An important role in the lexical system of a language is played by antonyms - words that express the opposite: strong - weak, true - false, enter - exit, good - evil. Antonymy is the expression of opposites in language. -
Differences in objects and phenomena of reality, significant from the point of view of human practice, when assessed, are reflected in language as opposites. “The thinking mind (mind) sharpens the blunted difference of the different, the simple variety of ideas, to an essential difference, to the opposite.” Ontologically, the opposite is an essential difference that can be expressed in language as means of certain nomenclatures (for example, units of measurement of length, height, time, age, temperature, speed, price, etc.), and in special words - antonyms cf.: The patient has a temperature of 35.6° (36.6°, 39.8°) and The patient has a low (normal) , high) temperature. The evaluative qualification of temperature difference made it possible to conceptualize it as an opposite: low - high (temperature in language is always based on a certain reference point (norm). in this case- this concept normal temperature human body(36° - 37°); Wed also: high - medium - low (height); early - on time - late (to come).
Antonymy is an expression of opposition within the same entity, an opposite definition of it. Differentiating this or that essence, antonyms as signs of a unity “bifurcated” into opposites simultaneously determine the limit of manifestation of some quality, property, action, and indicate the inextricable connection of opposites: hot and cold are the boundaries of the qualitative assessment of temperature, mutually negating polarities and, together with the conjugate interpenetrating components of the whole.
The logical basis of antonymy is formed by incompatible opposites species concepts, included in the scope of the corresponding generic concept: “light” - “heavy” (weight), “warm” - “cold” (temperature change), “true” - “false” (correspondence to reality). In relation to antonymy, we should talk about two types of opposition. The contrast is expressed by such specific concepts “X” and “Y”, between which there is possible an intermediate, middle concept “Z” and which not only negate each other, but are also characterized by their positive content: “cold” - (“coolness”
ny", "warm") - "hot". The complementary opposition is represented by such specific concepts “X” and “Y”, which mutually complement each other to the point of a generic concept, so that no other, intermediate concept is possible between them: “true” - “false”. Like contraries, these concepts are extreme, limiting on the axis of opposition. In this case, the generic concept is exhausted by two opposing specific ones, each of which is characterized by its positive content; the negation of one of them gives a strictly defined meaning of the other: “untrue” means “false.”
It must be borne in mind that the logical basis of antonymy is not formed by contradictory concepts, that is, relations of the type “A” - “not-A”: “young” - “not young”, “cold” - “not cold”. They differ qualitatively from complementary relations in that the second concept (“not-A”) here is very vague, and therefore cannot be extreme, limiting on the axis of opposition (for example, “middle-aged” is both “middle-aged” and “elderly” ", and "old"). True opposites are the limiting species concepts “young” - “old”, “cold” - “hot”.
When studying antonymy, it is important to take into account not only the “deep” logical, but also the actual linguistic, categorical properties of the opposed units. The logical model of opposition, discussed above, is realized in language as antonymy not in all words, but only in those that denote quality, the opposing direction of actions, states, signs, properties, as well as in a limited range of words with the meaning of spatial and temporal coordinates. That is why words with qualitative and “directional” semantics such as light - heavy (about an object, a question), perfect - imperfect (about beauty, a work of art), sit down - get up (on a chair, from a chair) are antonyms, and similar or Even the formally coinciding passenger - cargo (about transport), perfect - imperfect (form in grammar), sit - stand do not express true antonymy.
All units belonging to one or another lexical category have a certain common feature, for example, synonyms have equivalence. Antonyms also have such an invariant feature. This is the ultimate negation, revealed in the interpretation of one of them and testifying to their extreme location on the axis of opposition: smart - stupid ('extremely stupid'), true - false ('untrue', ultimately denying the truth), enter - exit (enter - 'while walking, begin to be in some room, somewhere', go out - 'while walking, stop being in some room, somewhere'), but start - stop can be interpreted as 'start - not start', for example , start singing, stop singing ('start not singing'), and then the difference between the verbs will be reduced to deep negation, which is also extreme, since they denote diametrically opposite actions.
Revealing a high degree of similarity in semantic structures and interpretations, antonyms differ in one essential feature (base) by the opposition of opposite semes: hot ('temperature above normal') - cold ('temperature below normal'), summer ('the warmest time of the year') - Winter is the coldest time of the year').
Thus, the essence of antonymy consists in expressing the mutual ultimate negation of semantically homogeneous lexical units X and Y with the meaning of quality and/or direction:
XY[ = (PH)max],
where the second word is the maximum (max) negation of the first. Due to the nature of their meanings, antonyms are used in language primarily and mainly to express opposites.
Antonymy as a lexical category is a semantic relationship of opposite meanings, expressed formally by different words, which implement the function of opposition and other related functions in the text.
Like synonyms, antonyms are characterized by equipollent opposition and contrasting distribution (see /, 6). They also have both general, coinciding, and individual compatibility: summer day - summer night, warm day - warm night, but: sunny, fine day and moonlit, deep night. However, due to the fact that antonyms correspond to incompatible concepts (“cold” - “hot”, “true” - “false”), their meanings, unlike synonyms, are not aimed at clarifying the designated objects, actions, signs, but at their opposition or comparison. The onomasiological aspect of considering lexical units is predominant here too.
Classification of antonyms
Antonyms are classified based on their formal and semantic properties.
From the point of view of structural classification, antonyms are divided into multi-root (high - low, cheerful - sad, left - right, loud - quiet, rise - decline, everything - nothing, in - from) and single-root ones, which are distinguished by prefixes of opposite meanings (fly - fly away, get on - get off, tie up - untie, import - export) or
form an opposite as a result of adding a prefix to a word, giving it the opposite meaning (cultural - uncultured, tasty - tasteless, scientific - anti-scientific, strong - powerless).
