Introduction
Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. Indeed, in speech, words are used not one by one, not in isolation, but in phrases.At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they suit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. So, very similar definitions - long, long, long, long - are attracted to nouns in different ways: you can say a long (long) period, but not a long (long) period.
Limitations of the lexical compatibility of certain words are often explained by their use in special meanings... For example, the word round in its basic meaning - "such that resembles the shape of a circle, ring, ball" - freely connects with the words of the corresponding subject-thematic group: round table, round box; round window. But, speaking in the meaning of "whole, whole, without interruption" (about time), the word round is combined only with the nouns year, day, and in the meaning of "complete, perfect" - with such as an excellent student, an ignoramus.
In other cases, the reason for the limitation of lexical compatibility is the assignment of a word to fixed expressions. For example, the velvet season is "autumn months (September, October) in the south." This expression has a stable character and it is impossible to replace the word "season" with any other, even the closest in meaning, for example, "velvet autumn".
Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the combination of similar phrases. For example, they write: "meet modern requirements", mixing combinations of "meet the requirements" and "meet the needs"; “The conversation was read” (“the lecture was read” and “the conversation was held”); "Improve the level" ("improve the quality" and "raise the level").
1. Violation of lexical compatibility
Conceptual errors
Violation of lexical compatibility is caused by semantic errors of two types - logical and linguistic.
Logical errors are associated with the nondiscrimination of denoted concepts that are close in any respect. Often people do not distinguish between spheres of activity, cause and effect, part and whole, related phenomena.
Thus, in the sentence “The inhabitants of the seaside town have become witnesses of a large theatrical performance”, an error is found in the phrase “witnesses of the performance”. The word "witness" means "eyewitness" - this is the name of a person who happened to be at the scene of an incident. This word is associated with the field of judicial and legal activities. In the field of theatrical and concert activities referred to in the sentence, the word "spectator" is used. This error is associated with not distinguishing between areas of activity.
The erroneous combination of "prices have risen in price" is due to the lack of distinction between the related concepts of "prices" and "goods": goods become more expensive, but prices rise.
Linguistic errors are associated with non-discrimination of designating words found in any semantic relations... These are mostly synonyms and paronyms.
Failure to distinguish synonyms that are close or coincide in meaning of words leads to errors in use.For example, the words “role” and “function” in the meaning of “work, circle of activity” are synonymous, but genetically they are associated with different designations: role - with the sphere of theater and cinema, and function - with logic. Hence the established lexical compatibility: the role is played (played), and the function is performed (performed). The words “brave” and “brave” are synonyms, but “brave” is associated with the external manifestation of the called quality, and “courageous” - with both external and internal, therefore thought, decision, idea can only be bold, but not brave.
Non-discrimination of paronyms, i.e. words that overlap in sound also lead to mistakes in use; most of Paronyms are cognate words that differ in suffixes or prefixes and, as a result, in shades of meaning, as well as stylistic coloration.For example, a misdemeanor (offense) is an act (an action committed by someone); guilty (committed a crime) - guilty (guilty of something, violated the rules of morality, politeness, etc.); pay (for something) - pay (for something).
Stylistic mistakes
Stylistic mistakes are a violation of the requirements for the unity of a functional style, an unjustified use of emotionally colored, stylistically marked means. Stylistic mistakes are associated with ignoring the restrictions imposed on the use of the word by its stylistic coloring.
The most common stylistic mistakes include:
The use of stationery - words and phrases characteristic of the official business style.For example, “As the revenue side of my budget increased, I decided to buy a new car for permanent use” - “I began to receive a lot of money, so I decided to buy a new car”.
The use of words (expressions) inappropriate style coloring.So, in a literary context, the use of slang, vernacular, abusive vocabulary is inappropriate; colloquial and expressively colored words should be avoided in a business text. For example, "The trustee of charitable institutions sues up the auditor" - "The trustee of charitable institutions curses up with the auditor."
Mixing styles -unjustified use in one text of words, syntactic constructions characteristic of different styles of the Russian language. For example, mixing scientific and colloquial styles.
Mixing vocabulary from different historical eras.For example, "On heroes, chain mail, trousers, mittens" - "On heroes, chain mail, armor, mittens."
Incorrect sentence construction.For example, “Despite his youth, he good man". There are several ways to correct these errors. First, to change the order of words in the sentence: “There are many works telling about the author’s childhood in world literature” - “In world literature there are many works telling about the author’s childhood”.
Secondly, to revise the sentence: “We will talk about the barbell among other sporting events” - “Barbell competitions should be distinguished from other sporting events”.
Pleonasm - speech excess,the use of words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view.
Tautology - the use of one-root words within the boundaries of one sentence. For example, "Tell a story"; "Ask a question."
Lexical repetitions in the text.For example, "In order to study well, students must pay more attention to learning." Words that are repeated must be replaced with synonyms, nouns can be replaced with pronouns or the repeating word can be removed altogether, if possible - "For success, students must pay more attention to their studies."
Substitution of the concept.This error occurs as a result of missing a word. For example, “Patients who have not visited an outpatient clinic for three years are put into the archive” (we are talking about patients' cards, and from the text of the sentence it follows that the patients themselves were handed over to the outpatient clinic).
Choice of singular or plural forms.There are often problems with the use of the singular or plural. Examples of correct use are combinations: two or more options, three or more forms, there are several options, there are some options.
Word alignment in a sentence... Often there are errors in the agreement of words in a sentence, especially when it comes to verb control. For example, "This section talks about opening, working and saving a document" - "This section describes the procedures for opening and saving documents, as well as working with them."
Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions... For example, “The man was wearing a burnt-out quilted jacket. The quilted jacket was roughly darned. The boots were almost new. The socks were eaten away by moths "-" The man was dressed in a roughly darned burned-out quilted jacket. Although the boots were almost new, the socks were moth-eaten. "
Stylistically unjustified use of tropes.The use of tropes can cause a variety of speech errors. Poor imagery is a fairly common style flaw for writers who are poor at pen.
For example, “The judge was just as simple and humble.
2. Errors in the use of loan words
V last years the Russian language is intensively replenished with borrowed words. This is because the country has entered a new social and political formation, as well as free market relations. Language, on the other hand, always responds quickly and flexibly to the needs of society. It can be said without exaggeration that a linguistic explosion has occurred. However, there is nothing wrong with that, because borrowed words are the result of contacts, relationships between peoples and states.
The presence in one language of words from other languages and their use in speech - objective reality... The number of such words is constantly increasing due to the penetration of new words and the expansion of the scope of the old ones used in a narrow sense.
Unfortunately, when using borrowed words, many mistakes are made (spelling, spelling, grammatical, lexical), which are explained by the special situation foreign words: in a new language for themselves, they have weak family ties (or do not have them at all), so their root for mostnative speakers are confused, the meaning is unclear, but their modernity is felt in comparison with familiar Russian or long-mastered borrowed words.
The most common type of mistake is associated with the unjustified use of a foreign word, which does not introduce anything new in comparison with its Russian or borrowed synonym that has long been mastered.For example, “The presentation of the perfume took place last Friday; the perfume was selling well. " If the word "perfume" has the meaning of a special type of perfume or denotes a class of perfumery products, which includes the perfumes in question, it is necessary to comment; if the word "perfume" is used in its direct meaning"Perfume", then the need for its use in this text highly questionable.
