Orthodoxy. It is also necessary to show here the strategic position of Veliky Novgorod, which at that time was an outpost of Orthodoxy in the north-west of Russia. It should also be noted that Alexander's relationship with the Novgorod ruling elite was not easy. Students should also discover Alexander's talent as both a military leader and a politician who prioritized national interests over regional ones. It is necessary to describe the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice. Show their historical significance for all of Russia.

Question three. In the XIV - XV centuries. the formation of a unified Russian state. Should find out background this process. Unlike Western Europe, where socio-economic factors in state formation , prevailed in Russian lands political factor - the need to unite the Russian principalities to overthrow the Mongol-Tatar domination. However, there were also economic conditions for the unification. Read what changes are taking place in agriculture, in engineering and technology, pay attention to the growth of cities. The possibility of unification is also common: faith, language, the foundations of culture.

Further, it must be taken into account that the role center associations of Russian lands could claim Tver, Novgorod, Moscow. Moreover, Moscow, as the youngest principality, had the least chance of success. Consider causes of elevation Moscow. The most important among them is politics Moscow princes. Being flexible, she allowed them to get ahead of their less fortunate rivals.

Tell me about the board Ivan Kalita. Why did he manage to get a label for a great reign from the Horde? What gave it to the Russian lands? Dmitry Donskoy the first of the Moscow princes began open struggle with the Mongol-Tatars. What is the meaning Battle of Kulikovo?

The fourth question. The formation of a centralized Russian state began with the reign of Ivan III. Using various methods, he annexed Russian lands to the Moscow principality.

Ivan III was already called the "sovereign of all Russia", and not the Moscow prince. Find facts in the literature confirming the formation of a single state.

The state cannot exist without governing bodies. Tell us about their formation. What role did they play under the Grand Duke Boyar Duma. What is the purpose of Ivan III country on counties and volosts? What feeding? In 1497, the first set of all-Russian laws was adopted - Sudebnik. What was its content? What is the specificity of the formation of a unified Russian state? What is autocracy, and what points of view are there in Russian historical science on the issue of its genesis? How did Ivan III manage to free himself from the rule of the Mongol-Tatars?

Question five. By the 16th century the centralization of the state was not completed; large-scale transformations were needed to solve this problem. Their conduct is associated with the name IvanaIV, describe his personality, note that he is the first of the rulers of Russia married to the kingdom. In the reign of Ivan IV, two periods are clearly traced - reforms late 40s - 50s. and about cause 60s - early 80s In carrying out reforms, the king relied on the support Zemsky Cathedral. What strata of society were included in it? What questions did he solve? What is an estate-representative monarchy? The unofficial government under Ivan IV was Elected Rada(please - take care). Who was part of it? In 1550, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Sudebnik. Tell us about its content. Created system of specialized orders. Name the most important of them. There are changes in local government system. The governorship proved to be ineffective. In those areas of the country where the nobles lived, the population chose labial warden. Where there were no nobles, the peasants chose zemstvo headman. What duties did they perform? To conduct an active foreign policy, the state needed the armed forces. Military reform approved the service "in the fatherland" and "by recruitment". What estate? To whom and under what conditions was it provided? Who served in recruitment? In 1551, at the church council, it was adopted Stoglav. What are the changes in religious sphere did he record? It was localism is limited. Give it a definition. What was the significance of the reforms of Ivan IV?

Oprichnina(1564 - 1572). Tell us about the circumstances of its introduction. What lands were included in the oprichnina? How were the oprichny lands governed? What policy was pursued in relation to those regions of the country that were not included in the oprichnina lands? The reasons the transition to the oprichnina is a complex issue on which there are lively discussions in historical science. Find different points of view on this problem in the educational literature. In general, one can distinguish objective contradictions(political and social) the internal structure of the state and personal motives Ivan IV. What were the consequences of the oprichnina policy? Give a general assessment of the reign of Ivan IV.

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia / A.P. Derevianko. - M.: TK VELBY, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 65-97.

2. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861: Proc. allowance for universities / N.I. Pavlenko, I.L. Andreev, V.B. Kobrin, V.A. Fedorov; Ed. N.I. Pavlenko. - M .: Higher. school, 2000. - S. 93-136.

3. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. -M .: OOO "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 50-84.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov, M.N. Zuev and others; Under. re. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001, pp. 47-87.

Additional literature:

1. Anisimov E.V. History of Russia from Rurik to Putin. People. Developments. Dates / E.V. Anisimov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - S. 71-108, 11-114, 116-155,158-159.

2. Vernadsky G.V. Russia in the Middle Ages / G.V. Vernadsky. - Tver: LEAN, Moscow: AGRAF, 2000, - S. 21-179.

3. Gumelev L.N. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe / L.N. Gumilev. - M.: Thought, 1992. - S. 378-560, 569-577, 586-588.

4. Klyuchevsky V.O. Works. In 9 tons. T. ". Russian history course. Part 2. / V.O. Klyuchevsky. – M.: Thought, 1987.

5. Kobrin V.B. Ivan the Terrible / V.B. Kobrin. - M., 1989.

6. Skrynnikov R.G. Ivan the Terrible. Boris Godunov. Vasily Shuisky / R.G. Skrynnikov.- M.: AST: Transitbook, 2005. - S. 7-419.

7. Solovyov S.M. Works. In 18 books. Book. III. T. 5-6. History of Russia since ancient times / S.M. Solovyov. - M .: Voice, 1993.

Topic 3. Time of Troubles. Restoration and development of Russian statehood in the 17th century

1. Time of Troubles, its causes, main stages and results.

2. The coming to power and the reign of the first Romanovs (1613 - 1676).

Question one . The Time of Troubles in historical literature is usually called the events of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. This was structural crisis which covered all spheres of life. Without going into the details of scientific discussions about reasons Troubles, it should be said that the devastating consequences of the oprichnina increased tension in a society that was already great. The formation of the state required huge material costs, which were a heavy burden on all segments of the population. The situation is further complicated by the dynastic crisis. What are its reasons?

Time of Troubles starts accession to the throne of Boris Godunov in 1598 and ends election to the throne of Mikhail Romanov in 1613. Next, you need to consider the main events of the Time of Troubles. Why was he chosen to reign Boris Godunov? Describe his reign. Pay attention to his policy on the peasant question. What "lesson summer"? The fragility of Godunov's position on the throne can be explained by the fact that in the perception of the people of that time, he was not a real, "unnatural", but an elected king. Hence the phenomenon of imposture, the search for a real king. Tell about False DmitryI. On what conditions did he receive the support of Poland? Why was he able to take the Russian throne? What caused the overthrow of False Dmitry? Next to the throne was elected Vasily Shuisky(1606 - 1610). During this period, the Troubles reached its apogee. Tell me about the uprising I. Bolotnikova. The defeat of this uprising did not lead to the strengthening of Shuisky's power, because. a new False Dmitry appeared near Moscow. Why was he called the "Tush thief"? Influence False DmitryII spread over a large part of the country. In fact, there was a dual power - two sovereigns, two capitals, two patriarchs. Vasily Shuisky concludes an agreement with Sweden for help to fight the impostor. How did this agreement turn out for Russia? These events led to open intervention of the Commonwealth. What were Poland's plans for the Russian throne? When did the Poles take Moscow? From the autumn of 1610, the Time of Troubles took on the character of a nationwide struggle against the Polish interventionists. October 26 (old style) 1612 d. second militia liberated Moscow from foreigners. Who led them? In February 1613, at the Zemsky Sobor, he was elected tsar. Michael Romanov. The troubled times are over. What were the consequences of the Troubles? It should be noted that statehood was restored only thanks to the selfless struggle of the people of Russia.

Question two. After being elected tsar, life would have set three tasks for Mikhail Romanov: it was necessary to calm the country, drive out the interventionists and restore Russian statehood. Show how Michael solved these problems.

The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty was the time the rise of an estate-representative monarchy. Its main elements were Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobor. Who was a member of the Boyar Duma? What role did she play in the government of the country? After the end of the Time of Troubles, it was necessary to restore the state, therefore, in the person of the Zemsky Sobor, the authorities received the support of the whole society. From 1613 to 1619 he sat almost continuously. From the middle of the XVII century. starts in Russia the formation of absolutism. Define absolutism. Firstly, is changingshape and meaning Boyar Duma. Its number is growing due to the nobles appointed by the king. Why does the government seek to rely not on the boyars, but on the nobles? Later, the Near or Room Duma is separated from the Duma. Secondly, by the middle of the century the activities of Zemsky Sobors are terminated. To resolve what issue did he meet in full force for the last time? Thirdly, it starts heyday of the clerk systems. At this time, the formation of the bureaucracy. Its characteristic feature was numerous abuses. Why? AT local government changes are also taking place, indicating an increase in centralization. Elected elders are being replaced governors, appointed by the government.

In 1649 the Zemsky Sobor adopted Cathedral Code. Tell us about its content. Pay attention to the fact that its provisions, in particular, contributed to the strengthening of autocracy.

The split of the Russian Orthodox Church. Started in the 17th century the formation of absolutism changed the relationship between the authorities and the church and, inevitably, should have led to the deprivation of its feudal privileges and subordination to the state. Tell us about the conflict between Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon. What caused this conflict? Why was there a need church reforms. What role did Patriarch Nikon play in its implementation? Tell us about the most significant changes adopted in 1654 by the church council, which became the reason for the split of the church. Who became known as the Old Believers?

The first Romanovs fulfilled their tasks. But they did not manage to avoid social upheavals. Tell us about the "salt" and "copper" riots, the uprising led by Stepan Razin? How did Alexei Romanov manage to liquidate them?

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 98-105, 473-478.

2. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861: Proc. allowance for universities / N.I. Pavlenko, I.L. Andreev, V.B. Kobrin, V.A. Fedorov; Ed. N.I. Pavlenko. - M .: Higher. school, 2000. - S. 157-190, 211-217, 219-228.

3. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. / A.P. Novoseltsev, A.N. Sakharov, V.I. Buganov, V.D. Nazarov; resp. ed. A.N. Sakharov, A.P. Novoseltsev - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996. - S. 457-512, 533-540, 546-550.

4. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. -M.: OOO "TK Velbi", 2002. - S. 85-96, 105-126.

5. Platonov S.F. Lectures on Russian history / S.F. Platonov. - M .: Higher. school, 1993. - S. 248-334, 344-405.

Additional literature:

1. Anisimov E.V. History of Russia from Rurik to Putin. People. Developments. Dates / E.V. Anisimov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - S. 160-211.

2. Valishevsky K. The First Romanovs / K. Valishevsky. - M .: TERRA - Book Club, 2003.

3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Works. In 9 volumes. T. 3. The course of Russian history. Part 3. / V.O. Klyuchevsky. – M.: Thought, 1988.

4. Skrynnikov R.G. Boris Godunov / R.G. Skrynnikov. - M .: LLC "Publishing House AST", 2002.

5. Skrynnikov R.G. Vasily Shuisky / R.G. Skrynnikov. - M .: LLC "Publishing House AST", 2002.

6. Skrynnikov R.G. Three False Dmitrys / R.G. Skrynnikov. - M .: LLC "Publishing House AST", 2003.

7. Soloviev S.M. Works. In 18 books. Book. IV. T. 7-8. History of Russia since ancient times. / CM. Solovyov. - M .: Voice, 1994.

Topic 4. Formation and strengthening of the Russian Empire in the XVIII century.

1. Reforms of Peter I.

2. "Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II.

Question one. During the reign of Peter I (1682-1725), Russia carried out major reforms. What are their preconditions? What is the meaning? By the end of the XVII century. the country lagged significantly behind the Western European countries: there was no science and education, industry and navy, the organization of the troops and the state apparatus were hopelessly outdated. The transformations of Peter I covered the most diverse spheres of public life (what?), their essence was "Europeanization" Russia.

The reforms were associated with northern war. Who was Russia at war with? What were her goals in doing so? The setbacks at the start of the war necessitated military reform. Tell us about its content. Why regular army more combat-ready? Peter I attached great importance construction navy. What are the results of the military reform? undergone a radical restructuring bodies central and local government. In 1711 was created ruling Senate, which replaced the Boyar Duma. What is the difference between them? What were the functions of the Senate? The obsolete order system has been replaced colleges. Name the most important of them. Was created Chief Magistrate, to which all city magistrates were subject. Regional reform changed the territorial division of the country. Provinces were formed. What powers did the governor have? Peter I completed the process of subordinating the church to the state, transferring control of it Synod. AT social sphere important was the introduction Table of ranks, because he gave the opportunity for career growth due to personal qualities, and not origin. Decree on unanimity Peter I equated estates with estates, thereby, the line between boyars and nobles ceased to exist. Summing up the results of Peter's reforms, it should be emphasized that there are positive and negative points of view in assessing their significance. Consider the arguments of the opposite sides, whose assessment seems to you the most reasonable.