A special unproductive type is enantiosemy, or intraword antonymy - opposite meanings of the same word: slip up (intentionally) - ‘make a slip’ - slip up2 (unintentionally) - ‘make a mistake’; lend\ (someone money) - borrow (someone money). Speech enantiosemy is much more common: Oh, and smart! (= ‘stupid’); Well, clean! (about a dirty suit, appearance person). As you can see, the opposition is emphasized here by different lexical compatibility, constructive conditionality, and different intonational design of opposite LSV words.
Semantic classification antonyms is based on the type of opposition they express. Depending on this, they are divided into classes of antonyms.
- First grade. Antonyms expressing qualitative opposition implement contralateral opposition in the language and reveal a gradual (stepped) opposition, which characterizes a gradual change in quality, property, attribute, etc.:
і і і і і
-2 -1 0 +1 +2
Wed: beautiful - (pretty - [ordinary in appearance] - nondescript) - ugly; easy - (not difficult - [of medium difficulty] - not easy) - difficult, etc. True antonyms are the symmetrical extreme members of the paradigm."
Qualitative adjectives with the prefixes ne and unform antonyms with the corresponding unprefixed words only if they represent the extreme members of the paradigm: literate - illiterate, illiterate; convincing - unconvincing; strong - powerless (cf. intermediate members of such oppositions: illiterate, not entirely convincing, weak). Oppositions such as young - middle-aged, tall - short do not form antonymies, since they express contradictory concepts.
Adjacent to the first class of antonyms is a small group of designations for temporal and spatial coordinates, which are not qualitative words, but have peculiar stepwise paradigms: the day before yesterday - yesterday - today - tomorrow - pos
Lez tomorrow, front - middle - rear (about the car).
- Second class. Antonyms expressing complementarity (complementarity) make up a relatively small number of pairs of words, the paradigms of which are represented by only two terms (unless, of course, their synonyms are taken into account):
For antonyms of this class the following statement is valid: PA-vY and “IY X
(untrue -gt; false, unfalse -gt; true).
Examples of complementary antonyms that mutually complement each other to a whole include the following pairs: wet - dry, war - peace, voluntary - forced, life - death, possible - impossible, finite - infinite, observe - violate.
Words expressing strict complementarity are characterized by the classifying, delimiting (disjunctive) nature of their meanings: sick - healthy, truth - false, true - false. In expressions like He is not entirely healthy; This was a half-truth; we are dealing with everyday and “softened” (euphemistic) use of words, the true meaning of which is ‘sick’, ‘untruth, lie’.
- Third class. Antonyms expressing the opposite direction of actions, properties and characteristics form a vector, directed opposition, widely represented in the language and remaining for a long time outside linguistic research. This is an antonym such as entering - leaving, rising - falling, dressing - undressing, accelerating - slowing down; sunrise - sunset, assembly - disassembly, increase - decrease; supporter - opponent, revolution - counter-revolution, legal - illegal, forward - backward, in - from, to - from, etc.
Antonyms are characterized primarily by contact use in certain contexts, in which their most important functions are revealed, for example: opposition: Ivan Ivanovich’s head looks like a radish with its tail down; Ivan Nikiforovich's head on a radish, tail up (G.); You are rich, I am very poor... (P.);
mutual exclusion: He had one single opinion about people - good or bad, he either believed them or not (Sim.);
alternation, a sequence of facts, of which one cannot be simultaneously with the other, but is possible after the other: He either put out the candle, then lit it again (Ch.);
the transformation of one opposite into another, contradiction as a combination of opposite principles in something: Everything suddenly became complex - the simplest (A. T.);
End! How resonant this word is.
There are so many and few thoughts in it...
(M. Yu. Lermontov)
covering the entire class of objects, the entire phenomenon, action, relationship, property, quality by indicating their opposites: - You won’t believe it, they tormented me from all sides, everything, everyone, both enemies... and friends (D.); Wed: from young to old, from morning to evening.
ANTONYMY
Definition of lexical antonymy..Despite the different (narrower or, conversely, broader understanding of antonymy, its researchers have always agreed on one thing: antonymy and antonyms are an expression of opposites in language.
<…>Central to the definition of lexical antonymy is the concept of opposition. Generally speaking, depending on conditions, both linguistic (the nature of the context, semantic accents, means of expression, etc.) and extra-linguistic (a certain situation, age, specialty of people, their experience), “opposite” may turn out to be quite various items, phenomena and corresponding words. Antonymy, a phenomenon of language, must be defined as a semantic opposition enshrined in the norms of word usage.
The scientific definition of opposition is based on its philosophical and logical interpretation. K. Marx distinguished two types of opposition: 1) opposition within one essence (opposite definitions of the same essence) and 2) opposition between two essences (real extremes).<…>
The opposition underlying antonymy, as already mentioned, is a difference within the same essence (quality, property, relationship, movement, state, etc.), extreme opposing manifestations of such an essence, their polar definitions: light heavy(weight), near-far(distance from something), rise and fall(vertical movement), health-illness(activity, body conditions: normal and disturbed) and so on.
The logical basis of antonymy is formed by incompatible opposite species concepts (contrary and complementary). Two concepts are opposite (contrary), “...if between the phenomena conceivable in them, there is the greatest difference within the limits established by the generic concept.” Each of these concepts is characterized by a specific positive content. Conflicting (contradictory) generic concepts represent a simple negation of each other and are not the ultimate manifestation of the quality, property, etc., expressed by the generic concept. They express a “weakened” opposition and do not form a logical model of antonymy: “big” - “small” (cf. “small”), “young” - “middle-aged” or “young” - “elderly” (cf. “old”) .<…>
Modern semantics and lexicography are characterized by a broad understanding of antonymy, which is not limited to only qualitative and different-rooted words and presupposes a certain typology of semantically opposite words and the opposite itself. We will distinguish the following varieties.