Among the borrowings there is a special group of words denoting concepts that are completely characteristic of a specific country(a number of countries) or people. Such borrowings are called exoticisms.... For example, prairies are flat steppe areas in North America, and savannas are plains in South America and Africa, covered with grassy vegetation, among which are scattered groups of trees and shrubs. Exoticisms are quite appropriate in texts describing the reality with which these words are correlated (here it is necessary to ensure that the prairies do not end up in South America, and the savannas in North America).
I would also like to note that the misuse of borrowed words leads to the following errors:
Violation of orthoepic norms.
This section includes errors in the pronunciation of loanwords, as well as incorrect stressing in foreign words. For example, "expert instead of exp" ert, kv "artal instead of quarters" al, kat "alog instead of katal" og, kil "ometers instead of kilom" etra.
Violation of spelling norms.For example, the word "billiards" instead of "billiards".
Violation of grammatical norms.For example, "two shampoos", "two shoes" are the wrong gender.
Violation of the norms of combining words... For example, "Only here there were interesting nuances."
Conclusion
Analyzing the above, a number of features of the violation of lexical compatibility can be distinguished, namely:
Errors are distinguished by their predominant character in relation to grammatical and stylistic norms proper. The leading types of violations in the field of vocabulary are the use of words in an unusual meaning, non-differentiation of the meanings of synonyms and paronyms;
They are characterized by "genre stability";
Possess "quality stability". This is a misnomer and collocation.
Wrong use is more susceptible to words of certain parts of speech (first of all, verbs with specific features of lexical meaning, as a rule, by the presence of a differential feature that sets compatibility), words that are in certain systemic connections (a significant number of synonyms, branched semantic structure, etc.) .NS.).
Word combination plays a special role important role v artistic speech... The expansion of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, underlies many classical images of great masters of artistic speech: "gray winter of the threat" (A.S. Pushkin), "pot-bellied nut bureau" (N.V. Gogol), "rubber thought "(I. Ilf and E. Petrov). Comedians often resort to violating lexical collocation in order to give speech a comic tone. For example, "The population of the edition ark fell asleep"; "An apple with a mole" (I. Ilf and E. Petrov). This stylistic device underlies various jokes: “The genius was recognized alive; "He was appointed director of his own free will."
In search of unexpected images, vivid speech expression, poets especially often expand the lexical compatibility. Suffice it to recall the classic lines of M.Yu. Lermontov: “Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness”; A.A. Feta: “September is dead. And the dahlias were burned by the breath of the night ”; B. Pasternak: “February. Get out ink and cry! Write bitterly about February. " This stylistic device is also appreciated by contemporary poets: “The small forest begged for snow from the greedy or poor heavens” (B. Akhmadulina). When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, a violation of compatibility often becomes the reason for the comic sound of speech: “Students worked at their experimental site as the most notorious specialists ”; “The guys who were dejected by the experience came to the circle of young naturalists.” Lexical errors in such cases damage not only the style, but also the content of the phrase, because the associations that arise suggest the opposite meaning. , and in other cases - will allow you to use unusual combinations of words to create vivid images or as a source of humor.
Bibliography
Bragina A.A. Neologisms in Russian. M. - 1995.
Fomenko Yu.V. Types of speech errors. Novosibirsk - 1994.
Tseitlin S.N. Speech errors and their warning. M. - 1982.
Types of lexical errors.
A speech defect can be defined as: 1) an inaccurately used word or a fixed expression; 2) a word or sentence that violates the stylistic unity and expressiveness of the text: this also includes the monotony of the vocabulary and the grammatical structure of speech. Speech defects are divided into lexical, morphological and syntactic.
Among the lexical shortcomings are: a) inaccuracy of word usage; b) violation of the lexical combination of words; c) errors in the use of phraseological units; d) violation of the stylistic unity of the text; e) errors that weaken the expressiveness of the text; f) monotony of the dictionary, violation of euphony.
Inaccuracy of word usage. Accuracy of speech depends on the ability of the writer to select words or expressions that best match the transmitted content. Violation of the norms of word use leads to lexical errors:
1. The use of this or that word in a meaning that is not characteristic of it or does not fit the given context.
Chatsky is especially deeply opposed to serf-owners. Griboyedov reflected in the comedy the decomposition of the noble class into two into camps. Chatsky is not alone, he has many accomplices.
2. Errors caused by mixing in use paronyms(words similar in sound, but different in meaning).
Alyosha resignedly endured all the burdens of life. Onegin leads festive image life. Bazarov's sideburns were sandy.
3. The use of unnecessary words ( pleonasms). Pleonasms arise when using unnecessary definitions ( main essence, valuable treasures, dark gloom), unnecessary circumstances ( come back, fell down), as well as as a result of unjustified stringing of synonyms ( finish, finish, complete the task).
Vanya and Petya sang one song together. He spoke by gesturing with his hands. The layout, which the guys so diligently glued, was trampled by Vadim with his feet.
Katerina foresees her death in advance ... She cannot return back to the Kabanovs' house and prefers the death of the everyday routine of a joyless and dreary life in which all the noble impulses of her exalted soul are uselessly lost.
Tautology- repetition of words similar in meaning and sound: oil oil, fence the garden; you can ask a question; for example, such an example; this phenomenon is, flawless in the work of serving his cause, multiply many times, renew again.
Speech redundancy is also generated by the combination of a foreign language word with Russian, duplicating its meaning: memorable souvenirs, an unusual phenomenon, a driving leitmotif, a biography of life, its own autograph, ultimately, scanty little things, a leading leader, a counter-attack, folklore, demobilization from the army... In such cases, they talk about hidden tautology.
4. Lexical anachronisms - the use of recently arisen or borrowed words or expressions in a story about historical events("Dealer" instead of "merchant", "secular parties").
Pechorin received a ticket to the Caucasus. Chatsky went on a business trip abroad. Once Chichikov was removed from work. Griboyedov was killed in the Caucasus by Chechen fighters.
Violation of the lexical collocation of words.
Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they suit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility.
You can say all year round (day) but don't say " round hour (week, month)"; it happens deep night, but not " deep day", Possible deep autumn, but not " deep spring". There is the Velvet season, but not period, time, month.
The hollow made a cozy impression on us. Dolokhov was promoted to a soldier for his recklessness. In whatever desperate situations he may find himself, he will always find a way out. This exhibition will enrich your horizons. You will see the health and shine of your hair!
Errors in the use of phraseological units.
Destruction phraseological turnover- a stylistic error associated with an unjustified transformation of the composition of a stable phrase. A similar error occurs when:
1) replacement of one of the components (" like behind a stone back»);
2) contamination (combining) of two phraseological units based on the reference word (“ to be silent like a fish on ice"- Wed:" be silent like a fish" and " beat like a fish on ice»);
3) unjustified dissemination of the lexical composition of the phraseological unit, leading to its pleonasticity (“ hard labor of Sisyphus»);
4) the omission of one of the components of the phraseological unit, leading to lexical insufficiency (" you need to understand what the success of this work is»);
5) mixing of paronyms in the phraseological unit (“ swipe»);
6) misunderstanding of the meaning of phraseological units (“The graduate happily sang her swan song”);
7) changing the grammatical forms of the components included in the phraseological unit (" a voice crying in the wilderness»).