Question two . When studying the domestic policy of Catherine II (1762–1796), a number of circumstances should be taken into account. First, being an ardent admirer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, the Empress sought to rule in the spirit of " enlightened absolutism. Secondly, the peasant war of E. Pugachev, the bourgeois revolution in France, "a rebel worse than Pugachev" A. Radishchev forced her to be careful in carrying out reforms. Thirdly, caution was also required because Catherine illegally took the throne and had to reckon with the moods of the nobility. Therefore, the policy of the Empress was distinguished by inconsistency. You need to be familiar with the basic the ideas of the Enlightenment and "enlightened absolutism". In accordance with them, Catherine sought to transform Russia on the basis of the principles of freedom and legality, but not to allow the weakening of the autocratic foundations of her power. Tell me why Catherine called Statutory commission. What ideas did she put forward? "Nakase"? Why did she have to dissolve the commission? In accordance with the theory of separation of powers, Catherine made attempt to create an independent judiciary, transferring judicial powers Senate. A system of class courts was created. E. Pugachev's peasant war showed the need to shift the center of gravity in public administration from the center to the localities. In 1775, a provincial reform. What changes have taken place in local government? One of the biggest transformations in the spirit of "enlightened absolutism" was "Charter to the nobility" 1785 Familiarize yourself with its contents. In accordance with the theory of the "regular state", Peter I obliged the nobles be in public service for life. By decree of Catherine, the first free estate. At the same time, the empress tried to create another free estate - the city. "Charter to the cities" elected bodies of government were introduced, but they were under the strict control of the central authorities. At the same time, Catherine's reign marked tightening serfdom, the nobles received, in fact, an unlimited right to dispose of serfs. Support this statement with examples. Enlightenment undertakings of the empress had a significant impact on the spiritual development of Russian society. Tell about them. Under the influence of the French bourgeois revolution, Catherine persecuted A. Radishchev, N. Novikov, introduced strict censorship. Give an assessment of the transformations of Catherine II.

Question three . A feature of cultural processes in Russia in the XVIII century. was transfer from traditional, ecclesiastical and closed culture to secular and European. The country has experienced a real spiritual upheaval. Before the reforms of Peter the Great, there was no science and secular education in the country; the religious worldview dominated the spiritual life. The reforming activity of Peter affected literally all aspects of society. Tell me about the birth Russian science, appearance secular schools and special education. What do you know about the publication of the first newspaper, the founding of the Kunstkamera, changes in everyday life. These transformations of Peter led to socio-cultural split of the "bottom" and "top" of society. The bearers of traditional culture continued to be peasants and urban dwellers. It should be emphasized that the consequence of this split was the mutual alienation of the educated part of society and the people. Tell us about the opening in Russia first university a. What was the role in this M. Lomonosov? What do you know about the achievements of Russian culture in the field of science, literature, architecture, art in the 18th century. What contribution did Catherine II make to the development of national culture?

Main literature:

1. Derevyanko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M .: TK Welby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - P. 122-135, 148-164, 488-493.

2. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.g. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M.6 LLC "TK Welby", 2002. - S. 128-144, 154-188.

3. History of Russia from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century / L.V. Milov, P.N. Zyryanov, A.N. Bokhanov; resp. ed. A.N. Sakharov. - M .: Publishing house AST. 1996. - P.9-76, 80-107, 181-244, 248-256, 262-266, 270-296.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov, M.N. Zuev, and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 127-163.

5. Domestic history / I.Yu. Zaorskaya, M.V. Zotova, A.V. Demidov and others; Ed. M.V. Zotova: Tutorial for university students. - M.: Logos, 2002. - S. 125-166.

Additional literature:

1. Valishevsky K. Peter the Great / K. Valishevsky. - M .: TERRA - Book Club, 2003.

2. Knyazkov S. Essays from the history of Peter the Great and his time / S. Knyazkov. - Pushkino: Publishing Association "Culture", 1990.

3. Works of Catherine II. / Comp., intro. Art. HE. Mikhailov. – M.: Sov. Russia, 1990.

4. Stegniy P.V. Partitions of Poland and diplomacy of Catherine II. 1772. 1793. 1795. / P.V. Stegniy - M .: Intern. Relations, 2002.

5. Sukhareva O.V. Who was who in Russia from Peter I to Paul I. / O.V. Sukharev. - M .: AST Publishing House LLC: Astrel Publishing House LLC: Lux OJSC, 2005.

6. Hosking J. Russia: people and empire (1552-1917). / J. Hosking. - Smolensk: "Rusich", 2000.

Topic 5. The Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century

1. Attempts to reform the political system and liberalize society during the reign of Alexander I.

2. Domestic policy of Nicholas I.

3. Russian economy in the first half of the XIX century. The crisis of the feudal-serf system.

Question one. Alexander I ruled in 1801-1825. After taking the throne, he held a number of liberal events. In particular, he announced an amnesty for prisoners and exiles under Paul I, restored Complained letters of Catherine II, etc. This gave hope that he would rule in the traditions of Catherine's time. However, Alexander I decided to reform the state and society.

Active participation in the development of reform projects at the beginning of his reign took The secret committee. Since 1807, this work was entrusted MM. Speransky. The basis of his project for the reorganization of public administration was separation of powers. Legislative power was concentrated in the State Duma. Who received voting rights under this project? Executive power belonged to the ministries. The Senate became the highest judicial body. Under the emperor, the State Council was created. What function was he supposed to perform? Laws were to be adopted by the Duma, and presented by the emperor, the government and the State Council. The emperor himself could make laws in addition to the Duma. Could such a reform, if implemented, limit the autocracy? Why didn't the emperor sign this project? In 1810 was State Council established, which lasted until 1917. In 1802 there were ministries established. Tell us about the significance of these reforms. In 1815 Alexander signed Poland's constitution. After the Patriotic War of 1812, the tsar again instructs to develop a draft constitution for Russia N.N. Novosiltsev. Tell us about its content. Why did Alexander withdraw from state affairs in the 1920s? What role did you play during this time? A.A. Arakcheev? What military settlements? Why were the plans for reforming the political system not implemented?

Show what Alexander I did to alleviate the situation of the peasants. Why did he not go for the abolition of serfdom, although he created a committee to prepare the liberation of the peasants?

Question two. Starting with Peter Russian emperors looked to Europe as a role model. NicholasI(1825-1855) ascended the throne when bourgeois revolutions were taking place in the West, and the Decembrist nobles revolted in Russia. These circumstances have led conservative nature his reign. At the same time, the king was convinced of the need to resolve the most pressing issues. In general, his domestic policy was aimed at strengthening the power of Russia. Considering that the emperor personally should direct all state affairs, Nicholas turns own it imperial majesty office to the supreme body, which controlled all state institutions. Tell me what you did IIdepartment Offices? Tell me about your work codification of Russian laws. To whom was she assigned? What tasks were set for IIIdepartment? Emphasize that, first of all, it was to monitor the mentality of the society. Nikolay considered one of the most important domestic political tasks strengthening police bureaucracy on the principles of centralization and bureaucratization, which, in his opinion, should have made it possible to effectively deal with revolutionary sentiments in society and strengthen the autocracy. To achieve this goal, a huge army of officials was required, the main quality of which should be diligence. What is the meaning of the expression "the uniform defeated the tailcoat"? Who did Nicholas I rely on? What policy did he pursue towards the peasants? Why did he not dare to free them, although he considered serfdom to be evil?

Third question. Tell us about the economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Expand the structure of feudal landownership. Show how the manufacturing industry developed. How did the crisis of the feudal-serf system manifest itself?

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. – M.: TK Velby, Prospect Publishing House, 2006. – S. 164-191.

2. History of Russia. Textbook / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Gergieva, T.A. Sivokhina.- M.: TK Velby LLC. 2002. - S. 187-222.

3. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861: Proc. allowance for universities / N.I. Pavlenko, I.L. Andreev, V.B. Kobrin, V.A. Fedorov; Ed. N.I. Pavlenko. - M .: Higher. school, 2000. - S. 421-439, 473-484.

4. History of Russia from the beginning from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century / L.V. Milov, P.N. Zyryanov, A.N. Bokhanov; resp. ed. A.N. Sakharov. - M.: AST Publishing House, 1996. - S. 297-323, 335-345.

5. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov, M.N. Zuev and others; Under. ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 163-177, 184-189.

6. Platonov S.F. Lectures on Russian history / S.F. Platonov. - M .: Higher. school, 1993. - S. 646-684.

Additional literature:

1. Anisimov E.V. History of Russia from Rurik to Putin. People. Developments. Dates. / E.V. Anisimov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. S. 296-326.

2. De Custine A. Nikolaev Russia / A. De Custine. - M., 1990.

3. Mironenko S.V. Autocracy and reforms. Political struggle in Russia in early XIX in. / S.V. Mironenko. – M.: Nauka, 1989.

4. Tomsinov V.A. The luminary of the Russian bureaucracy: historical portrait MM. Speransky / V.A. Tomsinov. – M.: Mol. Guard, 1991.

Topic 6. Russia in the period of reforms and counter-reforms of the 19th century

1. The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861.

2. Liberal reforms of the 60s - 70s of the XIX century: judicial; zemstvo; education; military.

3. Counter-reforms of the 80s - 90s of the XIX century.

4. Economic development of Russia in the 60s - 90s of the XIX century.

Question one. Preparations for the abolition of serfdom began as early as Alexander I and Nicholas I, creating secret committees. But they never dared to go for it. Meanwhile, serfdom hindered the socio-economic development of the country. This was manifested not only in agriculture, but also in industry and trade. Explain why? Alexander II also did not immediately begin to resolve this issue. Tell us how preparations were made for the abolition of serfdom, how the project and manifesto were drawn up. Who took part in this case? Show the conditions under which the peasants were liberated and given land. Did the peasants receive land in private ownership? What is the historical significance of the abolition of serfdom?

Question two. The abolition of serfdom required changes in political and spiritual sphere. In the 60s - 70s followed series of reforms, the purpose of which was to harmonize political system and administration with the new position of the peasantry. In 1864, a zemstvo reform, a little bit later - urban. The zemstvos became bodies of local self-government. How did they form? What classes participated in the elections? What issues were under the jurisdiction of zemstvos? In the same year is held judicial reform. It was based on the following principles: lack of estates of the court; its independence from the administration; competitiveness of the judicial process; openness and publicity of the trial; creation of the institution of jurors. Please rate this reform. How was the education reform carried out? What are the main links of General education educational institutions? What has changed in higher education? Expand the main provisions "autonomy" received by the universities. In 1874, transformations were carried out into armies . Tell us about the content of the military reform. Universal conscription made it possible in peacetime to keep a relatively small army, and in time of war to increase its strength at the expense of the reserve. How has military service changed? A series of reforms was to be completed by the implementation project M.T. Loris-Melikova to involve elected representatives of local self-government bodies in solving state issues, which, in fact, would mean limitation of autocracy. The signing of this document by Alexander II was scheduled for March 1, 1881. Why was it not signed? What happened on this day? Assessing the reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century, emphasize that they marked the entry of Russia on the path bourgeois development and the beginning of the formation civil society and right states.

Question three. After the death of Alexander II, his second son (by age) Alexander III came to the throne. The implementation of counter-reforms in Russia is associated with his name. They were due to both objective and subjective reasons. After the abolition of serfdom, the process of ruining a part of the nobility, which had not adapted to market relations, began. A wave of peasant riots swept across the country. Crime has grown. The first demonstrations of the working class took place. The Narodniks carried out a number of terrorist acts. As a result of one of them, Alexander II died. Finally, K.P. had a great influence on the formation of the views of Alexander III. Pobedonostsev, who was his mentor, who believed that reforms in Russia were necessary to freeze". But the counter-reforms were not all-encompassing. Explain how they manifested themselves in legal proceedings, zemstvo and city self-government, and in the field of education. Why did the counter-reforms not prevent a social explosion in Russia? Explain also why Alexander III was nicknamed "King of peace".