1. Contrary opposition is expressed by the extreme symmetrical members of an ordered set (contrary species concepts), between which there is a middle, intermediate member: “young” -< «нестарый», «немолодой», «пожилой»... >- “old”, “cold” -< «негорячий», «прохладный», «теплый»…>- “hot”, etc. This is the most characteristic and widespread type of opposition: it underlies the antonymy of words containing an indication of quality. With certain reservations, this also includes the opposition of basic concepts-coordinates, which presuppose a “middle” (reference point): “left” - “right”, “top” - “bottom”, “here” - “there”, etc.
2. Complementary opposition (or complementarity, English complementarity), in contrast to contrariness, is characterized by the fact that between the opposed members (species concepts), here complementing each other to a single whole (generic concept) and being limiting in nature, there is no middle ground, intermediate member; “alive” - “dead”, “true” - “false”, “possible” - “impossible”, “together” - “apart”, “occupied” - “free” (about place).
Complementary opposition should be distinguished from simple contradictoryness (contradictory concepts) such as “young” - “not young” (i.e. “middle-aged,” “elderly,” “old”), which is a weak, weakened opposition due to the uncertainty of the second term opposition and not expressing true antonymy. In order to express the true opposite, the second term must be designated more specifically (“middle-aged” ® “old”).
3. Vector opposition (from the Latin vector “carrying, carrying”, directed segment) represents the opposition of multidirectional actions, movements, signs: “rise” - “descend”, “enter” - “exit”, “revolutionary” - “counter-revolutionary” " and so on.
All varieties (options) of opposition that underlie the corresponding semantic types and classes of antonyms exhibit a common (invariant) feature of antonymy - the presence of extreme negation in the interpretation of one of the members of the antonymic pair: 1) young - old[old =“extremely middle-aged”], 2) true - false[false== untrue, completely opposite to true], 3) enter - exit[enter -"while walking, begin to be in X", go out -"while walking, stop being in X" , start-stop can be represented as “start” - “not start”, for example, start singing - stop singing(= "start not to sing"); such negation is extreme in nature, since vector verbs enter-exit denote oppositely directed actions]. This circumstance gives grounds to define antonymy as a relation of extreme negation between two lexical units that differ in one distinction - opposite semes (+s and -s):
Thus, antonymy acts as signs of a unity “bifurcated” into opposites, simultaneously defining the limit of manifestation of a particular quality, property, action, relationship and pointing to the inextricable connection of opposites in each specific manifestation of the essence.
The logical model of opposition is concretized in language: it becomes a model of antonymy of words denoting quality or expressing the opposite direction of actions, states, signs and properties. Taking into account the nature and character of the linguistic objects themselves, which form oppositions in language, is extremely important for distinguishing between antonymy and similar oppositions that do not form it. From antonyms light-heavy, white-black(about color) it is necessary to distinguish between contrasts of type passenger-truck(about a car, transport)/ White black(cf. black coal, those. ordinary, and white coal driving force water), where there is no qualitative assessment value (passenger-truck) or it is lost as a result of transferring values (white/black coal- about fuel, energy source). Type contrasts stand-lie also do not form antonyms, since they do not indicate mutual opposition, unlike the correlative pair of antonymous verbs get up-lie down, rise and fall (from ground to ground), expressing vector opposition.
A polysemantic word can be included in several antonymic oppositions at once with its various lexical-semantic variants (light1(about the suitcase) - heavy; light2 (about gait) - heavy, heavy; light3("weak", about the wind) - strong; light4 (about breakfast) - dense, satisfying; light5 (about punishment) - heavy, harsh; light6(about the question) - difficult etc.), forming a whole series of different oppositions.
To summarize what has been said, we define the lexical category of antonymy as a semantic relationship of opposite meanings expressed by formally different words (LDW), which implement the function of opposition and other related functions in the text. Two (or more) LSVs are antonyms if they have different signs (lexemes) and opposite meanings (sememes). Like synonymy, this category is primarily onomasiological.
Basic functions of antonyms. Syntagmatically, antonyms are characterized by a high degree of co-occurrence in the text. Such contact use of antonyms is the most characteristic of them, makes possible their regular opposition in speech, reveals the nature of antonymy as an expression of extreme negation within the same essence: Man flows, and he has all the possibilities: he was stupid, became smart; was angry, became kind and vice versa.(L.N. Tolstoy. Diary).
In most cases, words (LSV) with opposite meanings appear in the text in certain “diagnostic” contexts, realizing certain semantic functions:
(not) X, but Y; X but Y with the meaning of opposition (i.e. contrastive comparison): You young, A I old ( L . N. Tolstoy. War and Peace); Her [piggy bank] unlocked but locked failed...(A.P. Chekhov. Trouble);
KHúKU, KHúKU, where the intonation of connection, enumeration and opposition acts as a formal syntactic means of expressing semantic relations: At heart I am some kind of pathetic coward; To me honor, dishonor- anyway... (N.A. Nekrasov. Rejected) ; Yourich, I am very poor…(A. S. Pushkin. You and me);
X or Y with two main types of semantic relations: dividing (strong) disjunction - He had only one opinion about people - good or bad, he either believed them or not(K.M. Simonov. The Living and the Dead) - And connecting-separation (weakened) disjunction - ...he knew for sure that now was not the time or place for memories, good or bad- indifferent. K.M. Simonov. Living and dead); in the first case, union or used in an exclusive sense (or A, or IN), in the second - in non-exclusive (or A, or IN, or both together);
then X, then Y with the basic meaning of alternation, a sequence of facts, of which one cannot be simultaneously with the other, excludes the other, but is possible after the other: The woman was rushing around the chest of drawers and then untied a warm scarf around your neck, That again tied it his…(K.G. Paustovsky. A Tale of Life);
from X to Y, from X to Y, from X to Y and others with the meaning of covering the entire class of objects, phenomena, qualities, properties, etc., divided into opposites: from beginning to end, (move) from sadness to joy; compare:
Unpretentious, alien to the habit of wine, tobacco, busy with morning to evening complex, hard work, he did not know how to take care of himself at all, but kept a vigilant eye on the lives of his comrades(A.M. Gorky).