It is necessary to bring him to fresh water. Youth gushed out of him. Now this story has long since sunk into a mite. He had tears in his eyes.
Violation of the stylistic unity of the text. Stylish unity of speech is created through selection linguistic means in accordance with the task of the statement. This quality of speech assumes that the writer feels a functional style, understands the peculiarities of a given situation and, when choosing words and expressions, takes into account the specifics of speech conditions, that is, the selection of linguistic means is carried out taking into account their relevance in a given style, in the conditions of a given statement.
On the eve of my birthday, I got sick. Mom bought a board game for her son. Several awards were given at the school party. Who raised children by the way of grandparents, the easier. Today I went to the store to buy a tape recorder. It's cold outside. Put on your hat.
Exercise. Read the sentences, find errors in them. Explain the nature of the mistakes made and correct them.
1. There is a great danger in all of this.
2. In the contract, we relied on the above-named document.
3. The physical fitness of the players played an important role in the last match.
4. By the middle of the second half, the situation settled down.
5. The following factors should be considered in this agreement.
6. The business traveler arrived at the specified time.
7. This was an important initiative of Russia made by our Minister of Foreign Affairs.
8. At the Winter Olympics, the athlete won again.
9. The young prodigy was famous throughout the country.
10. Now this story has long since sunk into a mite.
11. The short blitz tournament has come to an end.
12. Questions of economic cooperation were the focus of the meeting in Tallinn.
13. I would like to get acquainted with the representatives of this new movement.
14. About this event, the entire press sings in one tune.
15. A well-known comedian sat at the head of the table as the host in a smart outfit.
Similar information.
If the author does not strive to achieve a certain stylistic goal, the violation of lexical compatibility becomes a speech error. This reflects characteristic feature the dialectical nature of language: in one case, a phenomenon that is a deviation from the linguistic norm turns out to be an effective means of creating speech expression, in the other it is evidence of the author's negligence, inattention to the word. An involuntary violation of lexical compatibility is a very common speech error.
“Although our favorite skaters were defeated in these competitions, the audience greets them standing up,” says sports commentator(but: win, lose). “Maybe insomnia has come to you, and you are lying, not closing your blue gaze,” the poet writes (but: you can close your eyes, not your gaze). In the essay, the journalist notes: "The depression made a cozy impression" (you can make a pleasant impression, not a cozy one). Some words are often used in speech in incorrect combinations (a meeting has been called, a conversation has been read, to increase attention, pay attention, increase one's horizons, etc.).
Violation of lexical compatibility can be caused by contamination of seemingly similar phrases. For example, they say: to satisfy modern needs, mixing combinations to meet the requirements and meet the needs; Material damage was recovered from him in favor of the victims (material damage can be compensated; money can be recovered); Improved the artistic level of expositions of folk museums (the level can rise, rise; the quality can be improved). More examples of the contamination of phrases: take action (take action - take steps); earned fame (gained fame - earned respect); unremitting help (constant help - unremitting attention); doesn't matter (doesn't matter - doesn't matter). The confusion of phrases was the reason for the joke:
Tastes could not be discussed:
Some respect the apricot in the brine,
Others love jam with mustard.
But none of this matters
And, besides, it doesn't matter.
(E. Svistunov)
When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, the violation of lexical compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech. For example: Young entrepreneurs were taken aback by serious problems; Leaders paid serious attention to the shortcomings achieved; They worked like the most notorious specialists; People came to us, discouraged by experience. The comedy in such cases arises because words with limited lexical compatibility suggest variants of phrases with often directly opposite meanings (cf. successes achieved, notorious crooks, grief-stricken).
Consider examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which lexical compatibility is violated:
2. The museum displays relics donated by delegations. - The museum displays gifts presented by delegations.
3. Main power Siberia - in its abundant mineral resource base. - The strength of Siberia lies in its rich mineral resource base.
As you can see, stylistic editing basically comes down to replacing words, the use of which led to a violation of lexical compatibility.
Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language - M., 1997
The lecture considers compatibility as a property of lexical units, analyzes typical mistakes associated with a violation of compatibility
Lexical collocation of words
The lecture considers compatibility as a property of lexical units, analyzes typical mistakes associated with a violation of compatibility.
Lecture plan
9.1 Word Collation
9.2 Violation of compatibility
9.3. Types of word combinations
9.4 Violation of compatibility as a stylistic device
9.1. Word combination
When using words in speech, it is always necessary to take into account the peculiarities collocation of words- their ability to connect with each other.
The possibilities of compatibility are largely determined by the semantic features of the word, its meaning.
For example, the word collocation strong used in different meanings can be represented as follows:
Although the words hatred and envy, as well love, denote "feelings" and downpour, heat and humidity, as well frost, wind, refer to "weather and climatic conditions", however, one cannot say: * strong hatred, envy (you can: strong love); * strong downpour, strong heat, humidity (but: strongfreezing).
§ 9 .2. Violation of compatibility
The compatibility of a word is determined by the semantic (semantic) features of words, at the same time it has its own boundaries.
For example:
1) Unlike the word wash, its synonym wash matches only with the names of items made of fabric, or with the properties of fabric.
2) To raise it is possible that to which we apply the parameter high:
high productivity - increase productivity;
high speed - increase speed.
Therefore, one cannot say: "improve the training of specialists" (only: improve training ...),"To increase the production of machines" (to increase the production of machine tools).
Combinations of words that contain deny-each other semantic signs: " Due to the forthcoming departure. " Pretext due to implies that the action has already taken place, but the adjective forthcoming suggests otherwise. It should be said: in view of the upcoming departure.
Errors in word combinations can be associated with the fact that one of the words is used only in application to something negative, bad, and the other means, on the contrary, something positive, good. For example: hordes (-) workers (+); thanks to (+) disease (-).
9 .3. Types of word combinations
As you can see, the connection of words in a phrase can run into different kinds restrictions. Depending on the restrictions governing the connection of words, they distinguish different kinds compatibility:
1) semantic compatibility;
2) lexical compatibility;
3) stylistic compatibility.
Semantic compatibility is determined by the meaning of words, as well as by subject-logical relations between objects of the surrounding world. So, semantic compatibility is broken in the following examples:
borrow money from someone - word lend has the meaning "to lend, for temporary use", therefore, one should say: borrow money from someone;
most of the time - word majority combined with words denoting items that lend themselves to counting: painmajority of writers, majority of villages, majority of votes; since the collective meaning contains the concept of a certain number of homogeneous single objects; this condition is not satisfied by the word time, so it should be said: most oftime
believe in imminent victory- word inevitable close in value to word inevitable, but associated with something undesirable: imminent disaster, imminent war, imminent gilinen etc.; should have said: believe in inevitable victory;
priority attention - word priority means "uncomplicated, requiring implementation first"; these meanings do not apply to the word Attention; you can say: main attention, special attention etc.