Question four. The abolition of serfdom contributed to the acceleration of the economic development of the country. Show the evolution of land ownership in the post-reform period, the growth of commercial agricultural production. Give examples. Pay attention to the fact that in the post-reform period, the turnover increases, which requires the improvement of transport. Railroads are being built. This, in turn, has an impact on the development of metallurgy, machine tool building and mechanical engineering. The development railway transport ensured the intensification of trade and the completion of the formation of a single All-Russian market. All this led to the formation of an industrial society in Russia.

2. History of Russia. Textbook / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Gergieva, T.A. Sivokhina.- M.: TK Velby LLC. 2002. - S. 248-258.

3. History of Russia from the beginning from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century / L.V. Milov, P.N. Zyryanov, A.N. Bokhanov; resp. ed. A.N. Sakharov. - M.: AST Publishing House, 1996. - 381-407, 437-440.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov, M.N. Zuev and others; Under. ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 200-212, 223-233.

5. Domestic history: textbook. allowance / under. ed R.V. Degtyareva, S.N. Poltorak - M .: Gardariki, 2007. - S. 166-172.

Additional literature:

1. Zayonchkovsky P.A. Russian autocracy at the end of the 19th century (political reaction of the 80s - early 90s) / P.A. Zaionchkovsky. - M .: "Thought", 1970.

2. History of Russia in the XIX century. The era of reforms. - M .: CJSC Publishing House Tsentrpoligraf, 2001.

3. Litvak B.G. The coup of 1861 in Russia: why the reformist alternative was not realized / B.G. Litvak. – M.: Politizdat, 1991.

4. Mironov B.N. Social history of Russia in the period of the empire (XVIII - early XX century): In 2 vols. T. 1 / B.N. Mironov. - St. Petersburg: "Dmitry Bulanin", 2003. - S. 360-415.

5. Nolde B.E. Yuri Samarin and his time / B.E. Nolde. - M .: Eksmo Publishing House, 2003.

6. Reforms of Alexander II. – M.: Yurid. lit., 1998.

7. Tatishchev S.S. Emperor Alexander II, his life and reign. Book. 1-2 / S.S. Tatishchev. - M .: "Charlie", 1996.

Topic 7. Russia in 1894 - 1914

1. Political crisis at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Revolution of 1905 - 1907: background, causes, driving forces, consequences.

2. Political parties in Russia: genesis, classification, programs, tactics.

3. Problems of economic growth and modernization. Reforms S.Yu. Witte and P.A. Stolypin.

Question one. In 1894 Nicholas II took the tsar's throne. give him general characteristics. His reign began during a period of exacerbation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The foreign policy situation is unfavorable for Russia as well. The Russo-Japanese War begins, which ends with the defeat of the Russian Empire. Tell us about its progress. The economic situation in the country is also deteriorating. All this leads to the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907. It began with the execution of a peaceful procession of workers to the tsar in order to submit a petition. What do you know about it? Uncover the driving forces of the revolution and the forms of struggle. In October-December 1905 the revolution reached its climax. What methods did the tsarist government use to suppress the revolution? Why did the revolution decline after the defeat of the December uprising in Moscow in 1905? Summing up the results of the revolution, it should be noted that, despite the defeat, it forced the tsarist government to modernize the state and social structure of Russia. The achievement of the revolution was the creation of the State Duma. The activities of political parties, trade unions and other public organizations were allowed, with the exception of the councils of workers' deputies, which appeared during the revolution. Redemption payments by peasants for land were stopped. Removed restrictions on the use of some national languages in the field of education. But at the same time, the main tasks of the revolution were not solved, it turned out to be incomplete, which led to a new revolution in February 1917.

Question two. At the beginning of the century, oppositional moods in society intensified. What caused it? This wave begins the process formation of political parties. First organized socialist parties. In 1902, education was proclaimed Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), which inherited the traditions of the populists. In her program also contained some elements of Marxism. Tell us about its content, pay attention to the fact that the Social Revolutionaries expressed, first of all, the interests of the peasantry. What "socialization of the land"? How did they imagine the future of Russia? What was the social composition of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party? Name the leaders of this party. In 1903, education was completed social democratic parties. The Program was adopted at the II Congress of the RSDLP. What provisions did minimum program and maximum program? The reason for the split of the party into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was the disagreement on the issue about liberals and party membership. What were they? What was the social composition of the RSDLP? Name the leaders of the party. It should be emphasized that both parties recognized only the revolutionary nature of the actions. What were the scattered organizations of anarchists? What goals did they set for themselves? The growing opposition to power among liberals contributed to the emergence liberal organizations. In 1903 the Union was formed Liberation and the Union of Zemstvo-constitutionalists. Liberal Education political parties takes place in October-November 1905 after the publication Manifesta October 17"On the improvement of the state order" Nicholas II. Tell us about the program requirements of the party cadets(constitutional democrats) in relation to the state system, political rights and freedoms, in labor, peasant and national issues What do you know about the content of the party program Octobrists(“Union of October 17”). Liberal parties recognized only reforms as a way to reshape society. What was the social composition of the parties? Name the leaders of these parties. During the revolution, the right was created monarchist organizations. The largest among them was the Union of the Russian People party. What goals did she proclaim? Whose interests did you defend?

Question three. At the end of the XIX century. Russia, despite economic growth, remained an agrarian country. The government was aware of the need for further changes. Therefore, it is accepted economic modernization or industrialization program. Its developer was S.Yu. Witte. What do you know about him? The main goal of the program was to create a modern industry in the country. This task was supposed to be solved within 10 years. To do this, it was planned to create a developed transport system in the country, form new centers of industrial production and develop new industries. It is worth noting that the program of S.Yu. Witte differed from the previous economic policy pursued in the country. If earlier the government focused on removing obstacles to the development of industry, now it was moving towards its direct support. What was it specifically expressed in? It should be noted that in the Ministry of Finance, which was headed by S.Yu. Witte, while being prime minister, began the preparation of the project agrarian reform. At the same time, it was carried out by the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

In 1906, P.A. was appointed to the post of Minister of the Interior, and then Chairman of the Council of Ministers. Stolypin, a famous statesman of the beginning of the century. What measures were taken by Stolypin to combat revolutionary uprisings? Meanwhile, P.A. Stolypin was well aware that the situation could not be resolved by repressive measures alone, hence his formula "pacification and reform". Decree of November 9, 1906 peasants were allowed to leave the community and secure a plot of land in private own. Why do you think this measure, according to Stolypin, should have contributed to the resolution of the agrarian question? Second component peasant reform became politics encouraging the resettlement of smallholders for the Urals. What was the purpose of this measure? What is the point peasant reform? How was its implementation? Talk about its positive effects. What were the disadvantages of the reform? Being a conservative, P.A. Stolypin, however, understood that in order to achieve political stability, Russia needed a whole range of reforms. What were his plans in the field of local government, administration and court? How was the issue to be resolved? What changes were planned in the field of education? It should be emphasized that the implementation of these transformations was supposed to bring Russia closer to the ideal rule of law. Why do most P.A. plans Stolypin were not implemented?

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevyanko. - M .: TK Welby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 210-247.

2. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M .: OOO "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 284-313.

3. History of Russia. XX century / A.N. Bokhanov, M.M. Gorinov, V.P. Dmitrenko and others - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996. - S. 17-50, 61-113.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 244-275.

5. Domestic history: study guide / ed. R.V. Degtereva, S.N. Poltorak. – M.: Gardariki, 2007. – S. 200-215.

Additional literature:

1. Avrekh A.Ya. Stolypin and the fate of reforms in Russia / A.Ya. Avrekh. - M., 1991.

2. Witte S.Yu. Selected works / S.Yu. Witte. - M., 1991.

3. Ganelin R.Sh. Russian autocracy in 1905: reform and revolution / R.Sh. Ganelin. - St. Petersburg, 1991.

4. Milyukov P.N. Memoirs / P.N. Milyukov. – M.: Politizdat, 1991.

5. Mironov B.N. Social history of Russia in the period of the empire (XVIII - early XX century): In 2 vols. T. 2 / B.N. Mironov. - St. Petersburg: "Dmitry Bulanin", 2003. - S. 150-162.

6. Nikolaevsky B.I. The story of a traitor. Terrorists and watered, police / B.I. Nikolaevsky. – M.: Politizdat, 1991.

7. Oldenburg S.S. The reign of Emperor Nicholas II S.S. Oldenburg. - M., 1992.

8. Political history of Russia in parties and individuals / Comp.: V.V. Shelokhaev (head), A.N. Bokhanov, N.G. Dumova, N.D. Erofeev and others - M .: TERRA, 1993.

9. Rybas S.Yu., Tarakanova L.V. Reformer: The Life and Death of Pyotr Stolypin / S.Yu. Rybas. – M.: Nedra, 1991.

Topic 9. Russia during the First World War and the national crisis. 1914 - October 1917.

1. Russia during the war.

3. Russia from February to October 1917.

Question one. Explain the causes of the First World War and Russia's participation in it. What military-political blocs opposed each other during the war? How did the Russian public react to the war? Expand the positions on this issue of political parties in Russia. Tell us about the main military operations of the Russian army and their results. Russia's defeats on the fronts of the First World War increased the acuteness of social contradictions. The war led to the disorganization of the economy, contributed to the paralysis of power. The disruption of the economic life of the country began from the railroad crisis, who could not simultaneously supply the front and rear in full. The result was interruptions in supplying cities with food and raw materials for enterprises. Low purchase prices for bread caused the peasants to hide it and worsened the situation even more. What were the consequences? Power turned out to be incapable cope with economic difficulties. The inefficiency of the state apparatus caused criticism in society. Tell me about your attempts liberal bourgeoisie rectify the situation. Which parties are included "Progressive Bloc"? What did his demand for a "responsible ministry" mean? What role did the personality play in discrediting Emperor Nicholas II? Rasputin? What were the moods in armies? In conclusion, it should be emphasized that in the context of the incompleteness of socio-economic and political reforms, the war aggravated the situation in the country to the limit. By the beginning of 1917, the crisis had acquired a systemic character.

Question two. Unlike the revolution of 1905-1907, the February revolution lasted just over a week and developed spontaneously. name driving forces revolution? What kind tasks did she have to decide? Tell us about the main events. Rate the value February Revolution. A characteristic feature of the subsequent development of the country was the emergence dual power. Tell us about the composition Provisional Government, which, until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, was to exercise executive and administrative functions. Note that, in fact, it has also become a legislative body. The second authority was Petrograd Soviet workers' and soldiers' deputies, which consisted of representatives of the socialist parties. What? What program of action did the Provisional Government propose? It should be emphasized that the SR-Menshevik Petrograd Soviet believed that, due to the prematureness of the socialist revolution, they needed the support of the bourgeois Provisional Government.

Question three. After the February events, the country was faced with the prospect of developments in two ways. In the first case, it could follow the democratic path of reforms initiated by the liberal parties. The second way is the establishment of either a military or a socialist dictatorship. In the period between February and October, events can be viewed within three power crises. April Crisis. In the April Theses, V.I. Lenin, called on the Bolsheviks to change tactics and take a course towards a socialist revolution in the country. What are the main provisions of the Leninist program of action. Under these conditions, the desire of the Provisional Government to continue the war provoked demonstrations in Petrograd. What were the demands of the strikers? How did the crisis end? It should be emphasized that, having entered the Provisional Government, the left parties (Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks) shared responsibility for what was happening in the country with the liberals. Describe the events that caused June crisis? Main Outcome July crisis has become liquidation of dual power. The peaceful period of the development of the revolution was over, the Bolsheviks began preparations for armed uprising, and the right-wing bourgeois parties - to the establishment military dictatorship. Tell about Kornilov speech. What were the plans of L.G. Kornilov? What role did the Bolsheviks play in putting down the rebellion? These events caused a huge increase in sympathy for the Bolsheviks in society. In September 1917 they received a majority in the Soviets. Russia faced an alternative: either the Provisional Government, or dictatorship of the proletariat.

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevyanko. - M .: TK Welby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 247-253.

2. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M .: LLC "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 313-317, 327-335.

3. History of Russia. XX century / A.N. Bokhanov, M.M. Gorinov, V.P. Dmitrenko and others - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996. - S. 124-168.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 279-294.

5. Domestic history: study guide / ed. R.V. Degtereva, S.N. Poltorak. - M.: Gardariki, 2007. - S. 221-226.

Additional literature:

1. Galili Z. Leaders of the Mensheviks in the Russian Revolution / Z. Galili. - M., 1993.

2. Milyukov P.N. Memoirs / P.N. Milyukov. – M.: Politizdat, 1991.

3. Paleolog M. Tsarist Russia on the eve of the revolution / M. Paleolog. – M.: Politizdat, 1991.

4. Radzinsky E. "Lord ... save and pacify Russia." Nicholas II: life and death / E. Radzinsky. - M .: Publishing house "VAGRIUS", 1993.