X®Y, X=Y with the meaning of transforming one opposite into another, identifying them: All of a sudden has become difficult- the most simple (A.N. Tolstoy. Viper); In a hostile fight winnings one there is a loss another(P.M. Ershov. Directing as practical psychology);
X and Y with the basic meanings of conjunction (connection, “addition”) of opposites, as well as their comparison and even opposition: This passion burned in him days and nights (A.M. Gorky. Foma Gordeev); Particularly noteworthy is the meaning of contradiction as a result of the specific function of antonyms, indicating the dialectical “bifurcation” of the subject:
Who brought us together? Spring, wine and youth,
My Friends and secret enemies...
(I.V. Severyanin. Thirteenth meeting)
As can be seen even from a brief and incomplete listing of the main functions of words with opposite meanings, antonyms are used in language primarily to express opposition in specific contexts. ((not) X, but Y, X, but Y, X//Y and etc.). As units expressing mutually exclusive concepts, antonyms often act (unlike synonyms with their non-mutually exclusive meanings) to indicate disjunction (separation), alternation of something. Finally, being units that are extremely remote on the “scale of measurement” of quality, property, action, etc., such words serve to designate the coverage of an entire class of objects, properties, etc. (from X to Y), comparison of objects properties, qualities, actions. Even in coordinating (“synonymous”) contexts, antonyms can express opposition.
The similarity in the meanings of words, so significant among antonyms, is expressed in the great coincidence of their spheres lexical compatibility. Such words, as a rule, display a common, coinciding compatibility with words of the same semantic classes (LSG): cf. hot water- cold water(cf. liquid; air...), hot oven - cold oven(cf. battery, pipe, stove...), hot rays - cold rays, hot cabbage soup - cold cabbage soup(cf. soup, porridge, tea, coffee...), hot forehead-cold forehead(cf. hands and other parts of the body) and many others. etc. Non-coinciding (individual) compatibility reflects those cases of the use of antonyms when each of them can be combined only with those words that, in their meaning (and the nature of the designated object) correspond to the nature of either the “positive” or “negative” components contrasted by the antonymous words , where the difference in such components cannot be neutralized: [(+) - “above normal temperature”] hot geyser; hot sun; boiling water hot like fire - cold snow; cold, like ice; cold beer on ice[(-)-"below normal temperature"], but not vice versa.
True antonyms are characterized by contrasting distribution, reflecting their equivalent oppositions; from the point of view of their volumetric relations, antonyms are considered as units corresponding to incompatible opposite concepts.
Structural and semantic types of antonyms. Antonym classes. Paradigmatically, antonyms exhibit highly similar semantic structures and component composition of meanings, which corresponds, as we have seen, high degree coincidence of distributions of these lexical units. Antonyms (antonymic meanings) turn out to be opposed only according to one significant differential feature (“positive”/“negative”), so that one of the components of the semantic structure of this word denies (and, moreover, extremely) the corresponding component of a word that is opposite to it in meaning: cf. Expensive"the maximum (for this case) price is higher than the norm" - cheap“the marginal (for this case) price is below the norm”; easy"underweight" - heavy“overweight”; enter"to go inside something" - go out"to come from within something"; X loves U-ka "X longs (really wants) to do good U-ku" - X hates Y"X longs (really wants) to cause (= do) harm to Y." As you can see, the homogeneity of the semantic structure of antonyms is manifested in the uniformity of their interpretation.
Antonymity thus finds expression in the semantic content of words. It acts as a special characteristic lexical meaning as a specifically linguistic reflection of differences and contradictions in objects and phenomena of the objective world.
The relations of antonyms in paradigmatics can be considered at the formal (structural) and semantic level (in accordance with the type or variety of the opposite they express). These principles form the basis for the classification of lexical units with opposite meanings.
From the point of view of structural classification, antonyms are divided into 1) multi-rooted, where the opposite is expressed by different stems ( high - low, strong - weak, wide - narrow, early - late, day - night, forward - backward, light - turn off, grow stronger - weaken, everyone - no one etc.), and 2) single-root, the antonymity of which is conveyed either with the help of mutually opposite in meaning prefixes attached to the same word, or by adding a prefix that gives the original word an opposite meaning (bring in - take out, roll in - roll up, wrap up - unscrew, underload - overload and many more etc.). A special, unproductive type of antonymy is the opposite of meanings within the same word - enantiosemy (or “intra-word antonymy”), which finds external expression in the context, in the nature of the syntactic and lexical connections of the word (in its different, opposite meanings) with other words: lend someone money"to lend" - borrow from someone money"to borrow; make a special reservation"make a reservation" - make a mistake by accident"make a mistake."
Depending on the type of opposition expressed, antonyms reveal the following main semantic types.
1. Antonyms expressing qualitative opposition. Qualitative words, which form the largest class, the “core” of antonymy in the Russian language, realize the opposite. They are characterized by gradual (or stepwise) oppositions. Complete, true antonymy is expressed by the extreme symmetrical members of such opposition, while the middle ones indicate an increase (or decrease) in the degree of quality: easy (simple, trivial), not difficult, medium difficulty, not easy, difficult (complicated); beautiful (elegant, charming, delightful...), pretty (attractive, pretty), [ordinary in appearance], homely (unattractive, unsightly, unsympathetic...), ugly (ugly, scary). Wed. Also easy-difficult, ease-difficulty, beautiful-ugly, beauty-ugliness, ugliness and other derived words that are semantically correlated with qualitative adjectives.