Lexical compatibility is determined by the tradition of using words in the language. WITH From the point of view of the modern language, it is often difficult or even impossible to explain the reasons for the various combinations of words that are close in meaning: pay attention / attach importance to the development of sports... Many word combinations are enshrined in linguistic tradition. These combinations in " finished form"are included in the dictionary of native speakers, and the ability to use them is part of a person's linguistic culture. For example, in Russian they do not say" to make a feat ", only accomplish the feat.
Often the violation of lexical compatibility is associated with misuse ambiguous words:
deep autumn, but not summer, Spring;
deep old age, but not childhood, youth;
deep night, but not day, morning.
Stylistic compatibility is determined by the stylistic and emotionally expressive coloring of the combined words. Stylistically dissimilar words cannot form the correct combination: A new cowshed and a bathhouse were erected on the collective farm. Book, solemn verbs erect and erect do not combine with nouns cowshed and bath. It is better to use the verb in this sentence built.
9.4. Violation of compatibility as a stylistic device
In artistic and journalistic styles speech violation of the combination of words can be used as a stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of speech. Breaking the usual connections of words can give them new shades of meaning and create vivid artistic images: Poets walk with their heels on the blade of a knife and cut their bare souls into blood (V. Vysotsky); "Tomorrow was the war" (B. Vasiliev), "Hot Snow" (Yu. Bondarev)
On the combination of words with mutually exclusive meanings, such a stylistic device is built as oxymoron. For example: I love lush nature wilting(A. Pushkin); But beauty their ugly I soon grasped the mystery (M. Lermontov); See her fun to be sad, such smartly nude(A. Akhmatova).
The violation of stylistic compatibility can be used to create a comic effect: The forest owner loves to feast on multifarious and angiosperms ... And how the siverko blows out, how the dashing bad weather makes fun - the general metabolism of the toptygin sharply slows down, the tone of the gastrointestinal tract decreases with a concomitant increase in the lipid layer. Yes, the minus range of Mikhailo Ivanovich is not terrible: at least where the hairline, and the epidermis is notable (T. Tolstaya).
A description of the combinatory capabilities of the most common words of the Russian language is given in a special dictionary: Dictionary of combinability of words of the Russian language / Ed. P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkin. - M .: Rus. lang., 1983.
Training exercise
Find errors related to the violation of the compatibility standards. Check yourself.
1. Some disguised themselves as a bear - in a fur coat turned inside out, some as a goat - putting on a mask with horns and securing a broomstick.
2. He says this with the conviction of a person who has already had a chance to overestimate something in life.
3. Shortly before the end of the meeting, the Greek footballers squatted the result.
4. One saint will rise in full height, and the second, Methodius, according to the author's idea, kneeling, must hold a huge cross.
5. Voropaev examined everything that rushed towards the car with a feeling of great uneasiness, as if he was about to recognize a familiar creature in the sweeping cavalcade of rocks, bushes and birds.
6. He, a resident of Sukhum, came to the Zhigulevsky plant after graduation and in six years became its inveterate patriot.
7. Many comments and valuable suggestions were made during the discussion of the issue.
8. Maybe while studying at the institute, Pivovarov showed any special merits?
9. Tractors and tractors rescued timber located on the banks of the river.
10. In the class, almost all inveterate mathematicians.
For the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning, it is also necessary to take into account the features lexical collocation of words, i.e. their ability to connect with each other. So, "similar" adjectives long, long lasting, long, long lasting, long lasting differently "attracted" to nouns: a long period, long period(but not long, long, long term); long way , a long way; lengthy fees, long-term loan... Often words with the same value can have different lexical combinations (cf .: true friend - genuine document).
The doctrine of lexical compatibility is based on the position of Acad. V.V. Vinogradov on the phraseologically related meanings of words that have a single combination ( bosom friend) or limited compatibility ( stale bread, loaf; a callous person, but you can't say "stale candy" ( chocolate bar), "Callous comrade" ( father, son).
To develop a theory of lexical compatibility great importance was distinguished by Vinogradov phraseological combinations and the establishment of the main types lexical meanings words in Russian. Phraseological combinations are dealt with by phraseology, the subject of lexical stylistics is the study of the connection in speech of words that have free meanings, and the determination of the restrictions imposed by the language on their lexical compatibility.
Many linguists emphasize that the lexical collocation of a word is inseparable from its meaning. Some scientists, investigating the problems of lexical compatibility, come to the conclusion that absolutely free combinations of lexemes in the language do not exist, there are only groups of words that are different in terms of compatibility. With such a formulation of the question, the difference between free combinations and phraseologically connected ones is eliminated.
The combination of words into phrases can run into all sorts of restrictions. First, words may not be combined due to their semantic incompatibility ( purple orange, leaned back, water is burning); secondly, combining words into a phrase can be excluded due to their grammatical nature ( my - to swim, close - funny); thirdly, the combination of words can be hindered by their lexical features (words denoting seemingly connected concepts are not combined; they say cause grief, trouble but you can't say bring joy, pleasure).
Depending on the restrictions governing the combination of words, there are three types of collocation: semantic(from the term "semantics" - the meaning of the word), grammatical(more precisely, syntactic) and lexical.
Semantic compatibility is broken, for example, in such cases: There is still no information to this day; The settlement of the bloodshed must be accelerated; My father's maiden name is Sobakin; After the death of Lensky, Olga married a hussar ... Funny word combinations, aren't they? But if you think about it, in other cases a very undesirable latent meaning arises: not to stop, but only settle bloodshed?..
A parody example of a violation of grammatical compatibility is known: My yours does not understand (possessive adjectives cannot be combined with personal verbs). More examples: Our leader is healthy inside and out; Most of the time MPs spend on discussions.
The most drastic violation of the laws of "word attraction" is lexical incongruity: The voice of numbers is not comforting; In the recent past, we all had their tongues clamped down. Comedians play up the striking effect of "disappointed expectations" in caustic jokes: We have been victorious and we can no longer delay; Reached the gaping heights
Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the incorrect use of polysemous words. So, in its basic meaning, the word deep can freely connect with any other that matches the meaning: deep(that is, having great depth) well, bay, body of water, lake, river... However, in the meaning of "reached the limit, full, perfect", this word is combined with a few ( deep autumn, winter, but not summer, not Spring, deep night, silence, but not morning, not day, not noise; deep old age, but not youth). Therefore, we are amused by the statement: In deep childhood, he looked like his mother.
Word take place interpreted in dictionaries by means of synonyms happen, come true, however, unlike them, this verb is appropriate if the planned events were prepared, planned ( Meeting was held; Duma candidate met with voters). And if the correspondent writes: Armed clashes took place on the streets of the city- one might think that armed clashes were prepared by someone, planned. As you can see, a violation of lexical compatibility can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.
Lexical stylistics should focus on assessment lexical compatibility. However, the boundaries between different types the compatibility is very indistinct, therefore, in the stylistic analysis of the text, one has to speak not only of "pure" lexical compatibility, but also take into account various transitional cases.