5. Rodzianko M.V. The collapse of the empire / M.V. Rodzianko. - Kharkov: Interbook, 1990.

Topic 10. The establishment of Soviet power. Civil war, its results and consequences

2. The beginning of the formation of the structure of Soviet power and a one-party political regime.

3. The economic policy of the Bolsheviks. "War Communism".

4. Civil war in Russia.

Question one. The Bolshevization of the Soviets created an opportunity for the Bolsheviks to take power into their own hands. However, the leadership of their party did not have a unanimous opinion on this matter. Lenin, whose arrest was announced by the Provisional Government, was forced to go into hiding. While outside Petrograd, he writes two letters to the Central Committee of the party: "Marxism and the uprising" and "The Bolsheviks must take power." In them, Lenin specifically suggested that the party take a course towards an armed uprising. However, the letters delivered to Petrograd were not approved by the Central Committee. Then Lenin decided to return to Petrograd. He managed to convince the majority of the Central Committee of the need for an armed uprising. But, his closest associates in emigration: Kamenev and Zinoviev opposed the armed uprising. Why? Despite this, organizational preparations for an armed uprising began. What organs were created to lead the uprising? Tell us about the course of the uprising and the capture Winter Palace. Representatives of which parties and revolutionary organizations took part in the uprising? The results of the uprising were summed up at the II Congress of Soviets. What are his decisions? Expand the content of the decrees on peace and land.

Question two. After the uprising, the formation of new authorities began. What were they called, and what functions were assigned to them? It is worth noting that at first there were representatives of the Bolsheviks and the Left SRs in the authorities. But, then the Left SRs raised a rebellion against the Bolsheviks. Why? This was the beginning of the formation of a one-party political regime, which led to the rise of party bodies above the state apparatus. Why did the Bolsheviks decide to convene and then dissolve the Constituent Assembly? What are the consequences of this act? What methods did the Bolsheviks use against the activities of other political parties? Name the punitive organs of the Soviet government and show how they acted.

Question three. Expand the content of the economic policy of the Bolsheviks in the first months of their stay in power. Who owns the land and factories? What is "war communism"? Expand its main provisions. Pay special attention to the introduction surplus appropriations, which became the main reason for the dissatisfaction of the peasants with the Bolsheviks.

Question four. In preparing this question, attention should be paid to the fact that a certain share of the blame for the outbreak of the Civil War lies with all the opposing political and social forces. But among the Bolsheviks, the Civil War was programmed as early as 1914, when Lenin put forward the slogan of turning the imperialist war into a civil war. Reveal the main causes of the civil war, the political and social composition of the hostile camps. At the same time, it should be clear that the Civil War cannot be reduced only to the struggle of the Reds and Whites, because the Greens, the National Separatists and the Socialist Revolutionary-Menshevik bloc also took part in it. In addition, interventionists intervened in the war. Which states took part in the armed invasion of the territory of Russia? What were their goals? The main political opponents in the war were the Reds and the Whites. . When studying these two political forces, the following should be taken into account. disengagement whites and red happened not only on a social basis. Important role at the same time, national, religious, regional, personal factors played. Often the choice could be random. The white movement was not homogeneous. Reveal the main stages of the struggle between whites and reds. Analyzing the reasons for the victory of the Reds and the defeat of the Whites, one should pay attention to the fact that the Bolshevik program was closer to the masses, since it put forward the slogans: "Land to the peasants" and "Factories to the workers." The White movement could not offer such a thing, its goal was revenge on the Bolsheviks for the destruction of the vast empire. In the camp of the whites, it was never achieved ideological and organizational unity. Tell us about the divisions within the white movement. The outcome of the struggle ultimately depended on who the peasantry would follow. What changes in the policy of the Bolshevik Party towards the peasantry took place during the war years? The Bolsheviks also occupied a more advantageous geopolitical space, since all railways started from Moscow. Finally, the proclamation by the Bolsheviks the right of nations to self-determination to a greater extent at that time met the interests of the national outskirts than the slogan of the whites about united and indivisible Russia. During the war years, the movement also had a massive character. "green" which was attended mainly by peasants, dissatisfied with both the Bolshevik surplus appraisal and the return of land and property to the white landlords. What do you know about the movement N. Makhno and ataman N. Grigorieva? Talking about the aftermath of the Civil War , it should be noted that in moral terms, it has for a long time established in society an atmosphere of intolerance and a desire to resolve social conflicts by violent means.

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia6 studies. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - 253-257, 261-281.

2. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M .: LLC "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 335-351.

3. History of Russia. XX century / A.N. Bokhanov, M.M. Gorinov, V.P. Dmitrenko and others - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996. - S. 168-196.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 294-321.

5. Domestic history: study guide / ed. R.V. Degtereva, S.N. Poltorak. - M.: Gardariki, 2007. - S. 226-258.

Additional literature:

1. Volkovinsky V.N. Makhno and his collapse / V.N. Volkovinsky.- M., 1991.

2. Volkogonov D.A. Lenin: a political portrait. In 2 books. Book. 2 / D.A. Volkogonov. - M., 1994.

3. Diterikhs M.K. Murder Royal Family and members of the Romanov House in the Urals / M.K. Dieterichs. – M.: Veche, 2007.

4. Kostikov V.V. Let's not curse exile ... (Ways and fates of the Russian emigration) / V.V. Kostikov. – M.: Intern. relations. 1990.

5. Melgunov S.P. Red terror in Russia. 1917 - 1924 / S.P. Melgunov. - M., 1990.

6. Shulgin V.V. Years. days. 1920 / V.V. Shulgin. - M .: Publishing house "News", 1990.

Topic 11. Transformation of power, society and culture in 1921 - 1928

1. New economic policy: background, content, results.

2. Formation of the USSR.

3. Struggle in the leadership of the RCP (b) - VKP (b) on the development of the country. The Rise of Stalin.

Question one. By the end of 1920, the country was struck by a deep economic, social and political crisis. Tell us about its manifestations. What were the reasons crisis? The speeches of the workers and peasants under the slogan "Soviets without communists" testified that dissatisfaction was caused by the policy pursued by the Bolshevik leadership. By this time, it became clear that the hopes of V.I. Lenin's support for the Russian revolution from the world revolution was not justified, and the Soviet state would have to exist in a "hostile environment". In 1921, at the X Congress of the RCP (b), decisions were made that laid the foundation for new economic policy. Among the opponents of Bolshevism, the NEP gave rise to hope for its rebirth and the return of Russia to the path of capitalism. How did the Bolsheviks themselves view the NEP?? What was it like content new economic policy? The main elements of the NEP are the food tax, freedom of trade and employment of labor, permission to lease land and small industrial enterprises . Large industry remained in the hands of the state and transferred to self-financing. Think about why these measures were chosen as an anti-crisis program? Next, stop at implementation of the NEP. Tell us about the achievements in the restoration of agriculture and industry. Why did it happen in such a short period? What was the incentive? However, the New Economic Policy failed to resolve a number of problems. Tell us about the NEP crises in 1923, 1925 and 1927. What was inconsistency NEP?

Question two. The October Revolution ended the collapse of the Russian Empire. In accordance with its program requirement " on the right of nations to self-determination" up to secession and the creation of an independent state, the Bolsheviks sanctioned the emergence of a number of independent states. What caused the desire of the peoples of the former empire to independence? At the same time, there were a number of factors that created conditions for association republics. Name them. The outbreak of the civil war led to the formation military-political union republics in which Soviet power was established. What? In the early 20s. a system bilateral treaties between individual republics. In the subsequent period, it continued to develop. Then the process of unification entered a new phase. Tell about plan for autonomy Stalin, note that it provided for the entry of the republics into the Russian Federation without the right to secede from it. What is the difference between the proposed Lenin allied form association of republics? Formally, the formation of the USSR took place according to Lenin's plan. When and by which republics was it signed alliance treaty? Tell us about the creation of the supreme authorities of the new state. What issues were within the jurisdiction of the federal and republican bodies for Constitution of 1924.? What was the significance of the formation of the USSR?

Question three. After the death of Lenin on January 21, 1924, a struggle for power unfolded in the Bolshevik leadership. Students should understand that it was not only a struggle of personalities, but also a struggle of concepts for the further development of the country. The main opponents were L.D. Trotsky and I.V. Stalin. What positions did they hold? What characterization did Lenin give them shortly before his death? Why Lenin demanded the removal of Stalin from his post Secretary General parties? At the first stage of the struggle for power, a triumvirate consisting of Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev came out against Trotsky. Why did Kamenev and Zinoviev support Stalin? Who won? In the second stage, a struggle unfolded between "new opposition" headed by Zinoviev and Kamenev and Stalin, who in 1925 was supported by the majority of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. What is the program "new opposition"? Why did she fail? Then a new bloc led by Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev came out against Stalin. What united the former opponents? What program did Trotsky present from the bloc? Why is this block named? "left bias". The majority of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) supported Stalin. What penalties were applied to the Trotskyists? After that, Stalin and his supporters began to fight against "right bias" headed by N.I. Bukharin. What is its program? Why did Stalin defeat all possible opponents?

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia6 studies. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M.: TK Welby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - 283-294, 296-305, 513-519.

2. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M .: LLC "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 352-362, 389-394.

3. History of Russia. XX century / A.N. Bokhanov, M.M. Gorinov, V.P. Dmitrenko and others - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996. - S. 211-279.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 322-336.

5. Domestic history: study guide / ed. R.V. Degtereva, S.N. Poltorak. - M.: Gardariki, 2007. - S. 259-273.

Additional literature:

1. Beladi L., Kraus T. Stalin: Per. from the Hungarian / L. Beladi. – M.: Politizdat, 1990.

2. Boffa J. History of the Soviet Union. T. 1. From revolution to the second world war. Lenin and Stalin. 1917-1941 / J. Boff. – M.: Intern. relations, 1990. S. 153-311.

3. Bushkov A. Red Monarch. Chronicles of a great and terrible time / A. Bushkov. - St. Petersburg: Neva Publishing House, 2004.

4. Volkogonov V.A. Triumph and tragedy: a political portrait of I.V. Stalin. In 2 books. / V.A. Volkogonov. - M., 1989.

5. Shubin A.V. Leaders and conspirators: political struggle in the USSR in the 1920s - 1930s / M .: Veche, 2004.

Topic 12. Formation totalitarian regime in the USSR in the 30s: politics, economics, culture

1. Strengthening the regime of Stalin's personal power. The establishment of totalitarianism in the USSR in the 30s.

2. Forced industrialization in the USSR

3. The policy of total collectivization of agriculture and its consequences.

4. "Cultural Revolution" and the totalitarian type of Soviet culture in the 30s.

Question one. In the 30s. formed in the USSR totalitarian regime. What is totalitarianism? What are its signs? Considering origins totalitarianism, attention should be paid to the historical traditions of autocratic power in our country and the low level of democratic, and indeed the general culture of various sectors of society. An important role in the formation of totalitarianism (a synonym was played by the ideological attitudes of the Bolsheviks to their exclusive role in protecting the interests of workers and hostility to the people of all other parties. In the 20s, the Bolshevik party eliminated its political opponents from the political arena, formed one-party politic system. Tell me how it happened. What decision did XCongress of the RCP(b) in relation to the opposition in their own ranks? Already in the 20s. the dictatorship of the proletariat has become party dictatorship in the face of its Central Committee. There was a merging of the party and state apparatus. In what way did this manifest itself? Formally, the power belonged to the workers, in fact, they were deprived of it. The tool for maintaining the power of the party was the creation of a powerful repressive apparatus and carrying out mass repressions. Tell about them. Who were they directed against? What were their scales? Economic basis totalitarian regime became state ownership of the means of production. What did it mean? AT spiritual life full control over the activities of public organizations was established, the transformation of party ideology into a state one.

Question two. Despite the fact that by the mid-20s. the country's economy was restored, on the whole, in the pre-war volume, the absolute backlog from the developed capitalist states increased. It was necessary to continue the industrialization begun at the beginning of the century. Considering the international isolation of the USSR and the growing threat of a new international conflict, this task had to be solved in as soon as possible. When the leadership of the country was proclaimed industrialization course? What economic development strategy was proposed N.I. Bukharin? What was the main difference Stalinist model industrialization? In essence, the disagreements concerned relations with the peasantry, because . main source the creation of a large-scale industry was to be income from the sale of grain abroad. Why did the country's leadership abandon the NEP at the end of the 1920s? Tell about first five-year plans? What were their results in the field of industrial production?