Special mention should be made of the contrast between lexical units distinguished by the absence/presence of a prefix Not-: this opposition expresses antonymic relations if the words are extreme, limiting members of the antonymic paradigm (successful - unsuccessful, tasty - tasteless, polite - impolite, competent - illiterate, satisfied-dissatisfied, interesting-uninteresting, convincing-unconvincing and so on.); if similar adjectives are not extreme, then they represent an incomplete, softened opposite, without forming antonyms (young-middle-aged, Wed old). Console Not- thus expresses in language contradictory concepts (such as young-middle-aged, those. X-not-X), and opposite concepts (successful-unsuccessful, those. X-Y), which is ultimately determined by the place occupied by a word with a negative particle in the antonymic paradigm:
(+)X not-X Y(-)
young middle-aged old
successful (not quite successful) unsuccessful
Hence, it follows that the relationship of words is proportional according to their “semantic distance” - young: old = successful: unsuccessful. Antonymous adjectives With Not- may have synonyms, which leads to variation in their paradigms, for example: serious-frivolous (frivolous), polite - impolite (rude). The situation is similar with the oppositions harmful-harmless (useful) And strong-powerless (weak).
As noted above, this can conditionally include the designations of the main temporal, spatial and other coordinates that reveal, if not qualitative, then at least “stepwise” oppositions: the day before yesterday, yesterday, today, tomorrow, the day after tomorrow and so on.
2. Antonyms expressing complementarity (complementarity). Complementary opposition is expressed by a relatively small number of antonyms. It is not gradual, since the entire scale of opposition is represented here by two opposite terms that complement each other, so that the negation of one of them gives the value of the other: Not+ idle = married: Wed: blind - sighted, wet - dry, finite - endless, together - apart, open-closed(About Store), true-false, man-woman and so on.
3. Antonyms expressing the opposite direction of actions, characteristics and properties. A large number of words expressing vector opposition (mutual opposition) are represented by verbs, adjectives, verbal nouns, adverbs and other categories of words expressing the direction of actions and characteristics: disassemble, assemble, enlarge - reduce, enter - exit, bend-unbend, sell-buy, guess - guess, get poorer - get richer and under.
<…>The oppositional, distributive and volumetric relations of lexical units here are the same as those of words of the previous variety, however, the differentiating semes are characterized in this case by the opposite direction: (+) (s®) - (s) (-).
In accordance with the indicated semantic types of antonymy, three classes of antonyms are distinguished. The class of antonyms is a set of lexical units that implement one of the types of opposition Anti1, Anti2 and Anti3.
We can also talk about the so-called antonyms-conversions , which describe the same situation (action, attitude) from the point of view of its different participants: “Dynamo” wins against “Spartak” = “Spartak” loses to “Dynamo”, Brother is younger than sister = Sister is older than brother. However, antonym-conversives do not form the original class of units. They arise due to the special use of antonyms that belong to the types mentioned above and have the property of denoting “reverse” relations between the participants in the situation. Wed. First he lost and then he won the fight(antonyms of the third type, correlated with the same person) and the corresponding conversives of the above sentences (Conv Anti3).
<…>A small group of words expressing a special kind of opposite is formed by the so-called pragmatic antonyms. The opposition is expressed here not purely semantically, but through the frequent figurative use in speech (in the practice of using words) of mutually opposed lexical units, use equated to opposition: fathers - children "(ancestors - descendants = old generation - young generation), earth - heaven, heaven - hell, soul - body, mind - heart and etc.
Identical or very close antonymic relationships can be expressed using formally different means that form variants. In this case, two words or even several words are opposed to the same antonym (with the same meaning): true-false, untrue; everywhere, everywhere, nowhere: friend-enemy. enemy: literate-illiterate, illiterate, strong-weak, powerless and many more etc.
From true (exact) antonyms it is necessary to distinguish “approximate” words (LSV)-quasi-antonyms that are not entirely accurate in their component composition and interpretation or on other grounds: these are semantically heterogeneous, disproportionate, asymmetrical lexical units (great- "Very big"- small, adore -"to have feelings for someone strong love, love very much" - hate, stupid - not stupid: Wed big - small, love - hate, stupid - smart), stylistically heterogeneous, different times and other oppositions (remember-forget (colloquial), marry-get-unmarried (simple), spirit-flesh (obsolete): Wed recall- forget, marry-divorce, spirit-body). Quasi-antonyms (broader speech antonyms), like true lexical opposites, play an important role in language as the most important means expressions of contrast and other meanings associated with it.
LEXICAL ANTONYMY IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
2. Matvievskaya and antithesis // Russian language at school, 1978, No. 5.
3. Novikov contrast and lexical antonymy // Russian language at school, 1966, No. 4.
5. Shmelev Russian language. Vocabulary. – M., 1977.
A manifestation of systemic relations in vocabulary (along with synonymy) is the correlative opposition of words that are opposite in terms of the most significant semantic feature. Words with opposite meanings, used to name contrasting concepts, are called antonyms (Greek. anti"against" and onyma"Name"): big - small, distant - close, light - darkness.
The contrast of antonyms is correlative because in language only words that denote somewhat related, logically compatible concepts enter into such relationships. For example, words that characterize qualitative features are semantically (and logically) correlative ( black – white, bitter – sweet), emotions ( love - hate, fun - sadness, affection - rudeness), temporal and spatial concepts ( today - tomorrow, winter - summer, top - bottom).
In the event that incompatible concepts are opposed, then the words calling them are not antonyms: Entered the room not young, But beautiful woman(the highlighted words cannot be characterized as antonyms, since they are not correlated - they characterize a person with different sides). Wed. Also: stood in front of us low, But long fence. In such cases, we are dealing with logical opposition, and not with lexical antonymy.
A differential feature of antonymy is the presence of the seme ‘not’, which is part of the “negative member” of the antonymic opposition. An antonym containing the seme ‘not’ includes in its meaning the entire content of the “positive member” ( hungry"hungry" - well-fed"not hungry")
The meanings of antonyms are called opposite, since they are mutually exclusive (an object cannot be deep and shallow, high and low, smart and stupid at the same time).
IN Lately the content of the concept of “antonyms” has expanded significantly. Antonyms have traditionally been words that contain qualitative assessment. Modern researchers classify as antonyms words that denote actions, feelings, evaluation, spatial and temporal relationships.
