Antonyms. Types of antonyms. Antonymy and polysemy. Stylistic functions of antonyms (antithesis, antiphrasis, amphitesis, astheism, oxymoron, etc.). Enantiosemy. Antonym dictionaries
Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
The ability of words to enter into opposite relationships is called antonymy.
Types of antonyms:
- · Contradictory (gradual): such opposites that mutually complement each other to the whole, without transitional links; they are in a relation of private opposition. Examples: bad - good, lie - truth, living - dead.
- · Contrary (non-gradual): antonyms expressing polar opposites within one entity in the presence of transitional links - internal gradation; they are in a relation of gradual opposition. Examples: black (- gray -) white, old (- elderly - middle-aged -) young, large (- average -) small.
- · Conversive (vector): antonyms expressing different directions of actions, characteristics, social phenomena, etc. Examples: enter - exit, descend - rise, light - extinguish, revolution - counter-revolution.
Antonym words have a certain common compatibility. This is linguistic feature antonymous words.
The close relationship between antonymy and polysemy emphasizes the systematic relationship of lexical units, their interdependence and interdependence while, however, each of the phenomena retains its distinctive features.
Depending on the distinctive features that words with opposite meanings have, general linguistic and occasional antonyms can be distinguished.
Language antonyms are characterized near crap:
- 1) socially conscious systemic relationships;
- 2) stable belonging to a certain lexical and grammatical paradigm;
- 3) regularity of reproduction in the same syntagmatic conditions;
- 4) fixedness in the vocabulary;
- 5) relatively stable style affiliation and stylistic essence.
Occasional antonyms include, for example: fun - sadness, promotion - retraction, love - lovelessness.
Main function antonyms- an expression of opposition that is inherent in their semantics and does not depend on the context.
The opposite function can be used for different stylistic purposes:
- 1. To indicate the limit of manifestation of a quality, property, relationship, action;
- 2. To actualize a statement or enhance an image, impression, etc.;
- 3. To express an assessment of the opposite properties of objects, actions, etc.;
- 4. To affirm two opposing properties, qualities, actions;
- 5. To approve one of the opposed signs, actions or phenomena real life due to the denial of the other;
- 6. To recognize some average, intermediate quality, property, etc., possible or established between two words that are opposite in meaning.
One of the stylistic figures is built on the sharp opposition of antonym words - antithesis ( Knowledge person elevates, A ignorance - humiliates). Another stylistic device that is based on a comparison of antonymic meanings is an oxymoron. It consists of a combination of words that logically express incompatible concepts, sharply contradictory in meaning and mutually exclusive ( Cold boiling water, alive dead body). Sometimes there is a deliberate use of one antonym in the text instead of another. Modern journalists often resort to this technique (“Bureau malicious services", "Olympic anxiety"). This technique is based on the use of a special stylistic figure known since ancient times - antiphrase, i.e. the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense.
Enantiosemy- the presence of opposite meanings in the structure of a word. Examples: lend someone money - borrow money from someone, surround someone with tea - treat and not treat.
Dictionaries of antonyms.
Special dictionaries of antonyms of the Russian language for a long time did not have. In 1971, two dictionaries of antonyms were published. In the "Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language" L.A. Vvedenskaya explained 862 antonymous pairs. All interpretations are provided with numerous, very convincing examples from works of various types. style affiliation. In 1982, the second edition of this dictionary was published. In the dictionary N.P. Kolesnikov includes many terms that exist in pairs. In 1978, “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by M.R. was published. Lvov (edited by L.A. Novikov). The dictionary contains almost 2 thousand antonymic pairs of words. Interpretations of their meanings are given through the use of phrases with these words and examples in the texts.
In 1980, M. Lvov’s “School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” was published. The dictionary explains over 500 pairs of the most common antonyms.
1. Multi-rooted- this is actually lexical antonyms, in which the opposite is expressed by the semantics of the entire word: wealth - poverty, light - extinguish. Prevail in quantitative terms.
2. Single-rooted- lexico-grammatical antonyms, in which the opposite meaning is expressed through various prefixes, less often suffixes, which are also capable of entering into antonymic relationships: invest - lay out, close - open, leave - come, mediocre - gifted. Legal clichés can be antonyms: provision of assistance - failure to provide assistance, grievous bodily injury - minor bodily injury, mild punishment - severe punishment. Based on antonymous relations, the following terms are formed: purchase and sale.