Question three. Rejection market model relations between the state and the peasantry took place towards the end of 1929 and a different mechanism was created for transferring funds from the countryside for the needs of industrialization. To this end, a course was proclaimed for collectivization of agriculture. It should be emphasized that collectivization made it possible to solve several more problems. What? Tell us about the methods of implementation of collectivization. A direct consequence of its implementation was the famine of 1932-1933. What do you know about collectivization in the Belgorod region? What are the results of collectivization?

Question four. What tasks should be solved "cultural revolution"? Tell me about the measures eradication of illiteracy. By the mid 30s. formed the Soviet education. What did she represent? The authorities were also faced with the task of approving communist ideology in the public mind. How was it resolved? What totalitarian culture? What was the purpose of the transition to it in the 30s? What are its main features? Tell us about their manifestation in the cultural life of the country.

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia6 studies. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 305-325.

2. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M.: LLC "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 363-376, 394-398.

3. History of Russia. XX century / A.N. Bokhanov, M.M. Gorinov, V.P. Dmitrenko and others - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996. - 302-389.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - 336-344.

Additional literature:

1. Anisimov E.V. History of Russia from Rurik to Putin. People. Developments. Dates. / E.V. Anisimov. - St. Petersburg: Piter, 2007. S. 419-446.

2. Boffa J. History of the Soviet Union. T. 1. From revolution to the second world war. Lenin and Stalin. 1917-1941 / J. Boff. – M.: Intern. relations, 1990. - S. 329-366, 388-410, 450-520.

3. Documents testify: From the history of the village on the eve and during collectivization, 1927 - 1932. / Ed. V.P. Danilova, N.A. Ivanitsky. – M.: Politizdat, 1989.

4. History gives a lesson / Ed. ed. V.G. Afanasiev, G.L. Smirnova; Comp. A.A. Ilyin. – M.: Politizdat, 1989.

5. Khlevnyuk O.V. 1937: Stalin, the NKVD and Soviet society / O.V. Khlevniuk. - M., 1992.

6. Hosking J. Russia and Russians: In 2 books. Book. Per. from English. / J. Hosking. - M .: AST Publishing House LLC: Tranzitkniga LLC, 2003. S. 153-215.

Topic 13. The USSR during the Second World War and the Great Patriotic War (1939-1945)

1. Foreign policy of the Soviet state in the 20-30s.

2. German attack on the USSR. Reasons for the retreat of the Red Army at the beginning of the war.

3. The main stages of the war and their characteristics.

4. Reasons for the victory of the Soviet people. Lessons and results of the Great Patriotic and World War II.

Question one. Foreign policy of the Soviet state in the 20s. was supposed to provide a solution to two rather contradictory tasks. First, it was necessary restore economic ties with capitalist countries, because hopes for revolutions in Europe did not come true, and Soviet Russia had to live "in a capitalist environment." Secondly, the Bolshevik leadership did not leave hope for the implementation world proletarian revolution. What was the purpose of the Comintern? What was the main obstacle in establishing diplomatic relations between Soviet Russia and Western countries? What was the purpose of organizing Genoa Conference in 1922? At this conference, the Soviet Union and Germany were able to break through international isolation and sign a mutually beneficial trade agreement. On what terms? With which countries did the USSR establish diplomatic relations in the subsequent period? Give an assessment of the results of Soviet foreign policy in the 1920s.

Until 1933 Germany was the main partner of the Soviet Union on the world stage. Hitler's rise to power forced the Soviet state change foreign policy. Tell us about the efforts of the USSR to create a system collective security. Why did the West not go for the creation of such a system? England and France, on the one hand, and the Soviet Union, on the other, had reason not to trust each other. What do you know about the policy of "appeasement" pursued by Western countries? Why did the negotiations of the military missions of England, France and the USSR in the summer of 1939 in Moscow turn out to be fruitless? Tell us about the signing of the USSR on August 23, 1939. non-aggression pact with Germany. Pay attention to content secret protocols to him. What territories belonged to the sphere of influence of the USSR? Rate the agreement friendship and borders September 28, 1939 In accordance with these agreements, the USSR participated in the division of Poland. The Baltic States and Bessarabia were included in the USSR, a war was unleashed against Finland. What were the consequences of the foreign policy of the Soviet state pursued in the initial period of the Second World War?

Question two. Starting to study the Great Patriotic War, determine the goals of Nazi Germany. What was the name of the German plan to take over the USSR? In your opinion, was the attack of Germany and its allies on the USSR really sudden? Explain the reasons for the retreat of the Red Army at the beginning of the war. How was the mobilization of forces to repulse the enemy?

Question three. You are invited to consider the war in stages: the initial period - June 22, 1941 - November 1942; a radical change in the course of the war - November 19, 1942 - the end of 1943; the end of the war - the beginning of 1944 - May 9, 1945 Tell us about the most important battles Patriotic War. Show the meaning of the Battle of Kursk. What are the names of the most prominent military leaders of the Red Army. Give examples of heroism Soviet soldiers and officers.

Question four. When revealing this issue, it should be emphasized that the war from the very beginning acquired a nationwide character. The enemy was crushed not only at the front, but also in his rear, where a powerful partisan movement unfolded. Tell us about the contribution of the partisans to the victory. Despite the confusion of the Soviet leadership in the early days, the war acquired an organized character. On June 30, the State Defense Committee (GKO) was created. Who entered it? Victories on the fronts would not have been possible without the efforts of workers rear. When was it implemented Soviet translation economy on a military footing? When was the USSR able to surpass Germany in terms of military production? What new models of weapons were created by Soviet scientists and designers. The war was not fought by the USSR alone. Tell me about the formation anti-Hitler coalition, emphasize that in the face of a common threat, the USSR and the West were able to join forces in the fight against a common enemy. In what forms was cooperation carried out between the allies? Tell us about the contribution of cultural figures to the Great Victory. Hitler hoped to set the various peoples of the USSR against each other. But, despite some exceptions, the multinational Soviet Union stood the test of strength. All the peoples of the USSR rose to fight the enemy. Give examples. There is no doubt that all the countries included in anti-Hitler coalition, contributed to the victory over the fascist bloc. But the main role in defeating the aggressor belongs to the USSR. Give facts. What are the lessons of the Great Patriotic and World War II?

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 325-362.

2. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M.: LLC "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 381-388, 399-415.

3. History of Russia. XX century / A.N. Bokhanov, M.M. Gorinov, V.P. Dmitrenko and others - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996. - 280-302, 411-466.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 344-376.

5. Domestic history: study guide / ed. R.V. Degtereva, S.N. Poltorak. - M.: Gardariki, 2007. - S. 284-312.

Additional literature:

1. Zhukov G.K. Memories and reflections. In 3 volumes / G.K. Zhukov. - M., 1992.

2. Documents on the history of the Munich agreement. 1937 - 1939 / Foreign Ministry Affairs of the USSR, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Case of Czechoslovakia. Moscow: Politizdat, 1979.

3. Zemskov I.N. Diplomatic history of the second front in Europe / I.N. Zemskov. – M.: Politizdat, 1982.

4. History of the Second World War. In 12 volumes - M., 1973-1982.

5. History of international relations and foreign policy of the USSR: In 3 volumes: Vol. 1 / Ed. I.A. Kirilina. – M.: Intern. Relations, 1986.

6. Eve and the beginning of the war: documents and materials. - L., 1991.

7. Lubenkov Yu.N. 100 great commanders of World War II / Yu.N. Lubenkov. – M.: Veche, 2005.

8. Rozanov G.L. Stalin - Hitler: a documentary essay on Soviet-German diplomatic relations. 1939-1941. / G.L. Rozanov. - M., 1991.

9. Samsonov A.M. The Second World War. In 3 volumes / A.M. Samsonov. - M., 1993.

Topic 14. The Soviet Union in the conditions of the Cold War

1. Changes in the world after the Second World War. Beginning of the Cold War.

2. Socio-economic development, socio-political life and culture in the post-war years.

3. Attempts to implement political and economic reforms during the "thaw".

4. Changes in the foreign policy of the USSR in 1956-1984.

5. The USSR in the mid-60s - 80s: the growth of crisis phenomena.

Question one. With the end of World War II, the world new alignment of forces. First, the authority of the USSR increased, which played a decisive role in the defeat of fascism. Secondly, the economic and political power of the United States has grown immeasurably and has begun to lay claim to world domination. Thirdly, it started cold war as a result of the confrontation between these powers. What is a cold war? When did it start? What were the goals of both sides in the Cold War? The confrontation was exacerbated by the creation of nuclear weapons in the United States shortly before the end of World War II. Tell me about the formation socialist regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe. What role did the USSR play in this process? On what conditions did the United States provide assistance to European countries in economic recovery? What was the Truman Doctrine? What do you know about the formation military-political and economic blocs NATO, Warsaw Treaty Organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. How were the relations between the USSR and the Commonwealth countries built? Tell us about the armed confrontation between the USSR and the USA in Korea how did it end for this country? In conclusion, it should be noted that the consequence of the Cold War policy was race weapons.

Question two. Tell us about the damage caused by the war to the country's economy, emphasize that the USSR lost about a third of its national wealth. What were the human losses? Please note that in the process of the revival of the national economy, as in the pre-war period, the emphasis was placed on heavy industry, to the detriment of and at the expense of light industry and agriculture. The implementation of the economic recovery was complicated the need for huge costs for the creation of nuclear weapons and support for the socialist countries, as well as a severe drought in 1946. The war changed Soviet people, and contributed liberalization sentiments in society. What aspects of the life of Soviet society were criticized? These sentiments were also reflected in the party itself. What changes were supposed to be made to the draft of the new program of the CPSU (b), which was developed in 1947? Tell me when the new round started repression? Name the biggest political processes 1946 - 1952 After the war, party ideological control over culture increased. What did he show up in? Give examples.

Question three. In March 1953, Stalin died. As a result of the struggle for power in the fall of 1953, the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU became N.S. Khrushchev, who stayed in this post until October 1964. This period of our history was called the Khrushchev decade or "thaw", when an attempt was made to renew "state socialism". The central event was XX Congress of the CPSU, at which the report of N.S. Khrushchev about "cult of personality" Stalin. Appreciate the value of this speech. In 1957, opponents of the exposure of Stalin's personality cult tried to remove N.S. Khrushchev. Why didn't they succeed? Tell us about the reform of party and government bodies. For what purpose was it carried out? In 1961 on XXIICongress of the CPSU was accepted new party program. What was the task in it? These transformations aroused great enthusiasm in society, contributed to democratization spiritual life which especially influenced the state of literature and art. What art works of this period do you know? Significant efforts were directed towards increasing the efficiency of the Soviet economy. Tell us about the measures taken to develop Agriculture. Why did the development of virgin lands and the “corn campaign” not produce the expected results? Pay attention to the inconsistency of the agrarian policy of N.S. Khrushchev. What can explain the liquidation MTS? Why in the early 60s. Was the USSR forced to start buying food abroad? What role did the creation play? economic councils in the management of the national economy? What were the successes of the USSR in the field scientific and technological revolution. Tell me about the changes everyday life Soviet people, mass housing construction, graduation household appliances. Why in October 1964 did the opponents succeed in removing N.S. Khrushchev?

Question four. Foreign policy course of N.S. Khrushchev was significantly different from Stalin's. The foreign policy of the new leadership was based on the principles of peaceful coexistence of the two social systems, the possibility of preventing world wars, and various forms of transition to socialism. However, the principle of peaceful coexistence did not mean giving up the ideological struggle. N.S. Khrushchev opened "iron curtain". What did it show up in? The USSR unilaterally went to reduce the size of the army. What are the consequences? However, the new leadership of the USSR failed to avoid confrontation with the developed Western countries, which manifested itself during Caribbean crisis of 1962 Tell about it. The debunking of Stalin's personality cult great impression to countries that have taken the socialist path of development. For some, this caused discontent (China, North Korea, Albania, Romania), while in other countries (Poland, Hungary), unrest began to deepen democratic processes. What position did the Soviet leadership take in both cases? What is the reason for the conflict with the CCP leadership? In relation to the countries liberated from the colonial yoke, the Soviet leadership pursued a policy aimed at strengthening all-round cooperation with them, expanding the camp "non-aligned" countries, rendering assistance to those states that have taken a course towards socialism.