All significant words that have free meanings can be conditionally divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within the limits of their subject-logical connections; such are, for example, adjectives characterizing physical properties objects - color, volume, weight, temperature ( red, black, big, small, light, heavy, hot, cold), many nouns ( table, house, man, tree), Verbs ( live, see, work, know). Another group is formed by words that have limited lexical collocation (moreover, in the case of polysemy of words, this restriction can only apply to their individual meanings). This group of words is of particular interest.
Limitations of lexical collocation are usually inherent in words that are rarely found in speech. Words with the maximum frequency of use (they are included in the 2500 most frequent words of the Russian language) easily enter into lexical connections. For example, when comparing word collocations fear and fear it turned out that the word is more actively combined with various verbs fear.
The lexical collocation of words is intralingual in nature. In our native language, we usually "predict" possible variants of lexical connections of words (mainly by intuition). Collocation marks in explanatory dictionaries are rare and inconsistent. Of practical importance is the Dictionary of the Combination of Words in the Russian Language, ed. P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkin (2nd ed. M., 1983).
The assessment of lexical compatibility in expressive speech cannot be approached with the usual yardstick, here the laws of "attraction" of words to each other are special. In artistic and publicistic works the boundaries of lexical compatibility can be expanded. For example, it is noticed that the restrictions semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative use: phrases are possible that seem meaningless if their constituent words are understood literally ( the sunset is on fire, years fly by, black thoughts). Semantic incongruity of words is not an obstacle to creating artistic images... It is the violation of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, that underlies many classical images, which have become textbook examples of epithets, metaphors, metonyms: gray winter threats(NS.); The bell cries loudly and laughs and squeals(Elm.); Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness ...(L.); pot-bellied walnut bureau(G.); mental and moral cleavage, bald syllogism(S.-S.).
Violation of lexical compatibility can be an effective means of creating a comic sound of speech in a humorous context: From that day, glory befell Evstigneika(M.G.); apple with a mole, seething bummer(I. and P.); on the basis of a comprehensive and double-edged squabble(I. Ilf); blank fox terrier(L. Lench). Violation of lexical compatibility as a vivid stylistic device for creating a comic effect underlies various jokes and aphorisms, which are usually published on the humorous pages of magazines and newspapers. For example: Genius recognized alive("LG"); It is difficult to forgive other people's shortcomings, but it is even more difficult to forgive other people's merits.; our sworn friends; hardened leader; Finally, the government made a significant deterioration in the lives of the people; With perestroika, another event befell us: humanitarian aid West(from gas.).
The incongruity makes the headlines catchy: “ A genre destined to succeed"(About a parody); " Memories of the future"(Title of the movie); " Alone with everyone"(Play by A. Gelman); " Life friend"(About V. Zhirinovsky's" friendship "with Saddam Hussein); " Heavenly stalkers»(About helicopter pilots who worked in areas of high radiation); " Turn on the silence»; « What were silent on the subway»; « Long, serial life»; « Bouquet of stars"(Stage). Poets often violate lexical compatibility. Expressive are the unusual combinations of words in the songs of Vl. Vysotsky: Poets walk with their heels on the blade of a knife and cut their bare souls into blood... In a non-expressive, prosaic speech, the phrases “walking with heels”, “barefoot souls” would seem impossible, absurd, but, in a poetic context, they are striking in their artistic force... Another example from a song by the same author: By morning, they shot the subdued mountain echo ... And stones splashed like tears from the wounded rocks.
If the author does not strive to achieve a certain stylistic goal, the violation of lexical compatibility becomes a speech error. This reflects a characteristic feature of the dialectical nature of the language: in one case, a phenomenon that is a deviation from the linguistic norm turns out to be an effective means of creating speech expression, in the other it is evidence of the author's negligence, inattention to the word. An involuntary violation of lexical compatibility is a very common speech error.
« Although our favorite skaters were defeated in these competitions, the audience greeted them with a standing", Says a sports commentator (but: win, are defeated). « Maybe insomnia has come to you, and you lie there, not closing your blue gaze", - the poet writes (but: you can close my eyes, but not sight). In the essay, the journalist notes: “ The hollow made a cozy impression"(You can produce pleasant impression, but not cozy). Some words are often used in speech in incorrect combinations ( the meeting has been called, the conversation has been read, increase attention, pay attention, increase the horizons and etc.).
Violation of lexical compatibility can be caused by contamination seemingly similar phrases. For example, they say: meet modern needs mixing combinations satisfy the requirements of and meet the needs; Material damage was recovered from him in favor of the victims (material damage may be reimbursed; recovered may be money); Improved the artistic level of expositions folk museums (level maybe rise, rise; improve can quality). More examples of contamination of phrases: take action(take action - take steps); earned fame(gained fame - earned respect); unrelenting help(constant help - unremitting attention); doesn't matter (doesn't matter - doesn't matter). The confusion of phrases was the reason for the joke:
Tastes could not be discussed:
Some respect the apricot in the brine,
Others love jam with mustard.
But all this is not and has roles
And besides, not plays meanings.
(E. Svistunov)
When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, the violation of lexical compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech. For example: Serious problems hit young entrepreneurs by surprise; Leaders pay serious attention to the shortcomings achieved; They worked like the most notorious specialists; People who were discouraged by experience came to us... The comedy in such cases arises because words with limited lexical compatibility suggest variants of phrases with often directly opposite meanings (cf. successes achieved, notorious crooks, grief-stricken).
Consider examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which lexical compatibility is violated:
As you can see, stylistic editing basically comes down to replacing words, the use of which led to a violation of lexical compatibility.
A careless attitude to language can cause speech impairment- accidental omission of words necessary for the exact expression of thoughts: The management should strive from this indifference(skipped get rid of); Oil paintings are placed in frames(skipped written by). Speech failure often occurs in oral speech, when the speaker is in a hurry and does not follow the correctness of the statement. In this case, comic situations arise if the "speaker" addresses those present using a microphone. So, at a dog show, you can hear appeals to the owners of purebred dogs:
- Dear participants, sort out the breeds and get ready for the parade!
- Comrades, participants, carefully wipe the muzzles from the saliva to facilitate the examination of the dental system!
- Prizewinners, come urgently for the awarding ceremony. Owners without muzzles will not be awarded.
From such calls from the administrator it follows that all these tests are not awaiting dogs, but their owners, because it is to them that the speech is addressed. With speech impairment, confusion often arises, here are examples of such errors that fell into the protocols and others business documents: Gr. Kalinovskiy L.L. followed a street without a license plate; Set the date of delivery of insurance agents to the accounting department before the 10th day of each month; We will send the persons you are interested in by mail; To class teachers ensure the attendance of their parents.
As a result of speech deficiency, the grammatical and logical connections of words in a sentence are violated, its meaning is obscured. The omission of words can completely distort the author's thought: To improve production performance, it is necessary to unite all workers involved in the economy(necessary: unite the efforts of all employees); Due to the cold indoors, we only make urgent fractures- an announcement on the door of the X-ray room (meaning urgent x-rays of fractures).
Due to the omission of a word, various logical errors... So, the absence of the necessary link in the expression of thought leads to alogism: The language of Sholokhov's heroes differs sharply from the heroes of other writers(you can compare the language of Sholokhov's heroes only with the language of the heroes of other writers); The conditions of the city are different from that of the village(comparison is acceptable living conditions in the city only with living conditions in the village).
Often, as a result of missing a word, and substitution of concept... For example: Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are put in the archive- this is about patient cards, but from the text it follows that "the sick are given to the archive." Such speech deficiency gives rise to the comic and absurdity of the statement [ Kuibyshev river port produces men for permanent and temporary work as port workers("Cr."); She took second place in gymnastics among girls of the 2nd category("Cr."); Inspection state insurance invites you to any Thursday in the State Insurance for injury(announcement)].
The speech deficiency arising as a result of the stylistic negligence of the author can be easily edited: you need to insert an accidentally missing word or phrase. For example:
| 1. Farmers strive to achieve an increase in sheep on the farm. | 1. Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm. |
| 2. Competitions showed that strong checkers appeared in our city on a hundred-cell board. | 2. Competitions have shown that strong checkers have appeared in our city, playing on a hundred-cell board. |
| 3. Isochrones - lines on geographical maps passing through the points of the earth's surface at which this or that phenomenon occurs at the same moment. | 3. Isochrones - lines on geographical maps passing through points corresponding to points on the earth's surface, in which this or that natural phenomenon occurs at the same moment. |
If the speaker “cannot find the words” for correct expression thoughts and builds a sentence somehow, omitting certain links in the chain logically related concepts, the phrase becomes insufficiently informative, confused, and the editor correcting such a statement has to work hard to achieve clarity. For example, in the manuscript of an article on the restoration of a printing company, we read: At first, equipment was installed in a format in a half-printed sheet... From this "truncated" information, it is not easy to guess that when the printing plant resumed work, at first, equipment was installed only for the manufacture of products in a format of half a printed sheet. Lack of information content sentences in which important words and phrases are omitted, especially often leads to the absurdity of the statement, which could be observed in "stagnant times", when our newspapers printed numerous reports about "victories and conquests" in the implementation of five-year plans. For example: On this shift, between 16 and 20 o'clock, the thousandth billion Soviet power engineers were worked out.... It is not easy to recover the truth from such a message; in fact, we are talking about the fact that Soviet power engineers, who worked in the evening shift, gave the country the thousandth billion kilowatt-hours of electricity.
Speech impairment as a common mistake should be distinguished from ellipsis- a stylistic figure based on the deliberate omission of one or another member of the sentence to create special expressiveness. The most expressive are elliptical constructions without a predicate verb, which convey the dynamism of movement ( I’m for a candle, a candle in the stove! I’m for a book, that - to run and jump under the bed.- Chuk.). With ellipsis, there is no need to "restore" the missing members of the sentence, since the meaning of elliptical constructions is clear, and the introduction of clarifying words into them will deprive them of their inherent lightness expression. In case of speech deficiency, on the contrary, the restoration of the missing words is necessary, without them the sentence is stylistically unacceptable.
The ability to find the exact words for the names of certain concepts helps to achieve brevity in the expression of thought, and, on the contrary, the stylistic helplessness of the author often leads to speech redundancy- verbosity. The verbosity as a great evil was repeatedly paid attention to by scientists, writers A.P. Chekhov remarked: "Brevity is the sister of talent." A.M. Gorky wrote that laconicism, as well as accuracy of presentation, is not easy for a writer: "... It is extremely difficult to find exact words and put them so that few can say a lot," so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious. "
Verbosity manifests itself in different forms... You can often observe an obsessive explanation of the well-known truths: Milk consumption is a good tradition, not only children eat milk, the need for milk, the habit of milk persists into old age. Is this a bad habit? Should I give it up? - No! Similar idle talk, of course, is suppressed by the editor: arguments that are not of informative value are excluded during literary editing. However, such an edit-reduction does not have direct relationship to the lexical style, since it affects not the lexical side of the text, but its content.
The subject of lexical stylistics is speech redundancy arising from the repeated transmission of the same thought, for example: They were shocked by the sight of the fire they had witnessed; Our athletes arrived at international competitions in order to take part in competitions in which not only ours, but also foreign athletes will participate; He could not remain aloof from family conflicts, as a woman's husband and father of children; The machine park was updated with new machines(highlighted words are superfluous).
Sometimes the manifestation of speech redundancy borders on absurdity: The corpse was dead and did not hide it... Stylists call such examples of verbosity lapalissiades... The origin of this term is interesting: it was formed on behalf of the French marshal the Marquis of La Palis, who died in 1525, the soldiers composed a song about him, in which there were the words: Our commander was still alive 25 minutes before his death... The absurdity of the lapalissiada lies in the assertion of a self-evident truth.
Lapalissiades give speech an inappropriate comic, often in situations that have arisen as a result of tragic circumstances. For example: Since the editor-in-chief of the collection has died, it is necessary to introduce a new editor from the living ones to the editorial board; The dead corpse lay motionless and showed no signs of life.
Speech redundancy can take the form of pleonasm. Pleonasm(from gr. pleonasmos - excess) is the use in speech of similar in meaning and therefore unnecessary words ( the main essence, everyday routine, uselessly disappears, anticipate in advance, valuable treasures, dark gloom etc.). Pleonasms often appear when synonyms are combined. kissed and kissed; long and lasting; courageous and brave; only; nevertheless, however; for example.
A.S. Pushkin, considering brief one of the merits of the work, reproached P.A. Vyazemsky in a letter to him for the fact that in his fairy tale "The Line of the Terrain" the speech of one of the heroes is "stretched", and the phrase " Even more painful twice almost pleonasm. "
Pleonasms usually arise from the stylistic negligence of the author. For example: Local forest workers are not limited only to the protection of the taiga, but also do not allow the richest gifts of nature to be wasted... During stylistic editing, the selected words must be excluded. However, one should distinguish such a manifestation of speech redundancy from the "imaginary pleonasm", to which the author deliberately refers as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. In this case, pleonasm becomes a striking stylistic device. Let us recall F. Tyutchev: The vault of heaven, burning with starry glory. Mysteriously looks from the depths, And we float, surrounded by a flaming abyss on all sides; S. Yesenina: Give me a paw for luck, Jim. I have never seen such a paw before. Let's bark with you in the moonlight on a quiet, silent weather ... Another example: The time when the history of our country was rewritten for the sake of a false ideology will not go back(from gas.).
The use of pleonastic combinations is also typical for folklore: Where are you going, Volga? Where are you going? To give you a place by name, by patronymic ... Orally folk art traditionally used expressively colored pleonastic combinations sadness-longing, sea-okiyan, path-path and under.
A type of pleonasm is tautology(from gr. tauto - the same thing, logos - a word). Tautology as a phenomenon of lexical stylistics can arise when repeating words of the same root ( tell a story, multiply many times, ask a question, resume again), as well as when combining a foreign language and a Russian word that duplicates its meaning ( memorable souvenirs, debuted for the first time, unusual phenomenon, driving leitmotif). In the latter case, it is sometimes said about hidden tautology.
Repetition of the same root words, creating a tautology, is a very common mistake ( The plaintiff proves his case with unsubstantiated evidence; The rise in crime has grown; Citizens are pedestrians! Cross the street only at pedestrian crossings!). The use of single-root words creates unnecessary "marking time", for example: ... The definition follows quite naturally that labor productivity at certain stages of development of technology is determined by completely certain laws... To comprehend such a statement, one must, first of all, get rid of the tautology. The following variant of stylistic editing is possible: A well-grounded conclusion follows that labor productivity at various stages of development of technology is determined by objective laws.
However, the repetition of words of the same root should not always be regarded as a stylistic error. Many stylists rightly believe that it is not always necessary to exclude single-root words from sentences, replacing them with synonyms: in some cases this is impossible, in others it can lead to impoverishment, discoloration of speech. Several cognate words in a close context are stylistically justified if related words are the only carriers of the corresponding meanings and cannot be replaced with synonyms ( coach - to train; elections, voters - to choose; habit - weaning; close - cover; cook - jam and etc.). How to avoid, say, the use of one-root words when it is necessary to say: White flowers bloomed on the bushes; The book was edited by the editor-in-chief?
There are many tautological combinations in the language, the use of which is inevitable, since they use terminological vocabulary (dictionary of foreign words, link of the fifth link, foreman of the first brigade etc.). We have to put up with such, for example, word usage: the investigating authorities ... were investigating; have Graves' disease; the formation is cut by a cutting machine etc.
Many etymologically related words in modern language have lost their word-formative connections (cf .: take off - raise - understand - hug - accept, song - rooster, morning - tomorrow). Such words, which have a common etymological root, do not form tautological phrases ( black ink, red paint, white linen).
The tautology that arises when a combination of a Russian word and a foreign language, which coincide in meaning, usually indicates that the speaker does not understand the exact meaning of the borrowed word. This is how the combinations appear young prodigy, scanty little things, interior design, leading leader, break interval etc. Tautological combinations similar type sometimes they pass into the category of permissible and are fixed in speech, which is associated with a change in the meanings of words. An example of the loss of tautology can be the combination time period... In the past, linguists considered this expression tautological, since the Greek word period means "time". However, the word period gradually acquired the meaning of "period of time" and therefore the expression period of time became possible. Combinations were also fixed in speech monumental monument, reality, exhibits, second-hand books and some others, because in them definitions have ceased to be a simple repetition of the main feature already contained in the word being defined. Does not require stylistic editing and the tautology arising from the use of abbreviations in scientific and formal business style, for example: SI system[those. "System International System" (about physical units)]; Institute BelNIISH(Institute Belarusian Research Institute of Agriculture).
Tautology, like pleonasm, can be a stylistic device that enhances the effectiveness of speech. V colloquial speech tautological combinations are used such as do the service, all sorts of things, bitter grief and others, making a special expression. Tautology underlies many phraseological units ( eat on the go, see the views, walk with a shake, sit, sit, jam-packed, disappear). Tautological repetitions in artistic speech, mainly in poetic speech, acquire especially important stylistic significance.
There are several types of tautological combinations: combinations with a tautological epithet ( And the new was not old, but new and victorious.- Sl.), With the tautological instrumental case ( And suddenly a white-white birch in a gloomy fir-tree alone.- Sol.). Tautological combinations in the text stand out from the background of other words; this makes it possible, resorting to tautology, to pay attention to especially important concepts ( So lawlessness was legalized; Nature has less and less unsolved mysteries). An important semantic function is played by the tautology in the headlines of newspaper articles ( "The green shield asks for protection"; "Extremes of the Far North", "Is there an accident?", "Is the old bicycle outdated?").
A tautological repetition can give a statement a special significance, aphoristic ( To the winner to the student from the defeated teacher.- Bug.; Fortunately, the fashion circle is out of fashion now.- NS.; And the old is outdated, and the old is raving about newness.- NS.). As a source of speech expression, tautology is especially effective if the same root words are compared as synonyms ( As if they had not seen each other for two years, their kiss was long, long.- Ch.), Antonyms ( When did we learn to be strangers? When did we forget how to speak?- Evt.).
Like any repetition, tautological combinations increase the emotionality of publicistic speech [ The Seventh Symphony (by Shostakovich) is dedicated to the triumph of the human in man ... To the threat of fascism - to dehumanize man - the composer responded with a symphony about the triumphant triumph of all that is high and beautiful.- A. T.].
Stringing of cognate words is used in gradations(from Lat. gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure based on a sequential increase or decrease in emotional and expressive significance ( O! for the sake of our past days of perished, ruined happiness, do not destroy in my soul the last fate to the past!- Og.).
In expressively colored speech, tautological repetitions, like the repetition of sounds, can become an expressive means of phonics ( Then the tractors with guns pulled out, the field kitchen drove past, then the infantry went.- Shol.). Poets often combine both techniques - repetition of roots and repetition of sounds ( All is well: the poet sings, the critic is engaged in criticism.- Lighthouse.).
The possibility of a pun collision of one-root words allows the use of tautology as a means of creating comic, satirical coloring. This technique was brilliantly owned by N.V. Gogol, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ( Let you not allow it; The writer writes and the reader reads). As a means of comic use tautology and modern authors of humorous stories, feuilletons, jokes ( Efficiency: Do not do, but you cannot redo all matters; The ladybird, nicknamed God's, shamelessly destroys potato plantings.- "LG").
Repetition of words should be distinguished from tautology, although it is often a manifestation of speech redundancy. Unjustified lexical repetitions, which are often accompanied by tautology and pleonasms, usually indicate the inability of the author to clearly and concisely formulate a thought. For example, in the minutes of the meeting of the pedagogical council we read: The essay was copied, and the one who copied it does not deny that he copied the essay, and the one who gave it to copy even wrote that he gave it to copy the essay. So the fact is established. Wasn't it possible to formulate this idea succinctly? It was only necessary to indicate the names of the perpetrators of the incident: Ivanov does not deny that he copied the composition from Petrov, who allowed him to do it.
To avoid lexical repetitions, during literary editing, it is often necessary to significantly change the author's text:
| 1. The results were obtained, close to the results obtained on the model of the ship. The results showed ... | 1. The results were obtained, close to those which gave the test of the model of the ship. This indicates that ... |
| 2. It is good to add a small amount of bleach to the water for cleaning the floor - this is good disinfection and, in addition, it freshens the air in the room well. | 2. It is recommended to add a little bleach to the water for cleaning the floor: it disinfects and freshens the air well. |
| 3. Always be well dressed and you can be in fashion if you sew for yourself. | 3. Sew yourself and you will always be dressed fashionably and beautifully. |
However, the repetition of words does not always indicate the stylistic helplessness of the author: it can become a stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of speech. Lexical repetitions help to highlight an important concept in the text ( Live and learn.- last; Good is paid for.- talk.). This stylistic device was masterfully used by L.N. Tolstoy: She [Anna] was lovely in her simple black dress, her plump arms with bracelets were lovely, her firm neck with a string of pearls was lovely, lovely curly hair a frustrated hairstyle, charming graceful light movements of small legs and arms, charming this beautiful face in its animation; but there was something terrible and cruel in her charm... Publicists turn to the repetition of words as a means of logical separation of concepts. For example, the headlines of newspaper articles are interesting: “ The mighty forces of the mighty edge"(About Siberia)," Opera about opera"(About a musical theater performance)," Be human, human!»