II. According to semantic structure.
1. Gradual(contrary, opposite) - antonyms that allow the inclusion of a middle member, an intermediate concept: white - (gray) - black; past - (present) - future. This intermediate concept is a word with a neutral meaning, from which the positive and negative members of the paradigm are measured: beloved - (indifferent) - hated.
2. Non-gradual(contradictory, contradictory) - antonyms denoting the opposition of objects, features, processes, relationships, the presence of one of which excludes the existence of the other, there is no intermediate concept: life - death, sick - healthy.
Some scientists identify another type of antonyms - antonyms-enantiosemes. Enantiosemy (Greek: “opposite” + “sign”) - intraword antonymy, the essence of which is that the same lexical unit can express opposite meanings in a certain situation or context: blow out the candle (extinguish it) - blow out the blast furnace (light it); break a cup (split) - create a garden (create); chop wood (chop) - chop a house (build). Enantiosemy often causes ambiguity and may involve speech error: After a severe attack, the patient began move away (is the patient better or worse?) ; Students listened to lecture(did you listen carefully or didn’t listen at all?) ; Editor looked through these lines(did you read it briefly or didn’t you see it?).
III. By use in speech.
1. General language- reflect the phenomena of reality: good bad; top bottom; speak - remain silent.
2. Contextual(author's) - words contrasted in a certain context: “Wolves And sheep” (Krylov) , They got along. Wave And stone, poetry and prose, ice And flame not so different from each other(Pushkin). The polarity of these words is not fixed in dictionaries; their opposition is of an individual author's nature.
The use of antonymy by lawyers is only possible orally monologue speech, it's bright means of expression; Antonymy is not typical for procedural acts.
One of the striking manifestations of systemic relations in vocabulary is correlative opposition based on the most general and most significant semantic feature for their meaning. Such words are called lexical antonyms.
The opposition is called correlative because only words that are in the same lexical and grammatical paradigm and denote logically compatible concepts enter into such relationships. Their comparison is based on the same common feature. Thus, words that characterize various kinds of qualitative features are semantically correlative, for example: beauty, color, taste (beautiful - ugly, light - dark, bitter - sweet); emotions (love - hate, fun - sadness); concepts of space, time (up - down, north - south, today - tomorrow); action and state (close - open).
The correlation of the most common features opposites are often complemented by private, specific, semantically no less significant features.
Such meanings are called opposite because, according to the laws of logic, they mutually exclude each other. For example, an object cannot be deep and shallow, heavy and light at the same time. Between them, a language often contains lexical units that have a certain average semantically neutral meaning:
large - medium - small
large - medium - small.
The content of the concept "antonym" in Lately significantly supplemented. Thus, until recently, only words containing an indication of quality in their meaning were considered antonyms. Modern researchers also see antonymy in words belonging to the same part of speech, denoting different kinds of feelings, action, state, evaluation, spatial and temporal relationships, that is, a broad understanding of antonymy is increasingly strengthened.
Types of antonyms by structure.
According to their structure, antonyms are divided into 2 main groups: single-root and multi-root.
Cognate antonyms arise as a result of word-formation processes, therefore they are also called lexical-grammatical (lexical-word-formation). They are formed as a result of attaching prefixes with the opposite meaning:
in- - from-; for- - from-; us-; above under- …
Word-forming elements of an antonymic nature should include the first parts of complex words such as easy- - heavy-, micro- - macro-, mono- - poly-...
A special group is formed by words that have intrasemantic antonymy, or enanthosemia, which appears as a result of the polysemy of the word. Enanthosemy is observed, for example, in the words: carry (here, into the house) - “bring” and carry (from here, from home) - “carry away”; make a mistake (intentionally) - “make a reservation” (on purpose) and make a mistake (accidentally) - “make a mistake”, etc. 1
Among antonyms with different roots, modern researchers distinguish the so-called Converse antonyms. These include words that express the relation of opposition in both the original and modified statements, but not in the usual one. in direct order, and in the opposite way: Peter buys a house from Sergei - Sergei sells the house to Peter.
The semantics of opposites in both different-rooted and same-rooted antonyms can reveal the concepts of varying degrees, to the extent of the same quality, properties:
expensive - cheap; deep - shallow; young - old.