What changes have occurred in foreign policy under L.I. Brezhnev and his successors? Why did the USSR, together with four countries, send troops into Czechoslovakia in 1968? In the mid 60s. The Cold War gained momentum. It was caused by the American-Vietnamese War. But after the withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam in the first half of the 70s. the period of the so-called "detente". What did it mean? However, the introduction of Soviet troops into Afghanistan led to a new round in the development of the Cold War. What are the results of the Cold War?

Question five. Khrushchev's resignation in 1964 led to political change course and return to the old system, but in a milder form. rise congestion in the economic field was that rates of growth gradually decreased. After coming to power L.I. Brezhnev, for some time economic growth was even significant, which was a consequence of the 1965 economic reform. Describe what steps have been taken to production intensification in industry and agriculture? Study the digital indicators of the economic development of the USSR according to the five-year plans. Note that high economic growth eighth five-year plan, are gradually replaced by lower and lower values. Why was there a rejection of the principles of the 1965 reform? The increase in stagnation was also manifested in political and public the life of the country. Back it up with facts. What do you know about acceptance? Constitution of 1977. What place was assigned to the CPSU under Article 6? During these years, the country appears dissident movement. What did it see as its mission? Name the most famous representatives of dissidence. What attempts were made to bring the country out of stagnation? What are the results?

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 363-421, 520-534.

2. History of Russia: modern times (1945-1999): Textbook for universities / Ed. A.B. Bezborodov. - M .: "Olympus". "AST Publishing House", 2001. - S. 15-254.

3. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M.: LLC "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 416-451, 478-490.

4. History of Russia. XX century / A.N. Bokhanov, M.M. Gorinov, V.P. Dmitrenko and others - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996. - 466-559.

5. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 376-422.

6. Domestic history: study guide / ed. R.V. Degtereva, S.N. Poltorak. - M.: Gardariki, 2007. - S. 313-337.

Additional literature:

1. Aksyutin Yu.V., Volobuev O.V. XX Congress of the CPSU: innovations and dogmas / Yu.V. Aksyutin. - M., 1991.

2. Bezborodov A.B. Power and scientific and technical policy in the USSR in the mid-50s - mid-70s / A.B. Bezborodov. - M., 1997.

4. Boffa J. History of the Soviet Union. T. 2. From the Patriotic War to the position of the second world power. Stalin and Khrushchev. 1941-1964: Per. from Italian. / J. Boff. – M.: Intern. Relations, 1990. S. 251-545.

5. Volkogonov D.A. Seven leaders. – In 2 books / D.A. Volkogonov. - M .: JSC "Publishing house" Novosti ", 1996.

6. Voslensky M.S. Nomenclature. ruling class Soviet Union / M.S. Voslensky. - M .: "Soviet Russia" joint. with MP "October", 1991.

7. Voshchenkov K.P. USSR in the struggle for peace. International conferences 1944-1974 / K.P. Voshchenkov. – M.: “International. relations, 1975.

8. Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev: Materials for a biography / Comp. Yu.V. Aksyutin. – M.: Politizdat, 1989.

Topic 15. The Soviet Union in 1985-1991.

1. "Perestroika" M.S. Gorbachev.

2. New foreign policy of the USSR.

Question one. In April 1985, he came to the leadership of the Soviet state M.S. Gorbachev. started era of "perestroika", the content of which was an attempt global reform of the political system while maintaining socialist way of development. In the implementation of "perestroika", the following stages should be distinguished: April 1985 - 1986, 1987 - 1989, 1990-1991. On the first stage was supposed to carry out acceleration socio-economic development through the technical re-equipment of industry and the "human factor". What did it mean? At the same time, the idea was put forward . Tell us about the foreign policy initiatives of the Soviet leadership. By the end of 1986, the country's leadership concluded that changes in the economy were impossible without deep political change. Second period begins with the January 1987 Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, at which it was announced the need democratization internal party and public life. A characteristic phenomenon of this time was the mass participation of people in the discussion of political events, the "rally" period. The increased public activity was largely the result of growing economic difficulties. In the summer of 1987, the economic reform, prepared by L.I. Abalkin. What changes did she envision? At the same time, the political reforms. What decisions did you make in this matter? XIXparty conference? What changes were made to the Soviet political system? At this time, the formation multi-party system. Tell us about the holding of elections in the country in 1989 under the new electoral law. In the second half of the 80s. there is an aggravation national question. What do you see to that the reasons? Under these conditions, the CPSU is increasingly losing its role as a leader of reforms, and a critical attitude is growing in society. In an effort to maintain power and stability, M.S. Gorbachev agrees to the introduction of the post in the country USSR President. When was he elected to this position? This event starts final stage "perestroika". After elections are held in the republics, "parade sovereignties". In what way did it find expression? This process took place against the backdrop of a rapid increase economic crisis and falling living standards of the population. A massive strike movement begins. To keep the country from falling apart in the summer 1990. preparations have begun project new union treaty. Tell us about its main provisions. When was it supposed to be signed? Tell about events August 19 - 21, 1991. What were the plans of the putschists? How did these events end? What are the results of the restructuring? Why did she fail?

Question two. In the mid 80s. The foreign policy of the USSR was based on the concept of " new political thinking". Its core was the thesis of the globalization of international relations, the convergence of the interests of states with different social systems. The universal way to resolve interstate issues was proclaimed balance of interests. The main ideas of the new Soviet foreign policy were announced at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU in 1986. Expand them. The most important component of international relations was the existence of two superpowers: the USSR and the USA. What has changed in their relationship? What agreements have been reached? At the end of the 80s. the Soviet leadership went through a series of major measures to reduce the military presence of the USSR abroad. Tell about it. At the same time, Soviet-Chinese relations were normalized. What do you know about it? An important condition for the successful implementation of the new foreign policy course was declared deideologization of foreign policy. What was meant by this? key question in relations with Western European countries for the Soviet leadership was the question of Germany. How was it allowed? What are the results of the new foreign policy course?

Question three. The political crisis of 1991 led to the collapse of the USSR. How did it happen? What are the reasons? When answering the last question, one should pay attention to the fact that the collapse of the USSR was due not only to the socio-economic and political processes of the second half of the 1980s, but also to the mistakes made during the formation of the USSR. Name them. How did education happen? CIS? What republics are included in it? Tell us about the beginning of his activities.

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 422-440.

2. History of Russia: modern times (1945-1999)6 Textbook for universities / Ed. A.B. Bezborodov. - M .: "Olympus". "AST Publishing House", 2001. - S. 255-323.

3. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M.: LLC "TK Velbi", 2002. - S. 452-464.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 423-436.

5. Domestic history: study guide / ed. R.V. Degtereva, S.N. Poltorak. - M.: Gardariki, 2007. - S. 338-346.

Additional literature:

1. Anisimov E.V. History of Russia from Rurik to Putin. People. Developments. Dates / E.V. Anisimov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - S. 515-523.

2. Volkogonov D.A. Seven leaders. - In 2 books. - Prince. 2 / D.A. Volkogonov. - M .: JSC "Publishing house" Novosti ", 1996.

3. Volobuev O.V., Kuleshov S.V. Cleansing = History and Perestroika / O.V. Volobuev. - M .: Publishing house of the Novosti Press Agency, 1989.

4. Russia. Complete encyclopedic illustrated guide / Auth.-comp. P.G. Deinichenko / Edited by A.A. Krasnovsky. - M.: OLMA-PRESS Star world, 2005. - S. 312-322.

5. Hosking J. Russia and Russians: In 2 books. Book. 2. Translated from English. / J. Hosking. - M .: AST Publishing House LLC: Tranzitkniga LLC, 2003. S. 340-373.

Topic 16. Formation and development of a new state -

Russian Federation

1. Formation of a new Russian statehood. 1993 constitution

2. Russia is on the path of radical socio-economic modernization.

3. Foreign policy activity in the new geopolitical situation.

4. Culture in modern Russia.

Question one. After the collapse of the USSR and the formation of a sovereign Russian state, the task of preventing the collapse of Russia became a priority. The "parade of sovereignties" began. Many constituent entities of the Federation delayed or stopped paying taxes to the federal budget. Illegal armed groups appeared in Chechnya, headed by D. Dudayev, who dispersed the Supreme Council of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Republic and announced the separation of Chechnya from Russia. Under these conditions, it was necessary to take measures to preserve the new state. What has been done for this? What are the main provisions of the federal agreement of March 31, 1992? Have all the subjects of the Federation signed it?

At the end of 1992, a new danger arose for the Russian state: confrontation between the legislative and executive branches. In the context of growing socio-economic tension, the center of the unification of forces dissatisfied with the progress of the reforms was Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR(legislative branch of government). Who was its chairman? During the discussion of the draft Constitution, the conflict between the legislative and executive branches of government escalated even more. The latter was represented by the President and the Government. What is the reason for the conflict? Under these conditions, only the judiciary could act as an arbitrator. Chairman of the Constitutional Court V.D. Zorkin proposed a "zero option". What was its essence? How did the warring parties react to the proposals of the Chairman of the Constitutional Court? Tell about events October 3 - 4, 1993. On December 12, 1993, elections were held in Federation Council and State Duma, carried out at the same time referendum on the draft Constitution of the Russian Federation. Tell us about the election results. Which parties won the most seats in the Duma? Describe the main provisions of the Russian Constitution. In 1996, elections were held in the country President of the Russian Federation. Who won this election? The political life of Russia in the second half of the 1990s was characterized by instability: frequent changes of governments, the struggle of financial groups for influence on the president. The campaign to remove B.N. Yeltsin from office, ended with December 31, 1999. he announced his resignation as president. V.V. becomes president. Putin? What changes in the socio-political life of the country took place during the eight years of his reign? How was the "Chechen question" resolved? Give the alignment of the main political forces in the country. What social and political difficulties did the new President D.A. Medvedev?

Question two. In January 1992, a large-scale economic reform, the purpose of which was to create market economy. The program for the reform of the national economy of the country was developed by a group of economists led by E.T. Gaidar, who headed the government of Russia. The first step along this path was price release from state control to most goods and services. What did it lead to? Effects These actions were ambiguous, on the one hand, empty store shelves disappeared, the market was quickly filled with goods, on the other hand, they led to a sharp rise in prices, while wage growth lagged behind. From the end of 1992 began privatization of state property. What is privatization? What was her purpose? It should be emphasized that it was supposed to lead to the creation of a wide middle stratum in the country, to give the state funds for the implementation of social support for the poor. On the first stage small enterprises were privatized, mainly in the service sector. The transition to market relations was accompanied by the deepest crisis in heavy industry and agriculture au pair. Give figures that show this.

Why did the government change in December 1992? appointed head of the government V.S. Chernomyrdin, to whom managed to reduce the rate of inflation by the beginning of 1995. Has begun second phase privatization. Tell us about its content and results. In 1995-1996 the economic downturn intensified. Inflation, external debt, and arrears in wages, pensions, and social benefits grew. The government tried to make up for the lack of funds through external loans, as well as by introducing government short-term liabilities(GKO). These measures could not turn the tide, since the government had to pay huge sums to holders of GKOs. In April 1998, the Cabinet of Ministers headed S.V. Kiriyenko, who tried to prevent a financial disaster, but this was not achieved. August 17, 1998. a crisis broke out - the state announced that it was not able to pay under the GKO and canceled the "currency corridor". What were effects crisis for the country and the population? What is a default? Government EAT. Primakov, sent their efforts to overcome the consequences of the crisis. In 1999, in the development of the economy, positive trends, which was associated with a sharp jump in world energy prices. Provide facts to support this. Nevertheless, by the end of the 1990s, it became clear that hopes for a quick overcoming of the difficulties associated with the transition of the economy to a market economy did not come true. Describe the main economic problems of the present time. What is benefit monetization? What are its consequences? What changes have taken place in social structure Russian society? Tell us about how the “middle class” is being formed. Emphasize that the main social problem remains the existence of a significant part of the population living below the poverty line.

Question three. After the collapse of the USSR, Russia found itself in a fundamentally new geopolitical position. She was surrounded by the former Soviet republics, which had different attitudes towards the new Russia. It was necessary to build relationships with them in a new way. Relations between Russia and the CIS countries began to be regulated by the Agreement signed by the parliaments of these states on March 27, 1992. What efforts did the Russian leadership make to develop integration processes in CIS. Compare how the relations of the Russian Federation with Belarus and Ukraine developed. Give a description of Russia's relations with the republics that are not included in the CIS. Tell us about the relationship of the Russian Federation with the former socialist countries. What changes have taken place in relations between Russia and the countries of Western Europe? Expand the problems of development of relations between Russia and the United States. Show the participation of the Russian Federation in the fight against world terrorism and aggression. What are the prospects for the development of Russia's relations with other countries of the Eurasian world. Please note that the Russian Federation defends the concept of a multipolar world in the international arena.