Words denoting specific objects or naming their quantity, names of people, geographical names cannot have antonyms: bark, snow, notebook, Ivan, Nina, Alps, ten, forty. Many pronouns do not enter into antonymic relationships: I, you, he, you, then.
A polysemantic word in its different meanings can have different antonyms. So, an antonym for the word curious in the meaning of “curious, interested” there will be an adjective indifferent, and the antonym for the same word in the meaning “interesting, arousing curiosity” will be the adjective uninteresting. Sometimes a polysemantic word can have the same antonym for its different meanings: big house – little house , big event - small event(in the first case the word big denotes the size of the object, and in the second - the significance of the phenomenon). Identical antonyms have different meanings for adjectives deep And warm: deep lake – shallow lake, deep thought - shallow thought; warm tea - cold hour, warm meeting - cold meeting.
A polysemantic word, in its direct, basic meaning, may not have an antonym, but enters into antonymic relationships with other words in its figurative meanings. Yes, word deaf V direct meaning“deaf, hard of hearing” does not have an antonym, but in figurative meanings the antonymy arises: deaf"deserted" - noisy; deaf“tightly fastened, closed” - open.
Most polysemantic words have two or three antonymous pairs, in some cases the number of such pairs increases. For example, adjective fresh with its direct and figurative meaning, it has five antonymic pairs: 1) fresh"cool" - stuffy(evening, morning); 2) fresh"clean" - turbid(about water); 3) fresh"just cooked" - stale(about bread); 4) fresh"unsalted" - salty(cucumbers, fish); 5) fresh“new, original” - formulaic(about thoughts).
The close connection of antonymy with polysemy indicates the systematic nature of the relations of lexical units, their interdependence and interdependence.
Depending on the structural, semantic and functional features, several groups of lexical antonyms are distinguished.
By structure Antonyms are divided into multi-root, single-root and intra-word.
Antonyms with different roots– the most common type of lexical antonyms: white - black, vigorous - tired, wealth - poverty, life - death, harmful - useful etc.
Single-root ones differ in word-forming prefixes: calm - restless, possible - impossible, wrap - unfold, honest - dishonest. Such antonyms are also called lexico-grammatical, since in them the opposite meaning is due to the addition of semantically different prefixes. Single-root antonyms-verbs are especially productive. For example, with the prefix under-, which introduces into the semantics of the verb the meaning “incompleteness, insufficiency of action”, the Large Academic Dictionary lists more than 60 words, most of which have single-root antonyms with the prefix re-, which has the antonymous meaning “excess, excess of action”: not enough sleep - too much sleep, not enough sleep - overlearning, not enough sleep - too much sleep etc. Thus, lexical antonyms in this case arise as a result of word formation processes.
By the presence of a word denoting an intermediate concept, antonyms are distinguished gradual: white – (gray) – black; small – (medium) – large; past – (present) – future and non-gradual: true - false, alive - dead, together - apart, possible - impossible.
Intraword antonymy- this is the ability of a word to express antonymic relations within one lexeme. The phenomenon of polarization (antonymic opposition) of word meanings is called enantiosemy(Greek enantios"opposite" and sema"sign"): listen"listen from beginning to end" ( listen to a course of lectures) – listen“not to perceive by ear, not to hear” ( listen to important news due to noise); borrow"to lend" ( lend money to someone) – borrow"to borrow from someone" ( borrow money from someone); blow out"to repay" ( blow out candle) – blow out"set on fire" ( blow out the blast furnace); honor“scold, scold” - honor“to show honor, respect”; glorify“to give praise by describing virtues” - glorify“to spread defamatory information about someone.”
Based on semantic properties, several types of antonyms are also distinguished.
Antonymous opposites are distinguished depending on whether they correspond to the same object or to different objects. For example, antonyms buy – sell refer to one object (house) in sentences Peter buys a house from Nikolai And Nikolai is selling a house Petru, this type of antonyms is called conversions (from lat. conversio“change”) - words that, in the original and modified statements, express the relation of opposition. Wed. Also: Student takes exam to teacher – The teacher takes the exam from the student.
Semantics of oppositions of words is ill–healthy different. In a sentence He's still is ill, and I already healthy antonymous words mean various items(faces).
Antonym words can be considered from the point of view of directionality - non-directivity of action. For example, in pairs make a mistake – get better, come – leave, ask – answer the direction of the opposite is clearly expressed. In antonymous pairs morning evening, life - death, live - die direction is not expressed.
The semantics of opposition may contain an indication of different degrees, measures of the same quality, property, action. For example: expensive - cheap, young - old, deep - shallow, where a gradation of opposition is logically assumed: young – youthful – middle-aged – elderly – old. Many antonymous pairs do not indicate the degree of quality, that is, they lack the sign of graduality. For example, it is impossible to imagine the semantic gradation of antonym words man - woman, north - south, top - bottom.
Depending on their use, words with opposite meanings are divided into general linguistic and contextual. Linguistic antonyms are fixed in the lexical system of the modern Russian language and are regularly reproduced under the same conditions: cheerful - boring, getting younger - getting old, light - heavy.
Along with linguistic (or commonly used) antonyms, words that under normal conditions (out of context) do not express opposite meanings can enter into antonymic relationships in certain speech situations. Such antonyms are called contextual (or individual-author's). They are not ordinary, but random and determined by a certain stylistic task. Wed: I am a king, I am a slave. I am a worm, I am God(Derzhavin). Poet you may not be, but citizen be obliged(Nekrasov). They got along. Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire are not so different from each other(Pushkin). Titles may be based on contextual antonymy works of art: Already and Falcon(Bitter), Owner and worker(Tolstoy).
The use of antonyms gives expressiveness to speech and contributes to a comprehensive description of phenomena. objective reality. By contrasting concepts with the help of antonyms, the contradictory and complex nature of the described objects is expressed.
Antonyms are used in the text to express various shades of meaning - comparison, opposition of opposite phenomena, qualities, actions: Words can cry and laugh, command, pray and conjure. For the same purposes, antonyms are used in many proverbs and sayings: Learning is light, ignorance is darkness; The well-fed are not a companion to the hungry; A long rope is good, but a short speech; Softly lays down and sleeps hard.
Antonyms are widely used in fiction to create antitheses ( Greek antithesis“opposition”) - a stylistic device of contrast, juxtaposition: All this would be funny if it weren't so sad(Lermontov); But you yourself should not distinguish defeat from victory.(Parsnip). This technique is very typical for maxims, figurative expressions, catch phrases: Pass us away more than all sorrows and lordly anger and lordly love(Griboyedov). Laconism is a maximum of poetic intonation with a minimum of verbal expenditure(Ozerov).
Another stylistic device that is based on a comparison of antonymic meanings is oxymoron(or oxymoron) (Greek. oxymoron"witty-stupid") An oxymoron consists of a combination of words that express logically incompatible concepts that sharply contradict the logic of the combination of words and are mutually exclusive: cold boiling water(Lermontov), “ Living Dead"(L. Tolstoy), stormy silence(Christmas), cold heat(Marshak), " Hot Snow"(Bondarev), "Far Close"(Repin) Compar. Also: Be happy misfortune mine(Lermontov); That night we went crazy with each other, luminaries we only have ominous dark (Akhmatova).
Special dictionaries of antonyms appeared relatively recently. In 1971 Two dictionaries of antonyms were published. The Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language explains 862 antonymic pairs. All interpretations are provided with examples from fiction, scientific and newspaper journalistic texts. Another dictionary of antonyms in the Russian language (author) contains an explanation of more than 1300 antonym words and various kinds of oppositions, since the author widely understands the phenomenon of antonymy. Both dictionaries do not adequately reflect single-root antonyms.
The most complete modern dictionary antonyms is “Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language” (edited - M., 1978). The dictionary includes about 2000 antonymic pairs. Synonyms are provided for many antonyms. All antonyms are illustrated with numerous examples from fiction, journalistic and scientific literature. The dictionary comes with an index of antonyms, which greatly facilitates the search for the desired word.
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with opposite lexical meaning: question - answer, stupid - smart, loud - quiet, remember - forget. They are usually opposed on some basis: day And night - by time, easy And heavy– by weight, up And at the bottom- by position in space, bitter And sweet- to taste, etc.
Antonymy relationships can exist between words (North South), between words and phraseological units (win - lose), between phraseological units (to win - to lose).
There are also different root and same root antonyms: poor - rich, fly - fly.
A polysemantic word with different meanings can have different antonyms. So, the antonym of the word easy meaning “insignificant in weight” is an adjective heavy, and in the meaning of “easy to learn” – difficult.
Main function antonyms(And linguistic And contextual speech) is an expression of opposition, which is inherent in the semantics of such oppositions and does not depend on the context.
The opposite function can be used for different stylistic purposes:
· to indicate the limit of manifestation of a quality, property, relationship, action:
· to actualize a statement or enhance an image, impression, and so on;
· to express an assessment (sometimes in comparative terms) of the opposing properties of objects, actions, and others;
· to affirm two opposing properties, qualities, actions;
· to affirm one of the opposed signs, actions or phenomena of reality by denying the other;
· to recognize a certain average, intermediate quality, property, etc., possible or already established between two words that are opposite in meaning.
In addition to synonyms and homonyms, polysemy is associated antonymy. Lexical antonyms(from the Greek Anti - against, Onyma - name) - these are words with opposite meanings. Antonymy is built on the opposition of correlative concepts: friend - enemy, bitter - sweet, easy - difficult, etc.
An antonymous series consists of words belonging to the same part of speech. Both significant parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) and auxiliary parts (for example, prepositions: in - from, over - under, with - without, etc.) enter into antonymic relations. However, only those words whose lexical meaning has the following shades of quality:
1) size, color, taste: large - small, white - black, heavy - light;
2) emotional condition: love - hate;
3) emotional action: to be upset - to be happy.
Also, words that denote temporal and spatial relationships enter into antonymic connections:
yesterday - today, ahead - behind, there - here, east - west, north - south, etc.
Words with a concrete object meaning, used in a literal rather than figurative meaning (camel, house, standing, etc.), are unable to have antonyms. Proper names, numerals, and most pronouns do not have antonyms. According to their structure, antonyms are divided into two main groups:
1) Cognate antonyms:
Luck - failure; Active - inactive; Coming - leaving, etc.
2) Different root antonyms:
Poverty is luxury; Active - passive; To accuse is to defend; Today - tomorrow, etc.
Antonymy is closely related to polysemy and synonymy. A polysemantic word can be included in different antonymic series:
In modern Russian there are also contextual antonyms, which act in antonymic relationships only in a certain context. Antonyms of this type can have different grammatical forms, belonging to the same part of speech, or refer to different parts speeches, while differing stylistically. These stylistic differences are not reflected in dictionaries, for example:
...I'm stupid, and you're smart, alive, and I'm dumbfounded (M. Tsvetaeva)
Antonymy is at the core oxymoron- combinations of words (most often an adjective and a noun) that are opposite in meaning, for example:
IN fresh air it smelled of the bitter sweetness of an autumn morning (I. Bunin) And it’s not I who have gone crazy, but you who turn out to be a smart fool (M. Sholokhov)
The functional use and expressive capabilities of antonyms are varied. Antonyms are most often used in the text in pairs, expressing a wide variety of shades of meaning and meaning - comparison, contrast, etc. For example:
Words can cry and laugh,
Command, pray and conjure (B. Pasternak)
For the same purposes, antonyms are used in many proverbs and sayings of Russian folklore: Where is grief for a wise man, joy for a fool; A long rope is good, but a short speech; Don’t run away from good things, and don’t do bad things. Antithesis (that is, contextual opposition) is created not only with the help of synonyms, but also with the help of antonyms. For example, antonyms are used in titles literary works, indicating that structural basis the work is a opposition - an antithesis in the broad sense of the word, woven into the fabric of the narrative:
The epic novel “War and Peace” by L. N. Tolstoy;
The novel “The Living and the Dead” by K. M. Simonov;
The story “Days and Nights” by K. M. Simonov.
And its units reveal a fundamentally common structure of opposite meanings and great similarity in the structural and semantic classification of antonyms. Significant differences in objects and phenomena of the objective world are reflected in language as opposition. Antonymy represents opposition within one entity. Her logical basis form opposite specific concepts that represent the limit of manifestation of a quality (property) defined by the generic concept: “hot” - “cold” (“temperature”), “heavy” - “light” (“weight”), “fall” - “rise” "("vertical movement"), etc.
The logical basis is formed by 2 types of opposition: contrariwise and complementary. The contrast is expressed by specific concepts, between which there is a middle, intermediate term: “young” - “not old”, “middle-aged”, “elderly”, “middle-aged”... - “old”, cf. “rich” - “poor”, “difficult” - “easy”, etc. The complementary opposition is formed by specific concepts, which complement each other to the generic level and are extreme in nature. However, unlike contrarian concepts, they do not have a middle, intermediate member: “true” - “false”, “finite” - “infinite”, “possible” - “impossible”, etc. Contradictory concepts (relationships like: A - not-A) do not form the logical basis of antonymy and represent the so-called weakened, incomplete opposition due to the uncertainty of the second member of the opposition: “young” - “not young” (i.e. “middle-aged”, “elderly”, etc.; cf. . “old”), “expensive” - “inexpensive” (cf. “cheap”). To express true opposition, the second member of the opposition must be more specifically designated.
The logical model of opposition becomes in the language a model of antonymy for words denoting quality and/or expressing the opposing orientation of actions, states, signs, properties, as well as for some other lexical units. Unlike the antonyms “light” - “heavy”, “get up” - “lie down”, oppositions such as “passenger car” - “truck” (about a car, transport), “stand” - “lie down” do not express antonymy, since they do not satisfy these conditions. Words of specific non-evaluative semantics (“book”, “ball”) do not have antonyms.
Antonymy is primarily a lexical phenomenon; opposite meanings of sentences and grammatical forms arise due to the antonymy of their component words or presuppose the existence of a certain lexical-semantic opposition.
Lexical units expressing antonymy exhibit a common (invariant) feature - the presence ultimate negation in the interpretation of one of the antonyms: “young” - “old” (i.e. ‘extremely Not young’), “true” - “false” (i.e. ‘ Not true’, ultimately denying truth).
Antonymy is characterized by the uniformity of the semantic structures of its units, which are paradigmatically opposed by one differential feature to the opposite of their meanings. This similarity is manifested in the similarity of interpretations of antonyms: “heavy” ‘having a lot of weight’ - “light” ‘having little weight’, “winter” “the coldest time of the year” - “summer” “the warmest time of the year”, “to enter” to go inside something' - 'to go out' 'to go from inside something'. This internal (semantic) property of antonyms is expressed in the high degree of their joint occurrence in, in their predominantly contact use. Contrast, juxtaposition, alternation of antonyms and their other functions are realized in characteristic contexts of antonymy: “This Not complex, A simple task", "You rich, I am very poor"(A.S. Pushkin), etc.
The lexical-semantic variant of the word acts as the elementary unit of antonymic opposition. Therefore, the same polysemantic word can be included in different series of antonyms: “thick” - “sparse” (about forest, hair), “thick” - “liquid” (about soup, sour cream), etc.
Antonymy is closely related to other lexical-semantic categories, mainly with. One and the same lexical unit can simultaneously enter into antonymic and synonymous relations. This phenomenon is called antonymy synonymous series or synonymy of antonymic oppositions.
Antonymy is one of the sources: “She is young, and he is old” → “She is younger than him” ⟨↔⟩ “He is older than her.”
- Novikov L. A., Antonymy in the Russian language (Semantic analysis of opposites in vocabulary), [M.], 1973;
- his, Russian antonymy and its lexicographic description, in the book: Lviv M.R., Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language, 3rd ed., M., 1985, p. 5-30;
- Apresyan Yu. D., Lexical semantics. Synonymous means of language, M., 1974;
- Lions J., Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics, trans. from English. M., 1978;
- Ivanova V. A., Antonymy in the language system, Kish., 1982;
- Lyons J., Semantics, v. 1-2, Camb. - , 1977;
- Sîrbu R., Antonymia lexicală în limba română, , 1977.
L. A. Novikov.
Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. 1990 .
Synonyms:See what “Antonymy” is in other dictionaries:
antonymy- (incorrect antonymy) ... Dictionary of difficulties of pronunciation and stress in modern Russian language
ANTONYMY- ANTONYMY, and, female. In linguistics: relationships existing between antonyms. | adj. antonymous, oh, oh. Dictionary Ozhegova. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
antonymy- and, plural no, w. (... Dictionary foreign words Russian language
antonymy- noun, number of synonyms: 1 opposite (17) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary
antonymy- and. Type of semantic relations linguistic units same level (morphemes, words, syntactic constructions), having opposite meanings. Ephraim's explanatory dictionary. T. F. Efremova. 2000... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Efremova
antonymy- antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy, antonymy (Source: “Complete accentuated paradigm according to A. A. Zaliznyak”) ... Forms of words
ANTONYMY- use of an expression (word) as one’s own own name. This use of the expression is called. autonomous (as opposed to its use in its usual sense). For example, when speaking we use xv as a name for a letter as... ... Mathematical Encyclopedia
Antonymy- ... Wikipedia
antonymy- Semantic opposition, opposite (see antonyms... Dictionary of linguistic terms
antonymy- antonym, and... Russian spelling dictionary
Books
- Explanatory dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language, Lvov Mikhail Rostislavovich. The dictionary contains about 2700 antonyms. For the first time, it provides general concepts that unite antonymic pairs and the features of the lexical meaning of each antonym. The dictionary presents...