The common, most essential feature of each group is the opposition of their meanings, which relate to the same series of objective reality.
Understanding the structural and semantic capabilities of antonymic oppositions allows you to use language antonyms in speech most correctly and rationally, and choose the most significant of them in an informative way. And this is important characteristic feature creative use of the lexical wealth of the Russian language.
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1 See: Bulakhovsky L.A. Introduction to linguistics. p.74; Vinogradov V.V. Main types lexical meanings words. p.9; him. On the processes of development and destruction of homonymy in the circle of correlative Russianisms and ancient Slavicisms // Studia slavica. Budapest. 1969. T.12.
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech, different in sound, having directly opposite meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - remain silent.
It should also be said that antonyms must have:
Equal degree of emotionality (laugh and cry are not antonyms, since they have different emotionality, antonyms are laugh and cry, laugh and cry)
Same semantic valence ( high part(there is no low honor))
To study antonymy, a research unit is chosen - the antonymic series, which has the properties of 3 planes of language (paradigmatic, syntomatic and functional)
Stylistic role of antonyms:
Antithesis - a stylistic figure built on a sharp opposition (good - bad)
Oxymoron - logically incompatible concepts (living corpse)
Enantiosemy - the development of a word with the opposite meaning (view (read) - view (not notice))
Types of antonyms:
Contrary (opposite) - antonyms that express polar opposites within one essence in the presence of transitional links - internal gradation (loved - indifferent - hated)
Contradictory - such opposites that mutually complement each other to the whole, without transitional links; they are in relation to privative opposition (bad - good, lie - truth, living - dead)
Conversion - words that describe the same situation from the point of view of different participants (buy - sell, husband - wife, teach - learn, lose - win, lose - find). It is common for conversions to have multiple subjects but one object.
Vector - antonyms that express different directions of actions, signs, social phenomena, etc. (enter - exit, descend - rise, light - extinguish, revolution - counter-revolution)
Pragmatic - words that are regularly contrasted in the practice of their use, in contexts (soul - body, mind - heart, earth - sky)
Antonymic paradigm- combining words with opposite meanings.
It is based on common integral and differential features.
Antonymous pair- a specific feature of antonyms (date - parting)
Question
Etymology. De-etymologization. "Folk etymology"
Etymology – establishing the original meaning of a word, i.e. etymon words.
Folk etymology - non-scientific etymology, based on the random convergence of an unknown word with a known one. (“boulevard” (comparison with the verb “to walk”)
De-etymologization - oblivion, loss of the original. sign, resulting in a gap between family ties. (“important” - compare Old Russian “vaga”)
Motivation of the word. The concept of internal form. The phenomenon of “folk etymology”. An integral part the internal content of many words is the so-called motivation- the “justification” of the sound appearance of this word contained in the word and realized by the speakers. Every object, every phenomenon of reality has many signs. The cuckoo not only cries “cuckoo”, but has a certain head shape, certain habits...Motivation based on a real motivating feature can be called real In other cases it occurs fantastic motivation reflecting mythical ideas, poetic fiction and legends. May be different ways of linguistic expression of a motivating feature . The “sound matter” of language creates the possibility of “visual motivation,” allowing one to imitate, to one degree or another, the characteristic sound of an object. Much more often than “figurative”, “descriptive motivation” occurs, i.e. “description” of a motivating feature using an ordinary (word. This can be observed 1) when using a word in a figurative meaning, 2) in derivatives and difficult words. “Descriptive motivation” is relative and limited: ultimately it always relies on an unmotivated word. Motivation is like a way of depicting a given meaning in a word, a more or less visual “image” of this meaning. The motivation reveals the approach of a person’s thoughts to this phenomenon, what it was like at the very creation of the word, and therefore the motivation is sometimes called “ internal shape words", considering it as a link through which the content of a word is connected with its external form- morphological structure and sound. The internal form of a word is the semantic and structural correlation of the morphemes that make up the word. The difference between motivation and meaning is clearly visible in cases where the same meaning is motivated in different languages or in synonymous words of the same language in different ways. At the same time, words with different meanings often have the same or very similar motivation. For example, squirrel, white hare(hare).. The motivation of a word is associated with its emotional connotations. This manifests itself in a conscious repulsion from words with an “unpleasant” motivation. There are other specific reasons, contributing to the loss of motivation in certain cases. However, it is important to emphasize that in addition to all the specific, particular reasons, there is also a general prerequisite that makes it possible to lose the motivation of a word. This is redundancy, even the uselessness of motivation from the moment the word becomes familiar. Motivation is necessary at the moment of the birth of a word: without motivation, a word, in fact, cannot arise. A special branch of lexicology is engaged in elucidating forgotten, lost motivations and, thus, studying the origin of the corresponding words, namely: etymology. Etymology also refers to every hypothesis about the origin and original motivation of a word (in this sense, the term etymology also used in plural). Finally, etymology is the very origin of the word and its motivation. The internal form is: 1 derivative words (tigress, tiger), words with a transfer meaning.
Target lectures – deepen the concept of antonymy and antonyms, give a description of semantic and structural types antonyms.
1. The concept of antonymy and antonyms.
2. Antonymic series. Types of antonyms (semantic, structural, conversion).
3. Antonymy and polysemy. Enantiosemy.
4. Use of antonyms in speech.
1. The concept of antonymy and antonyms
An important place in the lexical system of the Russian language is occupied by words related to each other by opposite meanings. For example: He didn't like poorly dressed people. Tired. Sick. Ugly. Awkward. Shy ones. Sad. They interfered with his energetic progress. They irritated his visual perception of the world. However, if he had dug into himself, he would have found it. That he still needs them, as a background against which he, impeccably dressed, would stand out. Always ready to fight for himself, healthy, young, handsome, dexterous, shameless, not allowing himself such luxury of the poor as sadness. (E. Yevtushenko).
The ability of words to enter into relations of opposition and to denote opposite concepts is called antonymy.
Antonymy is an expression of contrast within the same entity, its opposite definition.
The separation and connection of phenomena of the surrounding reality by contrast is one of the common operations of human logic. Therefore, when considering antonymy great attention given to some logical concepts, first of all, the concept of opposition.
The basis for contrasting words are the common semantic components in their meanings. In other words, only those meanings that are not just different, but correlative can be antonymous. For example, the sign heavy and light characterize an object by weight. This semantic generic component “weight” is common to them. Heavy – large in weight, light – small in weight., i.e. They are related by the generic seme, but differ by species. By differentiating this or that essence, antonyms are like signs of a unity “bifurcated” into opposites and at the same time determine the limit of some quality, property, action, and indicate the inextricable connection of opposites. For example, the words low and high (body temperature); came late and early. These words are perceived as components of one whole.
The essence of antonymy is the expression of the mutual ultimate negation of semantically homogeneous units.
The nature of the opposition may be different:
– Presence/absence of a sign: healthy (to have health) – sick (to not have health), sleep (to be in a state of sleep) – to be awake (not to be in a state of sleep). The semantic components in them are expressed by the negation “not” wet – dry (not wet).
– Start of action / termination of action, its end: turn on - turn off, speak - remain silent.
– The size of a feature can be contrasted: large – small, fast – slow.
– Places: right – left.
– Spaces: north – south.
– Time: day – night, etc.
Most often, opposition is observed in the presence of a qualitative attribute, therefore, among antonyms, qualitative adjectives and adverbs formed from quality adjectives, as well as nouns and verbs.
Words that correlate with each other must be of the same part of speech. Antonymous pair made up of words different parts speech, is permissible only in a specific text with a certain stylistic function.
Not all words enter into antonymic relationships. They do not have antonyms: nouns. with a specific meaning (table, hand); numerals (except one/two); most terms; Not everyone classifies words with different stylistic connotations as antonyms: hand - hands, although they can be opposed.
2. Antonymic series
Like synonyms, words with opposite meanings form series. But unlike synonymous series, which is characterized by openness, the antonymic series is closed, the number of members in the antonymic series is limited. An antonymic series includes only two words, so it is customary to talk about antonymic pairs, or a binary series. It also happens, however, that one of the antonyms can be opposed simultaneously by two lexical units (or even more), and therefore several pairs are formed. For example, hot - cold (icy), rude - polite (courteous, delicate).
Types of Antonyms
In studies of antonymy, one can find classifications that take into account various parameters: semantics, structure.
The semantic typology of antonyms is represented by two types:
Contrary (term by L.A. Novikov)
Opposite (term by E.I. Dibrova)
Gradual (term by L.L. Kasatkin)
Contradictor
Contradictory
Non-gradual
The opposition expressed by gradual antonyms is determined by the presence of an intermediate link between two extreme points corresponding concepts: weak wind - strong, and maybe moderate. Among those who love and those who hate, there are those who are indifferent. Among the peasants, not only the poor and kulaks stood out, but also the middle peasants.
Non-gradual antonyms are mutually exclusive, intermediate absent: main - secondary, proud - ashamed, earth - sky.
There is also a special type of antonyms - conversions (Latin “transformation”). Conversions are words that denote phenomena of the opposite direction. For example: A tower rests on a foundation. The foundation supports the tower. Buy goods and sell goods, take an exam - pass an exam.
The structural classification identifies types of antonyms depending on their morphemic composition: single-root (win - lose, arm - disarm) and different roots (repressed - rehabilitated, cooling - warming).
Single-root antonyms are formed due to the opposite meaning of prefixes or suffixes, which is why they are called word-formative.
To form antonyms, the prefix not is very often used, which creates an antonym only if one word not only denies the meaning of another, but also asserts a new opposite meaning. For example: young - not young, not young - old, middle-aged, Russian - non-Russian, foreigner.
And sometimes words of the same root with a prefix do not correspond in any way in meaning: visual - non-visual, difference - indifference, memorable - unmemorable.
3. Antonymy and polysemy
Antonymy, like synonymy, is closely related to polysemy, which means that with different meanings a polysemantic can be composed of different antonymic pairs. For example: a light weight- heavy, light dinner - dense, light punishment - harsh, light sleep - deep, easy question - difficult, complex.
It may be that in direct meaning the word does not have antonyms, but in figurative ones it acquires this ability. For example, in its literal meaning the word green (color) does not enter into antonymic relationships, but figurative meanings antonyms are: green (tomato) “unripe” – red, mature, green (youth) “inexperienced” – experienced. Sometimes the opposite happens: the word contract in its literal meaning has the antonym decompress, but in its figurative meaning there is no antonym.
Antonymic relationships can be observed not only between words, but also between the meanings of one polysemantic word. The ability of a word to express the opposite meaning within one lexeme is called enantiosemy (Greek “opposite”). An example of such a phenomenon is the word view 1. By examining, to become familiar with something. View New film. 2. While looking, you don’t notice anyone or anything. View error, Listen 1. Listen from beginning to end. Listen to the course; 2. not to hear. Listen to the question.
4. Using antonyms in speech
Antonyms, like synonyms, belong to those means of language with the help of which paraphrasing is carried out - the expression of the same thought different ways. However, unlike synonyms, which can simply be interchanged in a statement, antonyms, replacing each other in the text, “require” changes in other parts of the sentence in order for the same meaning to be preserved. For example. She is never late. - She always arrives on time.
In addition to being used as a periphrastic device, antonyms are often used to emphasize the contrast between concepts, creating the basis for antithesis (Greek opposition): The well-fed does not understand the hungry.
IN fiction, especially in poetry, the expressive power of a work is often based on the opposition of antonyms:
Loved it rich - poor,
A scientist fell in love with a stupid woman,
I fell in love with the ruddy-pale one,
I fell in love with the good and the bad,
Gold - copper half.
(M. Tsvetaeva)
The poet can use as antonyms such words as common language do not form antonymous pairs. In this case, the word usually appears not in its direct meaning, but as a symbol of a deeper meaning.
And we hate and we love by chance,
Without sacrificing anything, neither anger nor love.
And some secret cold reigns in the soul,
When the fire burns in the soul.
The technique of oxymoron (Greek “witty-stupid”) is built on the comparison of antonymic meanings - a combination of sharply contrasting, internally contradictory signs - ringing silence, bitter joy.
Literature
1. Lvov M.R. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. – M., 1976.
2. Novikov L.A. Antonymy in Russian. – M., 1973.
3. Novikov L.A. Types of antonyms in the Russian language (structural classification) // Russian language at school. – 1991. – No. 4.
4. Modern Russian language / Ed. E.I. Dibrova. – M., 2001.
5. Sokolov O.M. Enantiosemy in the circle of related phenomena// Philological sciences. – 1980. – № 6.
1. What is the difference between an antonymic series and a synonymous one?
2. What semantic types of antonyms stand out?
3. What is enantiosemy?
4. What stylistic devices and figures are based on antonymy?