Question four. The formation of new socio-economic relations had a profound impact on the development of Russian culture. Students must understand that the new socio-cultural situation is characterized by its uncertainty, complexity and inconsistency. On the one hand, economic and political freedom, cultural pluralism, the abolition of censorship, freedom of creativity; on the other hand, the “market”, the commercialization of culture, its economic dependence, the criminalization of society. The only acceptable communist ideology is being replaced by a spiritual vacuum. On the one hand, attempts to revive Russian spirituality. Strengthening the role of the Orthodox Church in society, on the other hand, is the Americanization of Russian culture, the formation of a “market” personality, ready to be what is in demand. Hence, what tasks and problems are facing modern Russian culture? What programs of all-Russian and regional significance have been adopted in recent years? What is being done to implement them? Give examples. What new moments have appeared in artistic culture? What is being done to maintain the traditions of folk culture? Students should understand that the people exist as long as the national folk culture is preserved.

Main literature:

1. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance / A.P. Derevianko. - M.: TK Welby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2006. - S. 441-471, 534-540.

2. History of Russia: modern times (1945-1999): Textbook for universities / Ed. A.B. Bezborodov. - M .: "Olympus". "AST Publishing House", 2001. - S. 324-422.

3. History of Russia. Textbook. / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhin. - M.: LLC "TK Velby", 2002. - S. 465-477, 490-492.

4. History of Russia: Proc. for universities / A.A. Chernobaev, I.E. Gorelov. M.N. Zuev and others; Ed. M.N. Zueva, A.A. Chernobaev. - M .: Higher. school, 2001. - S. 436-464.

5. Domestic history: study guide / ed. R.V. Degtereva, S.N. Poltorak. - M.: Gardariki, 2007. - S. 3347-361.

Additional literature:

1. Anisimov E.V. History of Russia from Rurik to Putin. People. Developments. Dates / E.V. Anisimov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - S. 525-543.

2. Ozersky V.V. Russian rulers. From Rurik to Putin. History in portraits. / V.V. Ozersky. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2004. - S. 321-340.

3. Russia. Complete encyclopedic illustrated guide / Auth.-comp. P.G. Deinichenko / Edited by A.A. Krasnovsky. - M.: OLMA-PRESS Star world, 2005. - S. 322-350 .

The development of feudal land ownership and economy created by the second half of the 15th century. necessary material and social prerequisites for the strengthening of Moscow. In the second half of the XV - the first third of the XVI century. the unification of Russian lands around Moscow is completed. This process falls on the years of the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily III (1505-1533).

Ivan III Vasilyevich, who reigned for over 40 years, is one of the key figures in Russian history. He was the first to take the title of "sovereign of all Russia", meaning supreme dominion over the Russian lands. In the center of Moscow, a new red brick Kremlin was erected, which over time became a symbol of the greatness of the Russian state. During the years of his reign, Ivan managed to increase the territory of the Moscow principality by about six times and leave to his heirs Moscow State at the zenith of glory.

With great success, Ivan III unified the northeastern lands of Russia under his rule. He showed himself to be a cautious politician, skillfully combining political, diplomatic and military means, avoiding unnecessary bloodshed. The princes and boyars of the annexed lands, for the most part, willingly transferred to the Moscow service and did not put up serious resistance. In 1485, the Tver boyars swore an oath to him, and Tver, surrounded by Moscow lands, finally passed to Moscow. The Muscovite principality turned into an all-Russian one.

The Novgorod boyar republic, which had considerable power, remained independent of the power of the Moscow prince. As early as 1410 in Novgorod, as a result of the posadnik reform, the veche system lost its significance, and the oligarchic power of the boyars increased. In the middle of the century, the boyars, led by the posadnik Marfa Boretskaya, were oriented towards Lithuania, fearing the loss of their privileges in the event of submission to Moscow. Ordinary Novgorodians, on the contrary, stood on the side of Moscow, which predetermined the final annexation in 1478 of Novgorod, which had suffered in 1471 defeat from the Moscow troops on the river. Sheloni. The Moscow governors began to manage the city. The symbol of the independence of the Novgorod Republic - the veche bell - was transferred to Moscow, but the Novgorodians were granted some privileges, including the right to external relations with Sweden. Strengthening the position of Russia on the borders with the lands of the Livonian Order, Ivan III founded the Ivangorod fortress on the Baltic coast not far from Narva, which belonged to the Order, and obtained from the Order confirmation of the payment of the "Yuryev tribute" for Yuryev Livonsky.

In relation to the Horde, Ivan III began to behave as an independent sovereign and stopped paying tribute. In 1480, the Golden Horde yoke, which had weighed on Russia for more than two centuries, finally collapsed. Russian troops met with the army of Khan Akhmat against each other on the banks of the river. Ugry, left tributary of the Oka. Akhmad's ally was the Polish king and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV, but he did not help the khan. The Moscow prince attracted to his side the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, whose troops attacked Casimir's regiments. After standing for several weeks, Akhmat did not dare to join the battle, turned back and went to the Volga steppes. The famous "Great Stand" on the Ugra, which determined the future fate of the Russian people, meant the liberation of Russia from under the hated yoke.

Starting from the 13th century, the fate of the Western Russian principalities in the conditions of the offensive of the western neighbors - the Teutonic and Livonian German Erdens, on the one hand, and the Mongol troops, on the other, developed differently than that of the northeastern and northwestern lands. Threatened epasnost forced them to look for allies. Such an ally was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the creator of which was the Lithuanian prince Mindovg. In the XIV century. pagan Lithuania united with Orthodox Western Russian lands under the rule of Prince Gediminas. As a result, Novogrudok land, known as "Black Russia" (now Western Belarus), Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk and other Russian principalities. In fact, almost the entire territory of present-day Belarus was under the rule of Gediminas. The capital of the new Lithuanian-Russian state at the beginning of the XIV century. became the city of Vilna (modern Vilnius).

Russian cultural influence prevailed in him over Lithuanian: at court and in official office work, the Russian language dominated for a long time, Gediminas himself and his sons were married to Russian princesses. In correspondence with foreign courts, the rulers of the Lithuanian principality were called "kings of Lithuania and Russia." A higher level of development of feudal relations, characteristic of the Slavic lands, the traditions of Orthodox culture allowed them not only to fully preserve their originality, but also to have a very significant impact on the system of indigenous Lithuania.

Under Olgerd and other descendants of Gediminas, the princes of Kyiv recognized the supreme power of the Lithuanian prince, and the Volyn, Podolsk, Pereyaslav, Chernigov and Seversk lands submitted to them in order to get rid of the power of the Mongols. The principality of Smolensk also recognized itself as a vassal of the Lithuanian sovereign in the fight against the Horde Khan. Thus, it was a state in which most of the territory and population were Russians, and many lands were ruled by the former Rurik princes. The forms of dependence of the Western Russian principalities on Lithuania provided the representatives of the old princely dynasties with significant internal autonomy and the inviolability of the socio-economic and political institutions that had developed in the previous period.

However, in the 80s. 14th century the situation has changed radically: Poland is trying to persuade Lithuania to conclude a Polish-Lithuanian union under the auspices of Catholicism, which would mean the incorporation (inclusion) of the vast Grand Duchy of Lithuania into the Kingdom of Poland and the destruction of its identity. Poland's plans initially cause strong resistance from the Lithuanian princes and boyars, headed by Prince Vitovt. Later, at the turn of the 14th-15th centuries, the Smolensk and Vyazemsky principalities were annexed to Lithuania. Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania included northwestern and almost all of southwestern Russia, as well as western part Great Russia (Smolensk and neighboring lands).

The Lithuanian prince Jagiello concluded an agreement with the Polish magnates, promising to baptize Lithuania into Catholicism and annex it to the possessions of the Polish crown. The adoption of Catholicism affected only pagan Lithuanians, the Orthodox Church retained its privileges, but Lithuania "turned its face" towards the West, towards Catholic Europe. After the conclusion of the union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland in 1387, Polish norms of state and administrative structure began to penetrate the Lithuanian and Western Russian lands. Gradually, the Polish language and Polish cultural influence began to prevail among the Lithuanian aristocracy, the Lithuanian nobility, subject to the adoption of the Catholic faith, received all the privileges and political rights enjoyed by its Polish neighbors.

The policy of the Polish crown in Lithuania, meanwhile, in every way contributed to the reduction of the power of the Grand Duke, which was recognized as elected, and not hereditary. Thus, only those who were pleasing to the feudal nobility could take the grand ducal throne. In the absence of a strong monarchical power, the Lithuanian-Russian state had the character of a federation of regions and lands that retained their autonomy and were united only by the supreme power of the Grand Duke of Lithuania. The socio-political system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had, in contrast to the Muscovite state, all character traits Western European medieval feudalism: fragmentation political power between landowners, a hierarchical ladder of vassals with a suzerain (grand duke) at the top and a system of private citizenship.

Within the Russian feudal aristocracy, a national-religious feud began between the supporters of Polonization and those who remained devoted to their faith and nationality. From the middle of the XV century. Lithuania's influence in Eastern Europe began to weaken, and it moved from a policy of attack to a policy of defense, which coincides in time with the success of Moscow's unification policy. The confrontation between Lithuania and Moscow gradually acquired not only a political, but also a religious character. From the end of the 80s. 15th century under the authority of the Grand Duke of Moscow, one after another, the rulers of the Upper Oka principalities passed, among which were the princes Odoevsky, Vorotynsky, Trubetskoy and others with their lands. Since 1500, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands, and after them many more cities, have been part of the Muscovite state.

The son of Ivan III and the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleologus Vasily III continued the unification of Russian lands: in 1510 Pskov was annexed, and in 1514 Smolensk, recaptured from Lithuania. In honor of this event, the Novodevichy Convent was built in Moscow, the central cathedral of which is Smolensky. In 1521, the Ryazan land, which was already dependent on Moscow, became part of the Russian state. This completed the process of unification of northeastern and northwestern Russia in one state. The largest power in Europe was formed, which from the middle of the 16th century. became known as Russia.

Gathered together under the rule of Moscow, the Russian lands retained the remnants of the former feudal fragmentation. There were no economic ties between them. It was necessary to create an apparatus of unified state administration of the country, central and local. The political system of the Russian state at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. began to move towards centralization. The princes in the annexed specific principalities became the boyars of the Moscow sovereign. This process was called the "boyarization" of the princes, who became subjects of the "sovereign of all Russia." The nature of princely landownership has changed, which is increasingly moving closer to the usual boyar estates. If earlier the big feudal lords served their princes by voluntary agreement and could pass from one prince to another, now this ancient feudal right of “departure” has been abolished and has come to be regarded as high treason.

The former specific principalities were liquidated, which became known as counties. They were ruled by governors appointed from Moscow. These governors were called "boyars-feeders", since for the management of the counties they received food - part of the tax from the population in favor of the Grand Duke. Such a control system is commonly called a feeding system.

The feudal aristocracy gained access to government in the manner of localism - the right to occupy a particular position, depending on the nobility or prescription of service at the court of the Moscow prince. The highest state body with advisory functions was the Boyar Duma, which consisted of boyars and roundabouts - the two highest ranks in the state, appointed from aristocratic families, as well as duma nobles and later duma clerks. The state executive authorities were the Palace, which controlled the lands of the Grand Duke, and the Treasury, which managed finances, the state archive and the press.

In 1497, a new, all-Russian code of laws of a single state was adopted - the Sudebnik of Ivan III. His 68 articles were aimed at strengthening the role central government in the state structure and legal proceedings of the country. Article 57 of the Sudebnik limited the right of peasants to move from one feudal lord to another by a single period of the year - St. George's autumn day - November 26, according to the old style (as well as a week before and a week after it), when the harvest was harvested and all dues were paid. The peasant had to pay compensation to the former owner for the loss of his workers - the so-called elderly. This was the first step towards the establishment of serfdom.

Simultaneously with the strengthening of the grand-ducal power and the emergence of a centralized administrative apparatus, the ideological and political rise of this power takes place. After the fall of Byzantium, not a single independent Orthodox state remained, except for Moscow. The marriage of Ivan III with Sophia Palaiologos, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, had important consequences for the rise of autocratic power in Moscow: the Grand Duke of Moscow became, as it were, the successor of the Byzantine emperor, the only Orthodox and independent sovereign remaining in the world.