Repetition of words is usually characteristic of emotionally colored speech. Therefore, lexical repetitions are often found in poetry. Let us recall Pushkin's lines: The novel is classic, old, superbly long, long, long ...
V poetic speech lexical repetitions are often combined with various techniques of poetic syntax that enhance emphatic intonation. For example: You hear a drum rumble. Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her, the platoon is leaving for fog, fog, fog, and the past is clearer, clearer, clearer ...(Ok.) One of the researchers wittily noted that repetition does not mean an invitation to say goodbye twice; it can mean: "soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, the platoon is already leaving", or "soldier, say goodbye to her, goodbye forever, you will never see her again", or "soldier, say goodbye to her, from your only one", etc. ... Thus, the "doubling" of a word does not mean a simple repetition of the concept, but becomes a means of creating a poetic "subtext" that deepens the content of the utterance.
Stringing the same words, you can reflect the nature of visual impressions ( But the infantry goes, goes past the pines, pines, pines endlessly.- Meadow.). Lexical repetitions sometimes, like a gesture, enhance the expressiveness of speech:
The battle thundered for the crossing,
And below, a little to the south -
Germans from left to right
Belatedly, we kept our way. (...)
And on the left on the move, on the move
Bayonets arrived in time.
They were pushed into the water, into the water,
And the water itself teca ...
(A.T. Tvardovsky)
Lexical repetitions can also be used as a means of humor. In a parody text, a pile of identical words and expressions reflects the comic nature of the situation described:
It is very important to be able to behave in society. If, inviting a lady to dance, you stepped on her foot and she pretended not to notice this, then you must pretend that you did not notice how she noticed, but pretended not to notice. - "LG".
Thus, in artistic speech, verbal repetitions can perform various stylistic functions. This must be taken into account when making a stylistic assessment of the use of the word in the text.
2. Harmonization of applications - geographical names.
| Applications - Geographical names City names expressed inflected noun, as a rule, agree in case with the defined word, for example: in the city of Moscow, near the city of Smolensk, above the city of Saratov... The same with foreign names: in the city of Barcelona, near the city of Venice... Rare names are usually not agreed upon in order to maintain the necessary clarity; Wed in periodicals: Negotiations took place in the city of Mina (Saudi Arabia; when combining "in the city of Mine", the initial form of an unfamiliar word could be perceived as Min, And How Mine); to the stay of the mayor in Russia Greek city Hair; the train approaches the city of Caltanisetta; near the city of Nis; in Romanian resort town Sinai... Often the names of cities retain their initial form, not agreeing with generic names, in geographical and military literature, in official messages and documents, for example: battles were fought near the cities of Merseburg and Wuppertal; 400th anniversary of the city of Cheboksary... City names on -O sometimes they do not agree with the presence of similar names in terms of sound male: in the city of Kirovo, in the city of Pushkino(the corresponding masculine names agree: in the city of Kirov, in the city of Pushkin). Compound names usually do not agree: in the town Mineral water, near the city of Naberezhnye Chelny; in New Orleans... City names in parentheses and syntactically unrelated to the preceding generic designation are inconsistent, for example: In the west of the Right Bank, this high density finds an explanation in the strong development of industry and cities (Nizhny Novgorod, Pavlov, Murom)... The names of villages, trees, and huts are usually consistent with generic names, for example: was born in the village of Goryukhin(Pushkin); to the village of Dyuevka(Chekhov); behind the Sestrakov farm(Sholokhov). Deviations are observed for those names, the gender and number of which differ from the grammatical gender and the number of words. village, village etc., for example: near the village of Mestechko; outside the village of Berezniki; in the village of Pogrebets, in the village of Uglyanets... The same with compound names: in the village of Malye Mytishchi... Rek names tend to agree with the generic name, for example: on the Dnieper river(also: on the Moskva River); between the Ob and Yenisei rivers... Little-known river names, especially foreign-language ones, usually do not agree: on the Ros river; by the Ptich river; the Argun river basin; in the valley of the Helmand River; on the Mekong river... The same is often the case with compound names: a tributary of the Golaya Dolina river; on the Black Volta river(but according to the rule: on the Northern Dvina river). The names of the place, aulov, k and shlakov, zast and v do not agree with the generic name, for example: in the town of Yelsk, not far from the aul Arysypay, in the village of Gilyan, at the Zhalanashkol outpost... The names of the nesting words are usually consistent with the word respubl and if they have the form female, and do not agree if masculine; Wed: a) trade between Russia and the Republic of India; in the Republic of Switzerland; the government of the Republic of Bolivia; in the South American Republic of Colombia; b) in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam; the capital of the Republic of Sudan; Ambassador of the Republic of Lebanon... The names of foreign adm and s t r and v n about - terr and torial units do not agree with generic names, for example: in the state of Texas, in the state of Hyderabad, in the province of Tuscany, in the provinces of Khorasan and Isfahan, in the Seine department, in the principality of Liechtenstein, in the state of Schleswig-Holstein, in the county of Sussex... Names o z e r, z and l and v o v, p r o l and v o v, canal o v, b ukh t, o st r o v o v, p o l u o pages, gorges, gorges, passages, etc., as a rule, do not agree with generic names, for example: on Lake Baikal(also: on Lake Ilmen); near the Gulf of Alaska; in the Skagerrak and Kattegat straits; in the Golden Horn Bay; beyond the island New earth; on the island of Java; on the Florida Peninsula; at Cape Chelyuskin; on Mount Elbrus; over the Kuen-Lun ridge; in the Karakum desert; near the oasis Sharabad; near the lunar crater Archimedes; over Mount Etna; eruption of Mount Vesuvius... Possible variants with agreement refer to a few well-known names that are often used independently, without a generic name, for example: past the island of Sumatra; the northern half of Sakhalin Island; on the island of Sicily; in the sahara desert... Full adjectives tend to agree: near Magnitnaya Mountain, on Lake Ladoga... However, in this case, fluctuations are observed. Wed in the same article: Damansky Island is one and a half kilometers long. – Provocations took place near Damansky Island, and thirty kilometers from there... Astronomical names do not agree: the movement of the rocket towards the planet Venus; the orbit of the planet Jupiter; bright light of the star Sirius... The names of the stations and the ports do not agree, for example: at the Orel station, at the Boyarka station; regular flights between the ports of Odessa and Alexandria; from the Polish port of Gdynia... The names u l and c usually agree if they are feminine, and disagree if they are masculine or are a compound name; Wed: a) on Sretenka street; at the corner of Petrovka street; this passage is called Stromynka street; b) on Balchug street; at the corner of Bolshaya Polyanka street; on the streets of Oleniy Val, Koroviy Brod, Kashenkin Meadow; on the street Krakowskie Przedmiescie(in Warsaw). |
3. Stylistic analysis of the text.
