Home Kitchen garden on the windowsill Central authorities under Catherine 2. The system of public administration and administration reforms of Catherine II

Kitchen garden on the windowsill

Central authorities under Catherine 2. The system of public administration and administration reforms of Catherine II

Catherine II - features for a portrait

Catherine II the Great (Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, born April 21 (May 2) 1729, Stettin, Prussia - d. November 6 (17) 1796, Winter Palace, Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762- 1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the Holstein-Gottorp clan, was a great-aunt of the future Peter III. Uncle Po maternal line Adolph-Friedrich (Adolph Fredrik) was king of Sweden since 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The family tree of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. She was brought up in severity. She grew up as a playful, inquisitive, playful and even a poor girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the Stetin streets. Parents did not burden her with upbringing and did not particularly stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her in childhood Fikchen (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederika").

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, together with her mother, was invited to Russia for subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she strove to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers, the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher) are distinguished. Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so grave that her mother offered to bring in a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9) 1744 Sophia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name of Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and was her second cousin. The first years of his life, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and matrimonial relations between them did not exist. Catherine will later write about this in her memoirs.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Beyle, a large number of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The lack of conjugal relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed her dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son who was immediately taken away from her at the behest of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Paul (the future Emperor Paul I) and are deprived of the opportunity to educate, allowing him to see only occasionally. A number of sources, including the memoirs of Catherine herself, claim that true father Pavel was Catherine's lover S.V. Saltykov. Others - that such rumors are groundless, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated the defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity aroused public interest as well.

After the birth of Paul, relations with Peter and Elizabeth Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter called his wife "spare madam" and openly made mistresses, however, without hindering Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a relationship with Stanislaw Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which aroused Peter's strong discontent.

At this time, the condition of Elizaveta Petrovna worsened. All this made real the prospect of Catherine's expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced field marshal Apraksins and the British ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

Death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since the communication of the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when it came time to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the courtyard left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine successfully gave birth. So the first in Russia Count Bobrinsky was born - the founder of the famous surname.

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him in the officer corps. So, he concluded an unprofitable treaty for Russia with Prussia (while the Russian troops took Berlin) and returned the lands captured by the Russians to her. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia's ally), in order to return Schleswig, which she had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to march at the head of the guard. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife who was persecuted by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband finally deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guards increased, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her associates, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, engaged in agitation in the guards units and persuaded them to their side. The immediate reason for the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the disclosure and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

In the early morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died in early July under unexplained circumstances.

On September 22 (October 3), 1762, Ekaterina Alekseevna was crowned in Moscow and became the All-Russian Empress with the name Ekaterina.

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who so intensively and directly communicated with their subjects by drawing up manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she confessed: "I cannot see a blank pen without not feeling the urge to immediately dip it in ink."

She had an extraordinary talent for writing, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedy "Oh, time!" "The Invisible Bride" (1771-1772), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine "Anything and everything", published since 1769. The Empress turned to journalism to influence public opinion, so the main idea of the magazine was to criticize human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: "Satire in a smiling spirit."

Catherine considered herself a "philosopher on the throne" and favored the era of the Enlightenment, was in correspondence with Voltaire, Diderot, Alambert.

Under her, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The aim was to modernize Russian science and culture.

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love".

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, whose number (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P.I.Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G.G. Orlov (later Count), Horse Guards Lieutenant Vasilchikov, G.A. Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became the count of the Russian Empire and a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (1775). After 1762, she planned to marry Orlov, however, on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It should be noted that Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the background of the general licentiousness of the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who possessed state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, which sought benefits through flattery to a new favorite, tried to lead “their own man” into lovers to the empress, and so on.

Catherine's adherence to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the internal politics of Catherine's time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Proceeding from this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified.

The policy of "enlightened absolutism" and a new stage in the rationalization of public administration in the second half of the 18th century

By the time of her accession to the throne, Catherine II was well acquainted with the liberal ideas of European philosophical, political and economic thought. Even in her youth, she read the works of French educators - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, D "Alambert - and considered herself their student. In 1763, Catherine began a correspondence with Voltaire, which lasted until 1777, that is, almost until the death of the famous On the basis of the ideas of the European educators, Catherine developed a certain idea of what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state. to this letter, perhaps a less bad translation into French of my Manifesto, signed by me last year on December 14th and appeared in the Dutch newspapers in such a severely distorted form that it was hardly possible to get to the point in it. valuable and fortunate ... In June, the meetings of this great congregation will begin, which will find out what we need, and then it will be transgressed to the elaboration of laws for which, I hope, the future humanity will not reward us with censure. In the meantime, before this time comes, I'm going to go round the various provinces ... ".

Combined with knowledge of Russian reality, these ideas influenced the formation of the empress's political program, which she tried to implement in various fields, including in the field of public administration.

How Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch, which she sincerely considered herself to be, can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which must be governed. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect for its neighbors. "

The beginning of the reign for Catherine II was difficult, primarily in political terms. No matter how unpopular Peter III was in Russia, he was a legitimate (by God's grace) sovereign, moreover, the grandson of Peter the Great, albeit insufficient. The role of Catherine II in the murder of her husband was also unclear. First of all, Catherine II hastened with the coronation, which was to legitimize her accession to the throne. The main participants in the coup (40 people) received ranks, land holdings with serfs and large sums of money. The Empress ordered the return from exile of those who "innocently" suffered, including the former Grand Chancellor Count Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the former Prosecutor General of Prince Shakhovsky.

Acting carefully, avoiding dangerous conflicts, Catherine II from the very beginning made it clear that she did not intend to compromise the autocratic power. She rejected the idea of Count N.I. Panin to establish a Permanent Imperial Council, consisting of four secretaries of state, who were to decide all the most important state affairs. In this case, Ekaterina would have only the right to approve the decisions made. Panin's project reflected the oligarchic hopes of the aristocracy to limit autocratic power, which did not suit Catherine II at all. At the same time, Panin proposed to divide the ruling Senate into six departments, which led to a weakening of the role of this supreme institution in favor of the Permanent Imperial Council. Catherine II skillfully took advantage of this proposal of Panin in December 1763 (reform of the Senate).

Evaluating the reign of Catherine II, it must be borne in mind that the empress had to act not according to a previously thought out and planned reformatory program, but to consistently tackle the tasks that life put forward. Hence - the impression of some chaos in her reign. Even if this is so, it is not the whims of frequently changing favorites for this reason. Undoubtedly, such people influenced the policy of the state, but only to the extent that the empress herself allowed it, never compromising even a particle of her autocratic power.

What was the state of the country, it is clear from the fact that in the first days after the coup, Catherine had to think about how to stop rapid growth prices for bread and find money for the most urgent state needs - the Russian army in Prussia has not received a salary for eight months. She allowed the Senate to use their "room money" - those that were considered the property of the sovereign and went exclusively to his personal needs. The members of the Senate were moved by the fact that the empress considers everything that belongs to her to be the property of the state and in the future does not intend to distinguish between the interests of the state and her own. For Catherine, such a step was completely natural. She saw herself as a servant of the fatherland, called to lead her subjects to this common good.

It was something unprecedented in Russia. The former authorities considered it sufficient to keep their subjects at bay, while Catherine wanted to win their love.

The reduction of duties on salt, the abolition of trade monopolies, the decree against bribery, orphanages, the fight against robberies - these first measures taken by Catherine were dictated not by the desire for transformation, but by the need and desire to win over her subjects. However, they became an excellent practical school of public administration for her. Very soon, Catherine realized how little she knew the country in which it fell to reign, and tried to study it better. In the first five years of her reign, Catherine made several trips around Russia. This allowed her to find out how her subjects live.

The first years of his reign passed almost cloudlessly. Catherine was loved sincerely, as they love their hopes for a better future. In this upbeat atmosphere, she managed to restore the country's defenses and carry out some of the measures outlined during the reign of Elizabeth and Peter III. First of all, this concerned church property.

Since 1765, Catherine began to write her "Order" - the recommendations of the commission for the development of the New Code. (A major attempt at public administration is to tidy up Russian legislation.) Those historians who see in the convocation of the Legislative Commission a demagogic farce played out by Catherine II are hardly right. The Legislated Commission cannot be called the beginning of Russian parliamentarism. V specific conditions Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II made an attempt to modernize the country, create a legitimate autocratic monarchy.

It must be said that in her practical activities, Catherine deviated far from her lofty ideals. She knew that she owed her power to the Russian nobility, and understood that the best way to win his love was to distribute estates, money and privileges. In total, during the reign of Catherine, about a million souls were distributed from state and palace estates. In 1765 (while working on the "Order"), she allowed the landowners to exile the peasants to Siberia without trial "on the basis of an impertinent state" (confirming Elizabeth's decree of 1760), and in 1767, having received about 600 petitions from peasants with complaints during a trip along the Volga on the landlords, ordered to return them without consideration; later a special decree was issued forbidding the peasants to file complaints against the landlords to the empress. By the time of Catherine's accession to the throne, the right of peasants' free transition still existed in Ukraine, but already in 1763 she sharply limited it, and after 20 years she canceled it altogether.

The curtailment of the policy of enlightened absolutism was influenced by two events of the 18th century: peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev in Russia and the Great French revolution in Europe.

In general, under Catherine, absolutism was strengthened by reforming government institutions and a new administrative structure of the state, protecting the monarchy from any encroachments. She carried out socio-economic measures for the further "Europeanization" of the country and the finalization and strengthening of the nobility, liberal educational undertakings, care for education, literature and the arts.

But Russian society has shown its unwillingness not only to abolish serfdom, but even to more moderate reforms.

Ekaterina's "Order" and the activities of the Legislative Commission

Since 1765, Catherine began to write her "Order" - the recommendations of the commission for the development of the New Code. The need for new legislation is long overdue. In 1754, Elizabeth (at the suggestion of Pyotr Shuvalov) had already ordered to compose "clear laws", but the matter did not budge. The same attempts were made by Anna Ioannovna, and before her - Peter I. Catherine firmly decided to bring the matter to the end.

In 1767, deputies from all classes (with the exception of serfs and clergy) gathered in Moscow in order to start working out the New Code. Catherine's "Order" became the leadership. Most of his articles Catherine borrowed from Montesquieu's book "The Spirit of the Laws" and the treatise "On Crimes and Punishments" by the Italian lawyer Beccaria. The "Order" consisted of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles. The cornerstone of the state, according to Catherine, remained autocracy:

"eight. The Russian state's possessions extend to 32 degrees of latitude and 165 degrees of longitude around the globe.

9. The sovereign is autocratic; for no other, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state ...

11. Any other government would not only be harmful to Russia, but completely ruinous.

12. Another reason is that it is better to obey the laws under one master than to please many. "

But everything else was so new and unusual that this document simply frightened many. But Catherine published the "Order" only after a discussion with her confidants, who altered or reduced completely more than half of what was written by the empress.

What so shocked the Russian people of the second half of the 18th century?

These are the provisions of the "Order":

"34. The equality of all citizens is that all are subject to the same laws.

35. This equality requires a good institution, which would forbid the rich to discourage the lesser of their possessions and to turn to their own advantage the ranks and titles entrusted to them only as ruling persons of the state.

36. Public or state liberty does not consist in doing whatever anyone wants.

37. In a state, that is, in a gathering of people living in a society where there are laws, liberty cannot consist in anything other than the ability to do what everyone should want, and in order not to be forced to do what should not want ".

Thus, it turned out that all citizens are equal before the law. Catherine, however, had to abandon all references to the need to free the peasants from serfdom, although she considered slavery contrary to the Christian religion and justice. In the "Instruction" she was forced to admit that "one should not suddenly and through legalization make a great number of those liberated."

The deputies who gathered in Moscow to work on the New Code showed Catherine that Russia is far further from the latest European ideas than she thought. 564 people, among whom were officials, merchants, Cossacks, "arable soldiers" and foreigners, were not representatives of Russian society, because there was no society in Russia at that time. Each class cared only about its own interests. They understood the good of the people only as their own, state interests - as the interests of the empress. Each estate demanded exclusive privileges for itself at the expense of others and did not want to bear any responsibility. The nobles advocated the abolition of torture, but exclusively for their class, the merchants demanded that noblemen and peasants be prohibited from participating in trade, everyone (with the exception of the nobles who had already received such a privilege) wished not to serve or pay taxes, and everyone demanded slaves - they spoke out against serfdom only individual deputies. It is clear that it was not possible to create any Code, and in 1768 the commission for its development was disbanded under the pretext of the outbreak of the war with Turkey.

Nevertheless, the work of the Commission was not in vain. The content of local mandates and opinions of the deputies gave the government a wealth of material to familiarize itself with the needs and wishes of different groups of the population, and it could use these materials in the future in its reform activities.

Estates and administrative reforms of Catherine II

In December 1763. the empress carried out a reform of the Senate, dividing it into six departments, two of which were to be located in Moscow, and four in St. Petersburg. So the ruling Senate lost its former political role, having turned into a bureaucratic and clerical superstructure over the central institutions of the empire. In the second half of the 18th century. the territory of Russia has expanded significantly, especially in the southern and western directions. The country included Northern Black Sea region, Azov region, Crimea, Right-bank Ukraine, Belarus, Courland, Lithuania, etc. Russia occupied an area of 17.4 million m 2. According to the 1795 revision, the population of Russia was 37.4 million people. The bulk of the population lived in rural areas. By the end of the century, 10% of the country's population lived in cities. By the beginning of the 19th century. in Russia there were 634 cities, although many of them remained rather administrative and power centers of the rural area. Under Catherine II, a broad administrative reform was carried out. In 1775 the country was divided into 50 provinces instead of the previous 20. The population of the province ranged from 300 to 400 thousand people.

With the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility (1762) and the Letter of Grant to the Nobility (1785), Catherine II finally strengthened the privileges of the nobility. The nobles were exempted from taxes and duties. Land tenure of the nobility increased markedly. State and palace peasants, as well as unpopulated land were distributed to landowners. The leading sector of the Russian economy was still Agriculture... The growth of serf relations is observed. They cover new territories and new categories of the population. On the lands that became part of Russia during this period of time, serf relations either persisted or became widespread (Ukraine, Crimea, Ciscaucasia). Part of the land was distributed to Russian landowners.

The position of the serfs worsened - in 1765 the landowners received permission to exile their peasants to Siberia to hard labor, without trial or investigation. If the peasants were recognized as the instigators of the unrest, then by the decree of 1763 they themselves had to pay the costs associated with the suppression of their protests. In 1767, a decree was issued prohibiting the complaints of peasants to the Empress against their landlords. The years 1765-1775 were marked by peasant uprisings (Pugachevshchina). Severely suppressed, it still became not the last reason that pushed the government to some decrees regarding the situation of the peasants.

Of great importance for the development of domestic industrial production was the publication in 1775 of Catherine II's manifesto on the free opening of industrial enterprises by representatives of all strata of society. Freedom of entrepreneurship was introduced in Russia.

In 1785, a special Handicraft Regulation was issued, which was part of the Charter of Charter to the cities. Along with the city, handicrafts were widely developed in industrial villages.

The most important feature of the late 18th century. is an increase in civilian work force and capitalist factories.

Since 1762, it was forbidden to buy serfs to factories, their assignment to enterprises has ceased. Manufactories, founded after this by persons of non-noble origin, used exclusively hired labor.

In 1775, a decree was issued allowing peasant industry, which stimulated the development of production, influenced the increase in the number of merchant and peasant breeders.

An important incentive for industrial entrepreneurship was the benefits to the merchants: in 1766 - the release of merchants from the recruitment duty and its replacement by the payment of a fixed monetary contribution; the proclamation of freedom of enterprise in 1775, which consisted in allowing merchants to start enterprises without the consent of the official authorities and abolishing the tax on each dignity.

Social policy demonstrates the following facts. In 1768, a network of urban schools based on the classroom system was created. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, systemic development began female education, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics study, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783. In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. The Widows Treasury was created to help widows.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly part of the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By order of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only at the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of Border and Port Quarantines" was created.

New directions of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and orphanages were opened. A number of fundamental works on medicine have been published.

By the end of the 18th century. there was a strengthening of the estate system. Each category of the population (nobility, clergy, various categories of townspeople, peasants, Cossacks, etc.) acquired class isolation, which was determined by the corresponding rights and privileges enshrined in laws and decrees. Strengthening the estate system was one of the ways to keep power in the hands of the nobility.

State and Church in the second half of the 18th century

Wishing to win over the influential Orthodox clergy in Russia, Catherine II, upon her accession to the throne, canceled the decree of Peter III on the confiscation of the monasteries land ownership and peasants. True, having strengthened her position, the empress, already in 1764, nevertheless took away 990 thousand peasants from the monasteries in favor of the state. Former monastic peasants (there were about 1 million male souls) began to be called economic peasants, since the Board of Economics was created to manage them. The number of monasteries in Russia fell from 881 to 385.

The monastic lands have long been of concern to the authorities. Even under Elizabeth, there were constant unrest among the monastery peasants. In order to somehow cope with the situation, under Peter III, these lands were transferred to secular administration. But then the church authorities were outraged. Catherine reassured them by returning the estates to them, but this aroused even greater indignation of the peasants (the transfer of monastic peasants to the position of state ones allowed them to freely grant them to anyone). In 1762, there were about 150 thousand monastic and landowner peasants "in obvious indignation", while about 50 thousand mining peasants rebelled at the same time. Again, the intervention of military detachments and even artillery was needed. Therefore, a year later, Catherine again established a commission on church estates. Metropolitan of Rostov Arseny Matseevich, who at one time enjoyed the patronage of Elizabeth, was a quarrelsome and cruel man against her. He demanded that the Synod immediately return the seized church property. His message was so harsh that the Synod, taking it as an insult to Her Majesty, referred the case to Catherine. She did not show the usual leniency, and Arseny was defrocked and sent to a remote monastery. Church estates were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economics. The same department maintained homes for disabled people. A completely socialite, Prince Boris Kurakin, was appointed president of the collegium.

After the annexation of the lands that had previously been part of the Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned out to be in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement to the central regions of Russia and attach them to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, outside of which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on living.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "On permission for all foreigners entering Russia, to settle in which provinces they wish, and on the rights granted to them" called upon foreign subjects to move to Russia, the second determined the list of benefits and privileges for migrants. Soon, the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, the Crimea, the Right-Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions have not experienced pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on the tolerance of all religions was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other confessions; the secular government reserves the right to decide on the establishment of temples of any faith.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth an equalization in the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased. The Empress initiated the return from abroad of the Old Believers, the economically active population. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform divine services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

The Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice its faith. Religious affairs and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. The Jews, depending on their capital, were assigned to the corresponding class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.

By the decree of Catherine II in 1787, in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, the full Arabic text of the Islamic holy book Quran for free distribution to "Kyrgyz". The publication significantly differed from the European ones, primarily in that it was of a Muslim nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. In 1788, a manifesto was issued, in which the empress ordered to establish a spiritual collection of the Mohammedan law in Ufa. Thus, Catherine began to build the Muslim community into the system state structure empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.

Buddhism has also received government support in the regions where it has traditionally been practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of khabo lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the embodiment of White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and humane rule.

The long reign of Catherine II, 1762-1796, was filled with significant and very contradictory events and processes. The "golden age of the Russian nobility" was at the same time the century of the Pugachevism, the "Order" and the Legislative Commission coexisted with persecutions. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own super task. This was the time when the imperial government tried to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in the history of Russia. The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the Empress was well acquainted.

Plan

1. Introduction

The system of public administration and management reforms of Catherine II

1 Russian statehood in the second half of the 18th century.

2 Reforming public administration under Catherine II

3 Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

4 Strengthening serfdom

5 Central administration office

6 Provincial administration

7 County government

8 The judiciary

Counter-reforms of the 80-90s. 19th century

Formation of the Soviet control system

1 Conversions October revolution

2 Constitution of the RSFSR 1918

2.1 The highest authority

2.2 Electoral system

List of used literature

1. Introduction

The history of the Russian state dates back to the 9th century. - the time when it took shape Kievan Rus. To the Russian state already eleven centuries (1100 years).

For most of its historical path in the form of state structure, Russia was a monarchy, which it retained from the 9th century. before the beginning of the XX century. However, the monarchy did not remain unchanged, undergoing transformations due to external and internal factors.

Taking into account the changes in the forms of government and state building in the history of Russia, qualitatively different stages are distinguished. The European Middle Ages covers the 5th-17th centuries. The Eastern Slavs had a medieval state in the 9th-17th centuries.

Within this chronological framework, periods are distinguished: IX-XII centuries, XII-XV centuries, XV-XVII centuries.

2. The system of public administration and management reforms of Catherine II

2.1 Russian statehood in the second half of the 18th century

In the second half of the 18th century. in many European states, including Russia, there is a certain modernization of the political and economic system associated with the pursuit of the policy of enlightened absolutism. The main goal is the adaptation of the feudal, in fact, absolute monarchy to the new (capitalist) relations that are beginning to objectively prevail in society.

The ideological basis of this policy was the Enlightenment, which was closely associated with the formation in the 18th century. new human type- an independent, judicious, active personality, critical of authorities, accustomed to relying on his own strength in everything. The enlighteners' particular attention was drawn to the restructuring of society on a new basis. The head of state, they believed, should be an enlightened monarch, whose main task is to create the kingdom of reason, i.e. a society based on bourgeois values: civil equality, freedom of the individual and her economic activity, inviolability of private property, etc. Catherine II (1762-1796) sought to become such a monarch in the eyes of Europe, whose rule is traditionally associated with the policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia.

2.2 Reforming public administration under Catherine II

After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in December 1761, Peter III (1728-1762) became emperor, the son of Peter I's daughter Anna Petrovna and the German duke, a mentally undeveloped person, poorly educated, cruel, alien to everything Russian, overly keen on military affairs. During his short reign, the most important was the decree "On the freedom of the nobility" of February 18, 1762, which canceled compulsory service for the nobles. In addition, the Secret Chancellery, which was in charge of political crimes, which instilled fear in the population, was abolished. However, these measures failed to bring Peter III popularity among his subjects. Peace with Prussia caused general discontent, which meant the rejection of all Russian conquests in the Seven Years' War; preparation for war with Denmark in the interests of Holstein, huge Prussian and Holstein influence at the Russian court; disrespect for Orthodox customs; the introduction of German orders in the army, a disdainful attitude towards the Russian guard.

In such a situation, a significant part of the Russian nobility pinned their hopes on the wife of Peter III, the future Empress Catherine II (1762-1796), who, although she was German by birth, understood perfectly well that the Russian empress should think primarily about the interests of Russia. Unlike her husband, who continued to consider himself the Duke of Holstein, Catherine, after the death of her parents, renounced all rights to Anhalt-Zerbst. The future Russian empress was born in 1729, she was the daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, a general of the Prussian army. The princess received a good education at home, in her childhood and adolescence she traveled quite a lot with her family, which helped her broaden her horizons. In 1745, Sophia Augusta Frederica, having adopted Orthodoxy and the name Ekaterina Alekseevna, married the heir to the Russian throne - Peter Fedorovich (before baptism Karl Peter Ulrich), the son of the elder sister of Empress Elizabeth - Anna Petrovna, who married the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich. Finding herself in Russia at the age of 16, Catherine, realistically assessing the situation, decided to become her own, Russian as soon as possible - to master the language perfectly, to learn Russian customs, and she spared no effort to achieve her goal. She read a lot, was engaged in self-education. Special interest Catherine showed her interest in travel descriptions, works of classics, history, philosophy, and the works of French encyclopedists. By nature, Catherine had a sober mind, observation, the ability to suppress her emotions, listen carefully to her interlocutor, and be pleasant in communication. These qualities were very useful to her in the first years of her stay in Russia, since the relationship with her husband and, most importantly, with the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna was quite difficult. Huge ambition, willpower, hard work helped Catherine in the end to achieve power. Around the future Catherine II a group of conspirators rallied, mostly guards officers. Especially active were Catherine's favorite - Grigory Orlov (1734-783) and his brother Alexei (1737-808). On the night of June 28, 1762, Catherine, together with Alexei Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where on the same day the Senate proclaimed her empress and announced Peter III deposed. On June 29, he was taken into custody and killed in July under unclear circumstances. In September 1762 Catherine II was crowned in Moscow.

2.3 Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

The empress devoted the first years of her reign to strengthening her power, selecting confidants, studying the state of affairs in the state, as well as a more thorough acquaintance with Russia (in 1763-767 she made three trips to the European part of the country). At this time, a policy of enlightened absolutism began to be pursued in Russia. Considering herself a disciple of the French philosophers of the 18th century, Catherine II strove, with the help of some transformations, to eliminate elements of barbarism from the life of the country, to make Russian society more enlightened, close to Western European, but at the same time to keep the autocracy and its social base - the nobility - intact.

The need for change was largely determined by the prevailing at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II socio-economic situation. During the XVIII v. in Russia, elements of capitalist relations developed, the ideas of entrepreneurship gradually penetrated into various strata of society - the nobility, merchants, and peasants. The particular complexity of the country's internal situation in the early 60s of the XVIII v. gave the peasant movement, in which the factory and monastery peasants participated most actively. All this, along with the ideas of the Enlightenment, determined the internal policy of Russia, especially in the first two decades of the reign of Catherine II.

In the 60s and 0s, it was forbidden to buy peasants for industrial enterprises, freedom of organizing industrial business was declared, all kinds of monopolies were abolished, as well as internal customs duties, which contributed to the inclusion of new lands annexed to the Russian state during the reign of Catherine II in the internal trade: some regions of Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic states, the Black Sea, Azov, Kuban steppes, Crimea. Under Catherine II, considerable attention was paid to the development of the education system: educational homes, institutes for girls, and cadet corps were created. In the 80s. when organizing provincial and uyezd public schools, the principle of non-class teaching was proclaimed.

2.4 Strengthening serfdom

However, along with such progressive measures, which objectively contributed to the development of bourgeois relations, in Russia there is an increase in serfdom. Already in the manifesto of July 6, 1762, which explained the reasons for the coup, one of the main goals of the internal policy of Catherine II was determined to support the landowners in every possible way and keep the peasants in obedience. In the 60s, when the empress was still verbally supporting the idea of freeing the peasants, serfs were forbidden to complain about the master, the landowners were allowed to send their peasants to hard labor. In order to destroy explosive centers in the south, self-government was liquidated and the restructuring of the Cossack districts was carried out - here at the end of the 18th century. serfdom was widespread. Later, during the reign of Catherine II, there was an increase in the exploitation of peasants: serfs made up about 50% of their total number, more than half of them were in corvee, which in the whole country by the 80s. increased to five days a week instead of three days in the 60s; especially widespread in the second half of the 18th century. Trade in serfs spread.

.5 Central control apparatus

One of the characteristic, essential features of the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II was the streamlining of the system of government. The idea of the need for this was expressed already in the manifesto on July 6, 1762, and its implementation began with the reorganization of the Senate. Immediately after the accession of Catherine II to the throne, N.I. Panin (1718-1783), a well-known diplomat, adviser to the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, presented to the Empress a draft of changes in central office... He proposed creating a permanent imperial council, consisting of four secretaries (foreign and internal affairs, military and naval departments) and two advisers. All important issues were to be considered by the Council in the presence of the Empress, who made the final decisions. In addition, it was proposed to divide the Senate into six departments. Project N.I. Panin, as limiting the autocratic power of the empress, was rejected by her, however, in order to speed up and streamline office work, the idea of dividing the Senate was put into practice in 1763. Six departments were created, four of which were located in St. Petersburg: the first was engaged in the most important internal and political affairs, the second - judicial, the third was in charge of the affairs of the western outskirts of the state, communications, higher education, the police; the fourth - military and naval affairs. Two Moscow departments corresponded to the first and second St. Petersburg ones. Thus, during the reign of Catherine II, the role of the central authorities was gradually reduced to general leadership and supervision, the main management issues began to be resolved locally. However, even before the reform of the local government system, the empress made an attempt to give Russia new legislation that would meet the spirit of the times.

2.6 Provincial administration

One or several provinces received the status of governorship and were subordinate to the governor-general appointed by the Senate, whose activities were directly controlled by the empress. The Governor-General had broad powers to oversee all local government and court in the territory entrusted to him. The management of a separate province was entrusted to a governor appointed by the Senate, who headed the provincial government - the main administrative body. In addition to the governor, it included two provincial councilors and a provincial prosecutor. The board dealt with various administrative issues, supervised the administration of the province, and, together with the vice-governor, was in charge of all the police institutions of the province and county. The vice-governor (or the lieutenant of the ruler, i.e. the governor) was appointed by the Senate, could replace the governor, if necessary, and was also the chairman of the treasury, the highest financial body of the province, which controlled state property... She was in charge of collecting taxes, government contracts and buildings, provincial and district treasuries, economic peasants of the former church estates. In addition to administrative, financial and special judicial institutions, a new body was created in each provincial town - a public charity order, in charge of schools, hospitals, almshouses and orphanages. In contrast to the provincial government and the treasury chamber, the order of the public charity had an elective composition.

The district executive body was the lower zemstvo court, headed by a captain-police officer (as a rule, from retired officers). He was considered the head of the county, was in charge of the county administration and the police, oversaw the trade, conducted a preliminary investigation of court cases. He was elected by the nobles for a period of three years at the county meeting, and two assessors were also chosen from among the nobles to help him. The head of the administrative and police power in the district town was the mayor appointed by the Senate.

.8 Judicial system

In 1775, estate-based legal proceedings were introduced in the provinces. The provincial court for the nobles was the supreme zemstvo court, for the urban population - the provincial magistrate, for personally free peasants - the upper punishment. These judicial bodies consisted of elected assessors from the respective estate, headed by specially appointed officials. At each upper zemstvo court, a noble guardianship was established, dealing with the affairs of widows and juvenile orphans of the nobility. In addition, in the provincial cities, special conscientious courts were established to deal with criminal cases related to the insanity of the offender, and civil cases that were resolved through an amicable deal. A chamber of a civil court and a chamber of a criminal court were established as the highest courts in all cases decided in the provincial estate courts. In case of any complaints, they had the right to make the final decision. In each county, there was a county court for the nobility, subordinate to the supreme zemstvo court, for the urban population - a city magistrate, under the jurisdiction of the provincial magistrate. In the districts where more than 10 thousand personally free peasants lived, there was a lower punishment, subordinate to the upper punishment. In the district judicial institutions, judges and assessors were elected from representatives of the estate, whose affairs were in charge, the government appointed only the chairman of the lower punishment. At each city magistrate, an orphan's court was established to deal with the cases of widows and young orphans of the townspeople. The role of supervisory bodies in each province was performed by provincial prosecutors and their assistants - criminal and civil solicitors. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the prosecutors at the upper zemstvo court, the provincial magistrate and the upper punishment, as well as the district solicitor, who performed the duties of the prosecutor in the district.

.8 Noble self-government

In its domestic policy Catherine II was guided primarily by the nobility, and already in the first years of her reign, the foundations of self-government of this estate were laid. In preparation for the convocation of the Legislative Commission in 1766, the nobles of each county were ordered to elect a county leader for two years to preside over the election of deputies to the Commission and in case of any other demands from the outside. supreme power... The reform of 1775 increased the influence of the nobility on local government, gave it an estate organization, granting the rights legal entity district noble assembly. The letter of grant to the nobility in 1785 strengthened the position of this estate. It recorded the previously existing rights and benefits of the nobility: freedom from taxes and corporal punishment, from public service, the right to full ownership of land and serfs, the right to be tried only by equal to oneself, etc. The Charter gave the nobility also some new privileges, in particular, the confiscation of the estates of nobles for criminal offenses was prohibited, the receipt of the nobility was facilitated, etc. In addition, in 1785, the provincial nobility, as before the county, as a whole, was granted the rights of a legal entity. Ultimately, the system of noble government that developed during the reign of Catherine II had the following form. Once every three years, at district and provincial assemblies, the nobles elected, respectively, district and provincial noble leaders and other officials. Only a nobleman whose income from the estate was at least 100 rubles could be elected. in year. Noblemen who had reached the age of 25 and had an officer's rank could participate in the elections. In addition to the election of officials, the noble assemblies resolved issues raised by the government, as well as problems related to class discipline. In addition, the assemblies had the right to present their wishes to the governor or the governor general; a specially elected deputation headed by the leader of the nobility could appeal to the empress.

2.9 City government

In 1785, the Charter of Rights and Benefits to the Cities of the Russian Empire was also published, later called the Charter of Charter to Cities. When developing it, some wishes from the city orders of the Legislative Commission were taken into account, as well as the statutes that determined the structure of the Baltic cities, in particular, Riga. These statutes were based on Magdeburg (after the name of a city in Germany), or German, law, which developed in the Middle Ages on the basis of the right to self-government won by the townspeople, as well as on the basis of acts regulating craft and trade.

From now on, a coat of arms becomes mandatory for each city, which should have been used in all city affairs. It was established that the coat of arms of the county town should also include the emblem of the provincial town. All coats of arms, existing or new, were approved by the empress herself. In accordance with the Certificate of Merit, the population of each city was divided into six categories. Citizens of all categories from the age of 25 had the right once every three years to choose from their midst the mayor and vowels (representatives from the categories) to the general city duma. The nobles in the city duma were not widely represented, since they had the right to refuse to perform city offices. The General City Duma met once every three years or, if necessary, it was in charge of the city's economy, was obliged to give a report to the governor on all income and expenses. In addition, the General Duma elected six representatives (one from each category) to the six-seat Duma, whose meetings were held every week under the chairmanship of the mayor. The Six-Chapter Duma was in charge of collecting taxes, fulfilling state duties, improving the city, its expenses and income, i.e. was the executive body of the city government. The supervision of the city government was carried out by the governor, to whom the six-headed duma could turn for help. The rights of the city as a whole were protected by the city magistrate, who interceded for the city before the higher authorities, made sure that new taxes or duties were not imposed on it without a government order.

3. Counter-reforms of the 80-90s. 19th century

In the second half of the XIX century. Russia was going through major changes in the sphere of public administration. Defeat in Crimean war showed the need for socio-economic, political, cultural transformations and, above all, the abolition of serfdom. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the development of capitalism proceeded at an accelerated pace. Reforms of the 60-70s, aimed at modernizing the economy and social sphere were suspended during the reign Alexander III... The beginning of the XX century. was marked by the rise of the mass workers 'and peasants' movement. The aggravation of socio-political contradictions in Russia led to revolutions. On October 17, 1905, Nicholas II signed the Manifesto, which marked the beginning of the formation of parliamentarism in Russia.

Bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. with all the shortcomings and incompleteness led to noticeable changes in the socio-economic and state structure of Russia. Elements were born the rule of law and civil society, which was certainly progressive. In the field of local self-government, the young Russian bourgeoisie has noticeably strengthened its position. But the conservatism of the nobility and bureaucracy, weakness liberal movement, the clearly insufficient activity of the bourgeoisie, the onslaught of radical revolutionary forces led to the fact that the reforms were interrupted before the planned creation under Alexander II of a representative institution limiting the autocracy. Alexander 3 (1881-1894), who ascended the throne, was notable for his conservatism of thinking, an education insufficient for a state person. He could not understand the plans of his father and see the need to continue reforms. At first, he led a policy of maneuvering between liberalism and reaction. When he became convinced of the weakness of the revolutionary forces, he switched to a reactionary course in domestic politics, intensified the attack on democratic principles, and began to carry out counter-reforms.

March 1881 were rejected by the chairman of the Council of Ministers M.T. Loris-Melikov projects, the adoption of which assumed the expansion of the social base of the monarchy at the expense of the liberal community. On August 14, 1881, the Regulation on Measures to Preserve State Security and Public Peace was adopted, which allowed the declaration of any area in a state of enhanced or emergency protection; every suspected inhabitant of this area could be arrested by order of the local authorities for up to three months, fined, and his case was referred to a military court. This provision gave the right local authorities close educational establishments, industrial and trade enterprises, press organs and suspend

activities of zemstvo assemblies and city councils. According to the law of July 12, 1889, the position of zemstvo chiefs was introduced, who concentrated in their hands all the administrative and judicial power at the local level. Zemsky chief supervised the activities of rural and local institutions. Not a single serious issue was resolved without their approval. The number of magistrates' courts was significantly reduced, and later they were completely abolished. Cases seized from justices of the peace began to be considered by district members of the district court, and city courts appointed by the minister of justice functioned in the cities. The second instance of appeal for these courts was declared by the county congress, which included members of the district court, several city judges and zemstvo chiefs. The cassation instance was the provincial presences, consisting in general of government officials and led by the governor. All this meant the interference of state bodies in legal proceedings and a departure from the principles of the judicial reform of 1864. In order to strengthen the role of the nobility in the judicial system, the qualification for jurors was changed in 1887: the income qualification was increased and the qualification for owners of real estate was lowered. At the same time, the publicity and publicity of the court was limited, which received the right to consider cases at closed doors... In 1890, the new "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" limited the rights of zemstvo institutions and strengthened the position of the nobility. With the introduction of a new circular on "cook's children," the University Charter, the government of Alexander III placed the school under the control of the state. Police surveillance of students was strengthened, and women's higher education was curtailed. According to the new "City Regulation" of June 1892, the property qualification for voters increased significantly, which led to the exclusion of the lower strata of the population from the voters. Thus, in the new and old capitals of Russia, 0.7% of the city's population had the right to elect the City Duma. Thus, the autocracy reorganized the social and political institutions that emerged in the 60-70s, the emerging reformist tendencies were suppressed in the 80-90s. XIX century. The autocracy retained the most important administrative positions in the country.

4. Formation of the Soviet control system

The beginning bourgeois-democratic stage of the revolution is being replaced by the Soviet stage of the country's development. In 1918 the first Constitution of the RSFSR was adopted. After the withdrawal of Russia from the First World War in the spring of 1918, the Civil War in the country took on a full-scale character. In the conditions of the Civil War, new governing bodies appeared - central administrations and centers. In 1922, Soviet republics were formed on the territory of the former Russian Empire, the USSR was formed. In 1924 the first Constitution of the USSR was approved. The constitution established the principles of the dictatorship of the proletariat in the state. The 1936 Constitution proclaimed the victory of socialism in the country. The state apparatus underwent fundamental changes during the Great Patriotic War. Led by I.V. Stalin creates State Committee defense, which concentrated all power in the country.

In the postwar period, the military government bodies were abolished, changes were made in organizational structure ministries. It was decided that the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat had grown into a nationwide socialist state. In subsequent years, the state apparatus underwent reorganization associated with the reform of the command-administrative system. As a result, this only led to the restoration of the basic pre-war control parameters.

.1 Transformations of the October Revolution

The beginning of the official formation new system the state structure in Russia began on October 25, 1917, when the capital of the Russian Empire, Petrograd, was actually under the control of the rebels (the State Bank, telephone exchange, Varshavsky railway station were captured). In this regard, the question arose about the formation of new government bodies. She was identified in as follows... The All-Russian Congress of Soviets was declared the supreme body of power. Between congresses, the functions of this body were assigned to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK). Of its 101 members, 62 were Bolsheviks, 29 were Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, and 6 were Menshevik internationalists. LB was elected Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Kamenev, who was replaced by YM on November 8. Sverdlov. Subsequently, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee created departments that had the right to control, displace the government or change its composition. The Congress of Soviets formed a temporary (i.e., before the convocation Constituent Assembly) the workers 'and peasants' government - the Council of People's Commissars. The Council of People's Commissars received the right to legislative initiative, remaining accountable and responsible before the Congress of Soviets and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. The main link among the central bodies of state administration was the people's commissariat, called upon to head one or another side of state activity.

The Council of People's Commissars was the government of the Russian Republic. The combination of legislative and executive functions was the hallmark of new government.__ On the principles of government formation (multi-party or one-party) at the congress there was a heated discussion. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries, striving to create a broad socialist government coalition, refused to enter the government. Thus, at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the foundations of a new state structure were laid - the Soviet Republic, designed to express and protect the interests of the working people. Speaking about the decisions of the Congress, one cannot but emphasize the importance of the adopted first state acts of the new government: the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land.

4.2 Constitution of the RSFSR 1918

the deepening of the economic crisis that began in connection with the world war and was aggravated by spontaneous processes after October 1917 (the deployment of the nationalization of industry and transport, the beginning of the "black redistribution" of land and the related problems with the supply of cities with allowances);

acute political situation... The primary task of this period was the implementation of the slogan "Peace to the peoples", ie. exit from the First World War (Brest-Litovsk crisis);

party methodological guidelines, which implied that the republic for which the Constitution was drawn up is a transitional stage on the way to a world socialist revolution or a federation of republics;

organizational problems associated with the transfer of the government from Petrograd to Moscow.

April 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee decided to create a Commission to draw up a draft Constitution. It was chaired by Ya.M. Sverdlov. The project was published on July 3, 1918, and on the same day it was submitted for approval. The Central Committee party, before discussion at the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 4-10, 1918), and adopted at a meeting on July 10.

A system of state administration was enshrined in the Constitution, the basis of which was declared to be the Soviets of Workers ', Peasants', Red Army and Cossack Deputies, as a form of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The foundations of the national policy and the principles of the Soviet Federation were proclaimed and legislatively consolidated. The first four chapters (Section One) repeated the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People, adopted at the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets in January 1918.

In chapter five of the second section, a number of "general provisions" were set out, including: the federal nature of the republic (Art. 11); separation of church from state and school from church (v. 13); freedom of speech, opinion and assembly for workers, guaranteed by the provision of technical means for the publication of newspapers, brochures and books, as well as meeting rooms with furnishings, lighting and heating (art. 15); recognition of labor as the duty of all citizens to work with the proclamation of the principle "He who does not work, let him not eat" (Article 18); universal military service for the working people, “the non-labor elements are assigned to carry out other military duties” (Article 19); the right of citizenship for all workers living on the territory of Russia and the right of asylum for foreigners persecuted for political or religious reasons; elimination of any discrimination on racial or national grounds (Art. 20-22). Attention is drawn to Art. 9 and 23, where it was determined that the Constitution was designed for a transitional period and its main task "is to establish the dictatorship of the urban and rural proletariat and the poorest peasantry ... in order to establish socialism, in which there will be no division into classes, no state power" (Article 9), and to achieve this goal and "guided by the interests of the working class as a whole", individuals and separate groups they are deprived of rights "which are used by them to the detriment of the interests of the socialist revolution" (Article 23).

4.2.1 The highest authority

Chapters six through eight dealt with the organization of the central government. The highest power belonged to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which consisted of representatives of city Soviets (at the rate of one deputy per 25 thousand voters) and provincial Soviets (one deputy per 125 thousand inhabitants). The All-Russian Congress of Soviets elected the All-Russian Central executive committee Soviets (All-Russian Central Executive Committee) with no more than 200 members, which exercised all the power of the Congress in the periods between congresses and was the highest legislative, administrative and controlling body (Article 31).

Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom), whose functions included "general management of the affairs of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic", as well as the publication of "decrees, orders, instructions" (Article 38). The members of the Council of People's Commissars headed the 18 people's commissariats formed (Article 42), as well as the colleges created at each of them. Chapter nine defined the functions of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, in particular, the approval, amendment and addition of the Constitution, the change in the boundaries and competence of regional Soviet unions, the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace, national legislation, etc. Chapters ten to twelve were devoted to the organization of regional , provincial, district, volost congresses of Soviets and the formation of city and village councils.

4.2.2 Electoral system

In the thirteenth chapter, electoral rights were determined. The right to elect and be elected was recognized as "all earning means of livelihood by productive and socially useful labor", soldiers and the disabled. However, the exception was made by persons using hired labor for the purpose of making a profit, living on interest on capital, private merchants and intermediaries, monks and clergymen, employees and agents of the former police, a special corps of gendarmes and security departments, as well as members of the house that reigned in Russia. Although it was proclaimed that the Constitution is the most democratic in the world, it bore a pronounced class character. This was determined, first of all, by the procedure for granting the right to vote. In addition, the Constitution provided workers with advantages in the election of the highest authorities. Thus, the provincial (i.e., rural) congresses of Soviets elected delegates to all-Russian congresses from the number of voters four times greater than that of the city Soviets. Thirdly, in order to achieve “the main goal of expropriating the bourgeoisie and preparing conditions for universal equality of citizens of the Republic in the production and distribution of wealth, the financial policy of the RSFSR sets itself the task of providing all the necessary means at the disposal of the Soviet authorities without stopping before the invasion of the right of private property (Art. . 79). The councils were given the broadest rights. On the territory of the corresponding administrative units, they were recognized by the highest bodies of state power and were subordinate only to the higher Soviets. At the same time, the principle of democratic centralism was steadily introduced into the basis of the functioning of all bodies of Soviet power, which, as it was believed, created the most favorable conditions both for the deployment of local initiative and for the protection of national interests.

The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the internal politics of Catherine's time. Under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. The main idea was to criticize the outgoing feudal society.

Imperial Council and Xie transformation nata. On December 15, 1763, according to Panin's project, the Senate was transformed. It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, headed by the prosecutor general. Each department had specific powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost the legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Ekaterina and her office with state secretaries.

Stacked commission. An attempt was made to convene the Legislated Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out comprehensive reforms. On December 14, 1766, Catherine II published the Manifesto on the convocation of the commission and decrees on the procedure for elections to deputies. More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from rural population(state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod. As a guiding document of the Commission of 1767, the Empress prepared the "Order" - a theoretical substantiation of enlightened absolutism. The first meeting took place in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow. Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be disbanded.

Provincial reform. On November 7, 1775, the "Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted - a reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces, each of which consisted of 10-12 counties. A uniform system of provincial government was established: the governor appointed by the emperor, the provincial government exercising executive power, the Treasury Chamber (collection of taxes, their spending), the Order of public charity (schools, hospitals, orphanages, etc.). Courts were created, built on a strictly estate principle - for nobles, townspeople, state peasants. The provincial division, introduced by Catherine II, survived until 1917;

Estate legislation... On April 21, 1785, two letters were issued: "Charter to the nobility" (enshrined all the estate rights and privileges of the nobles) and "Charter to cities" (formalized the rights and privileges of the "third estate" - the townspeople). The urban estate was divided into six categories, received limited rights of self-government, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma. The clergy lost their autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.

The Imperial Council, which consisted of 8 people in 1769. replaced by the Council at the highest court, which focused its activities on domestic politics and included all the leaders of the central government.

Powers of the Senate under Catherine II: the department concentrated executive functions, judicial. Since 1763 The Senate is the highest administrative and judicial institution, consists of 6 departments: 1st - state finance and secret office work, 2nd - judicial cases (supervision, generalization of practice, personnel selection, review of cases), 3rd provincial cases ( administration, finance), 4th - by military affairs, 5th - by local administration, 6th - by local courts. In the 70-80s of the 18th century. most of the colleges are liquidated or reorganized, but in 1796. they are again. The centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus reaches the limit, it is a closed and self-sufficient system. Under Catherine II, institutions appeared directly under the emperor, secretaries of state (1763). In 1762. The Office of Secret Investigative Affairs is abolished (its activity caused active discontent on the part of the nobility) and in its place the Secret Expedition of the Senate (which indicated the renewed political activity Senate). The secret expedition was subordinate to the Governor-General and was under the control of the Empress (Catherine II). The secret expedition set up special secret commissions of inquiry to investigate specific cases. These bodies were of an emergency nature and were formed in accordance with the political situation.

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