At the court of Ivan III, a magnificent and solemn ceremonial was formed along the lines of the Byzantine one. He himself rises to an unattainable height above his subjects and takes the title "by God's grace of the Sovereign of All Russia", "autocrat" (from the Byzantine imperial title of autocrator, originally meaning an independent sovereign, not subject to external authority). At the beginning of the XVI century. Moscow scribes in "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir" say that the cap of Monomakh, now stored in the Armory of the Moscow Kremlin - the grand prince's crown - was sent for wedding to the Kyiv throne by Emperor Konstantin Monomakh to his grandson Vladimir Monomakh, from whom the Muscovite sovereigns descend. Together with other symbols of power - the scepter and the orb - the Monomakh's cap became an indispensable attribute of the coronation of Russian sovereigns. The coat of arms of the state was a double-headed eagle, borrowed from Byzantium, which symbolized the unification of the West and East under the auspices of imperial power.

Under Vasily III, the grand duke's power was further strengthened. He began the struggle for the abolition of appanages. Since Vasily himself did not have an heir for a long time, he apparently forbade his brothers to marry for fear of the transfer of the throne to other lines of the grand ducal family. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. there is a theory that Moscow, as the heir to Constantinople, the "second Rome", is the "third Rome", the capital of the entire Orthodox world. This theory found a particularly vivid expression in the messages of the monk of one of the Pskov monasteries Philotheus. Objectively, it contributed to an even greater exaltation of the power of the Moscow sovereigns.

After the fall of the Horde yoke, the Muscovite state rebuilt its relations with the outside world, starting with collecting information about foreign countries and compiling genealogies of all the ruling dynasties up to the development of a new diplomatic etiquette. In this matter, the Moscow authorities deliberately abandoned the mechanical copying of Byzantine and Western European models.

The reception of the ambassadors was arranged with extreme splendor, many tricks protected the honor of the sovereign from “destruction” (humiliation), those who arrived were forced to dismount (get off their horses) and bare their heads as early as possible when approaching the newly built Palace of Facets (1487-1491) of the Moscow Kremlin, where these sessions took place. It doesn’t matter that often the clothes of the courtiers could be borrowed from the Kremlin pantry, but the sovereign met the ambassadors sitting on the throne, stretched out his hand for a kiss, previously washed in a gilded vessel, and behind him four “rynds” (bodyguards) in white clothes froze motionless, with gingerbread berdysh on their shoulders, descended from the noblest families. Russian ambassadors, in turn, began to refuse to obey the traditional etiquette in the East. So, the ambassador to Turkey, A. A. Pleshcheev, did not greet the Sultan on his knees, but limited himself to a deep bow, and G. Vasilchikov did not kiss the leg of the Persian Shah.

The connections of the Muscovite state with Europe, interrupted by the Mongol yoke, began to be restored. Not only Europeans came to Russia, but also people from Byzantium conquered by the Turks, and Moscow became the center of a lively cultural dialogue between East and West. The concept of "Moscow - the third Rome" required external expression, in particular in the decoration of Moscow as the capital city of world Orthodoxy. The new Moscow Kremlin (architect Pietro Antonio Solari) struck the imagination of foreigners: its architecture had no analogues in world culture - it was not Gothic, not Byzantine and not Muslim.

18 majestic towers (later there were 20) crowned the grandiose red brick fortress walls, capable of withstanding the strongest onslaught of the enemy. Indeed, the Kremlin was never taken by storm. Now, from the side of Red Square, the central one is the Spasskaya Tower with chimes (from French courant - running, flowing), the main entrance to the Kremlin for government and diplomatic officials. The entrance to the Kremlin for the general public is open from the current Alexander Garden (Manezhnaya Square), through the Kutafya Tower and the Trinity Gate. Each of the 20 towers has its own name, history and original architecture. In 1937 they were crowned with ruby ​​five-pointed stars.

Italian masters were considered the most skillful architects of the Renaissance, and they were invited to build the ensemble of the new Moscow Kremlin. In the center of the composition is Cathedral Square, the oldest in modern Moscow, on which the main cathedrals overlook. From the 14th century she witnessed the most important events in the history of Russia and solemn ceremonies. The five-domed Cathedral of the Dormition was the invariable place of coronation throughout the era of autocracy, from Ivan the Terrible up to Nicholas II. Even when the official capital was moved to St. Petersburg, Moscow remained the second, unofficial capital. Here the sacrament of the crowning of the kingdom took place, a sacred and unique action, the participants and spectators of which simultaneously became all those present: after all, each time the only chosen one, the “anointed of God”, opened a new page in the life of the state.

As conceived by Ivan III, the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin was built in 1475-1479. modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, traditionally dedicated to the patroness and intercessor of the Mother of God, but surpassed the Vladimir one in scale of execution. Pskov craftsmen, under the guidance of the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti from Bologna, created a white-stone masterpiece with perfect proportions, combining the best traditions of Russian monumental architecture with advanced techniques.

The Annunciation Cathedral, the house church of the Moscow sovereigns, was built in 1481-1489. as a three-domed one, but under Ivan the Terrible it was rebuilt into a nine-domed one and decorated with an additional entrance for the tsar himself, who was considered a sinner because of the violation of the marriage norms of church law. The Archangel Cathedral, the tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes, was built under the guidance of the Venetian Aleviz the New, who introduced elements of the secular palazzo (palace) and the classical order system into the ancient Russian architectural tradition.

The process of transformation of the own ancient Russian painting tradition from the Byzantine one found expression in the works of artists of the XIV-XVI centuries. - Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked in Novgorod and Moscow. Of the works that have come down to us, his frescoes of the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (XIV century) should be mentioned. The annexation of Novgorod to Moscow then contributed to the interpenetration and mutual enrichment of the traditions and principles of painting of the northeastern and northwestern Russian lands. There is a merger of local art schools into an all-Russian one.

Even at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. its pinnacle was the work of Andrei Rublev. The perfect images of his "Trinity" (the original is kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad and the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin are recognized as one of the pinnacles of world art. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. The ancient Russian painting tradition was completed in the work of Dionysius, an example of which is the frescoes of the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda.

During the formation of a unified Russian state with a center in Moscow, the role of chronicle writing increased. The first chronicle records began to be kept in Moscow from 1325, and in 1408 an all-Russian annalistic code was compiled - the Trinity Chronicle (the manuscript died in a fire in Moscow in 1812). During the reign of Ivan III, chronicle writing was increasingly subordinated to the interests of the strengthening autocracy. The Moscow annals, the creation of which is attributed to 1479, emphasized the role of Moscow in the unification of all Russian lands.

Thus, by the first third of the XVI century. An autocratic monarchy was established in Russia, in which all political power belonged to the Grand Duke. Only the Grand Duke had the right to appoint to the highest government positions, determined the directions of domestic and foreign policy, all laws and orders were issued on his behalf, benefits were distributed. In addition to legislative and executive power, the Grand Duke represented the highest judicial authority. This expressed the indivisibility of the supreme power. A restrictive policy of immunity (that is, limiting the judicial and tax independence of the feudal lords) reduced the limits of feudal separatism. At the same time, the state system was a class monarchy, when the former appanage princes and the Boyar Duma as an organ of the feudal aristocracy were involved in the administration. The possibilities of the central government were also limited by the lack of local authorities, i.e. the absence of a national government apparatus.

The Russian Orthodox Church was a major feudal institution and an influential social force. She owned vast land holdings. The highest church hierarchs played an important role in solving political issues. Bringing from Byzantium the idea of ​​a God-established royal power, the higher clergy in every possible way contributed to the strengthening of the autocracy. Having become independent after the fall of Constantinople, the Russian metropolitans actually became dependent on the Grand Duke, as they were elected by the council of bishops at the request of the Grand Duke. But the economic power of the church strengthened its claims to a position independent of the secular authorities.

Since land remained the main means of production, the issue of land ownership was decisive in the state. The paradox was that the territory of the state increased, and the issue of land remained the most acute. One of the ways to solve it could be the confiscation of church lands and their transfer into the hands of the state.

In the last decades of the fifteenth century the church world was disturbed by the appearance in Novgorod of the heresy of the "Judaizers". At one time heresy captured even a part of the higher clergy. Heretics denied the Christian dogma of the trinity of the deity, the church hierarchy, the power of priests, icons and rites, which outwardly coincided with the requirements of the Reformation that began in Europe. Along with this, they opposed church land ownership, which for some time persuaded Ivan III himself to their side, who needed to distribute land grants to supporters of the Moscow authorities by limiting the immune privileges of the church.

There was also no unity within the church itself. The militant churchmen, led by the influential abbot of the Volokolamsk monastery near Moscow, Joseph Volotsky, condemned the heretics. Supporters of Joseph - Josephites, or money-grubbers, defended the right of the church to own land and peasants. Their opponents, led by the monk-ascetic Nil Sorsky (named after the skete he founded on the river Sora in the Vologda land) also condemned the heretics. The nonpossessors, or Soreans, objected to the accumulation of wealth and land holdings of the church. Both those and others claimed a position in the state independent of secular power. The thesis put forward by the Josephites about the "sacred (divine) origin" of the power of the sovereign, proclaiming the autocrat the king of the earth, persuaded Ivan III to their side. Joseph Volotsky in his teachings wrote: "For the tsar is similar to all people in nature, but in power he is like the Most High God." Thus, the authorities entered into an alliance with the church in the person of the Josephite elite, but this was a temporary alliance, since the strongest contradiction over land remained between them. Church and monastic land ownership was preserved. Heresy was suppressed and heretics executed.

The formation of a unified Russian state was a major event in world history. On the site of fragmented lands and principalities, the largest state in Europe arose. On its territory, the formation of the Great Russian nationality took place. The formation of a single Russian state had its own characteristics: it took place on a feudal basis in the absence of economic unity. Trade was based on the natural geographical division of labor and the surplus of subsistence farming. Russian cities failed to achieve political independence from the central government, as was the case in Western Europe, where "the air of the city made a person free." They remained typical feudal centers.

Foreigners who came to Russia were struck by the appearance of Russian cities with many gardens, kitchen gardens, pastures, low prices for agricultural products. Moscow surpassed in territory the largest city of that era - London, but this did not indicate its high economic development. Rather, it spoke of the low cost of land and the desire of the Russian nobility to own, in addition to their patrimony, an estate in the capital closer to the royal court. All of Moscow with its suburbs belonged to the grand dukes, and then to the tsars, who distributed lands both in Moscow itself and around it, in the form of awards to their fellow boyars for their merits. Ivan III bestowed Moscow lands on more than 1000 people from his entourage, and 28 elected boyars granted more than 300 thousand acres of land in the Moscow suburbs.

The development of large-scale production was within the power of only the treasury, which took upon itself the satisfaction of the needs of the military department in the conditions of a constant struggle against external danger. Thus, the most important branches of craft that could "capitalize" production were withdrawn from the sphere of free competition and subordinated to the treasury and state monopoly: metallurgy, weapons and textiles, salt making. Merchants, weakly connected with commodity production, strove to invest their accumulated money not in the development of handicrafts and manufactory, but in the purchase of land, i.e. socially sought to move into the category of landowners. It focused mainly on foreign rather than domestic trade, merchants' incomes often went to the creation of treasure reserves or usury. Thus, merchant's capital did not revolutionize production, but preserved feudal relations.

By the middle of the XVI century. The population of Russia was approximately 9-10 million people. The Center and the Novgorod-Pskov land were relatively densely populated. The population density here was 5 people per sq. km. km, while in Western Europe it reached 10-30 people per sq. km. km. The average population density in Russia was about 2 people per sq. km. km, while the normal functioning of the three-field farming system required 15-35 people per sq. km. km. Thus, the concentration of the population in Russia was insufficient for intensive farming, it had an extensive character. Feudal relations continued to develop.

The internal unity of the Russian state was not strong due to the underdevelopment of economic ties and the dominance of natural economy. The preservation of the remnants of the autonomy of the former appanages manifested itself in matters of land ownership, courts, administration and money circulation, which undermined the stability of the central government.

The first wife of Vasily III was Solomonia Saburova, who came from an old boyar family, devoted to the power of the Moscow princes, but their twenty-year marriage remained childless. In anticipation of an heir, the Grand Duke forbade his brothers to marry, so that his nephews would not compete with his future son. In the end, Vasily decided on a divorce, and Solomonia was tonsured a nun. The second wife of the Grand Duke was Elena Glinskaya. The long-awaited birth in the family of the heir to the throne, Ivan Vasilievich, became a triumph for the supporters of autocracy and was marked by the construction of the famous Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye.