"Iron Chancellor"
Otto Bismarck went down in history as the first chancellor German Empire... Under his leadership, the unification of Germany was carried out through a "revolution from above". He managed to turn the country into a powerful industrial power.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, the question of the need for unification arose sharply for numerous German states. Instead of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, which disintegrated in 1806, the German Union arose in 1815, which included 39 independent states... Austria played the leading role in it. However, this did not suit Prussia. An increasingly aggravated conflict arose between Vienna and Berlin.
In 1862, Bismarck (Otto von Bismarck) becomes Prime Minister of Prussia. It is with the help of wars that Bismarck expects to determine the fate of Germany. The rivalry between Austria and Prussia resulted in open war in 1866. The Prussian army quickly defeated the Austrian one. The German Confederation is declared dissolved. Instead, in 1867, on the initiative of Bismarck, a new association was created - the North German Confederation, which, in addition to Prussia, included the small states of Northern Germany. This alliance became the basis for the creation of an empire led by Prussia.
Unification of legislation
However, initially, the power of the new emperor - William I - is still very weak. The German Empire, proclaimed on January 18, 1871, is a federation of 25 states. Otto Bismarck receives the highest state post of the imperial chancellor, and in accordance with the constitution of 1871, practically unlimited power He pursues a very pragmatic policy, the main objective which is the rallying of a loose empire. One by one, new laws appear.
These laws are aimed at unifying legislation and creating a single economic and currency space. In the early years, Bismarck had to reckon with the liberals, who constituted the parliamentary majority. But the desire to provide Prussia with a dominant position in the empire, to strengthen the traditional hierarchy and its own power caused constant friction in the relations between the chancellor and parliament.
In 1872-1875, on the initiative of Bismarck, laws against the Catholic Church were adopted to deprive the clergy of the right to supervise schools, to prohibit the Jesuit order in Germany, to obligatory civil marriage, and to abolish the articles of the constitution that provided for the autonomy of the church. These measures, dictated by purely political considerations of the struggle against the clerical opposition, seriously limited the rights of the Catholic clergy.
"Law on Socialists"
Bismarck fights even more resolutely against Social Democracy. He considers this movement "socially dangerous, hostile to the state." In 1878, he passed through the Reichstag the "Law on Socialists": Social Democrats are prohibited from gathering and distributing their literature, their leaders are persecuted.
The "Iron Chancellor" is also trying to win over the sympathies of the working class to its side. In 1881-1889, Bismarck passed "social laws" on insurance of workers in case of illness or injury, on old-age and disability pensions. This was a unique example in the history of Europe at that time. However, in parallel, Bismarck continues to apply repressive measures to the participants in the labor movement, which, ultimately, nullifies the results of his policy.
Germany becomes the leader
Education of your own nation state met with the rise in all segments of the population. The general enthusiasm is also beneficial for an economy that does not lack funds... Moreover, France, which had lost the war of 1870-1871, undertook to pay indemnity to the German Empire. New factories are springing up everywhere. Germany is rapidly transforming from an agricultural country to an industrial one.
The Chancellor has a skillful foreign policy. With the help of a complex system of alliances that ensured the isolation of France, the rapprochement of Germany with Austria-Hungary and the maintenance of good relationship with Russia, Bismarck was able to maintain peace in Europe. The German Empire became one of the leaders in international politics.
Career decline
After the death of William I on March 9, 1888, for the empire, turbulent times... His son Frederick succeeds his throne, however, after three months he dies. The next monarch - Wilhelm II, having a low opinion of Bismarck, quickly comes into conflict with him.
By this time, the system itself, formed by the chancellor, began to fail. A rapprochement between Russia and France was outlined. Colonial expansion Germany, begun in the 80s, exacerbated Anglo-German relations. Bismarck's failure in domestic politics was the failure of his plan to turn the "exceptional law" against the socialists into a permanent one. In 1890, Bismarck was dismissed and spent the last 8 years of his life at his Friedrichsruhe estate.
"Iron Chancellor"
Otto Bismarck went down in history as the first chancellor of the German Empire. Under his leadership, the unification of Germany was carried out through a "revolution from above". He managed to turn the country into a powerful industrial power.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, the question of the need for unification arose sharply for numerous German states. Instead of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, which disintegrated in 1806, the German Union arose in 1815, which included 39 independent states. Austria played the leading role in it. However, this did not suit Prussia. An increasingly aggravated conflict arose between Vienna and Berlin.
In 1862, Bismarck (Otto von Bismarck) becomes Prime Minister of Prussia. It is with the help of wars that Bismarck expects to determine the fate of Germany. The rivalry between Austria and Prussia resulted in open war in 1866. The Prussian army quickly defeated the Austrian one. The German Confederation is declared dissolved. Instead, in 1867, on the initiative of Bismarck, a new association was created - the North German Confederation, which, in addition to Prussia, included the small states of Northern Germany. This alliance became the basis for the creation of an empire led by Prussia.
Unification of legislation
However, initially, the power of the new emperor - William I - is still very weak. The German Empire, proclaimed on January 18, 1871, is a federation of 25 states. Otto Bismarck receives the highest state post of the imperial chancellor, and in accordance with the constitution of 1871, practically unlimited power. He pursues a very pragmatic policy, the main goal of which is to unite the loose empire. One by one, new laws appear.
These laws are aimed at unifying legislation and creating a single economic and currency space. In the early years, Bismarck had to reckon with the liberals, who constituted the parliamentary majority. But the desire to provide Prussia with a dominant position in the empire, to strengthen the traditional hierarchy and its own power caused constant friction in the relations between the chancellor and parliament.
In 1872-1875, on the initiative of Bismarck, laws against the Catholic Church were adopted to deprive the clergy of the right to supervise schools, to prohibit the Jesuit order in Germany, to obligatory civil marriage, and to abolish the articles of the constitution that provided for the autonomy of the church. These measures, dictated by purely political considerations of the struggle against the clerical opposition, seriously limited the rights of the Catholic clergy.
"Law on Socialists"
Bismarck fights even more resolutely against Social Democracy. He considers this movement "socially dangerous, hostile to the state." In 1878, he passed through the Reichstag the "Law on Socialists": Social Democrats are prohibited from gathering and distributing their literature, their leaders are persecuted.
The "Iron Chancellor" is also trying to win over the sympathies of the working class to its side. In 1881-1889, Bismarck passed "social laws" on insurance of workers in case of illness or injury, on old-age and disability pensions. This was a unique example in the history of Europe at that time. However, in parallel, Bismarck continues to apply repressive measures to the participants in the labor movement, which, ultimately, nullifies the results of his policy.
Germany becomes the leader
The formation of their own national state was met with enthusiasm in all strata of the population. The general enthusiasm also has a beneficial effect on an economy that is not lacking in cash. Moreover, France, which had lost the war of 1870-1871, undertook to pay indemnity to the German Empire. New factories are springing up everywhere. Germany is rapidly transforming from an agricultural country to an industrial one.
The Chancellor has a skillful foreign policy. With the help of a complex system of alliances that ensured the isolation of France, the rapprochement of Germany with Austria-Hungary and the maintenance of good relations with Russia, Bismarck was able to maintain peace in Europe. The German Empire became one of the leaders in international politics.
Career decline
After the death of William I on March 9, 1888, turbulent times set in for the empire. His son Frederick succeeds his throne, however, after three months he dies. The next monarch - Wilhelm II, having a low opinion of Bismarck, quickly comes into conflict with him.
By this time, the system itself, formed by the chancellor, began to fail. A rapprochement between Russia and France was outlined. The colonial expansion of Germany, begun in the 80s, exacerbated Anglo-German relations. Bismarck's failure in domestic politics was the failure of his plan to turn the "exceptional law" against the socialists into a permanent one. In 1890, Bismarck was dismissed and spent the last 8 years of his life at his Friedrichsruhe estate.
As a result of the defeat of the French in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, the French emperor Napoleon III was captured, and Paris had to go through another revolution. And on March 2, 1871, the Paris Treaty, which was difficult and humiliating for France, was concluded. The territories of Alsace and Lorraine, the Kingdom of Saxony, Bavaria and Württemberg were annexed to Prussia. France should have paid the winners a 5 billion contribution. Wilhelm I returned to Berlin in triumph, despite the fact that all the merits in this war belonged to the chancellor.
The victory in this war made possible the revival of the German Empire. Back in November 1870, the unification of the South German states took place within the framework of the transformed from the Northern Unified German Union. And in December 1870, the Bavarian king made a proposal to restore the German Empire and German imperial dignity, once destroyed by Napoleon Bonaparte. This proposal was accepted, and the Reichstag sent a request to William I to accept the imperial crown. On January 18, 1871, Otto von Bismarck (1815 - 1898) proclaimed the creation of the Second Reich, and Wilhelm I was proclaimed Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany. At Versailles in 1871, inscribing the address on an envelope, Wilhelm I indicated to the "Chancellor of the German Empire", thus confirming Bismarck's right to rule the created empire.
The "Iron Chancellor", acting in the interests of absolute power, ruled the newly formed state from 1871-1890, from 1866 to 1878, with the support of the National Liberal Party in the Reichstag. Bismarck carried out global reforms in the field of German law, and he also did not ignore the system of management and finance. The educational reform in 1873 sparked a conflict with the Roman Catholic Church, although the main cause of the conflict was the growing distrust of German Catholics (who accounted for almost a third of the country's inhabitants) towards the Protestant population of Prussia. In the early 1870s, after the manifestation of these contradictions in the work of the Catholic "Center" party in the Reichstag, Bismarck had to take action. The fight against the dominance of the Catholic Church is known as "kulturkampfa" (struggle for culture). In the course of this struggle, many bishops and priests were arrested, and hundreds of dioceses were left without leaders. Subsequently, church appointments had to be coordinated with the state; church officials were not allowed to hold official positions in the state apparatus. There was a separation of schools from the church, an institute was created civil marriage, and the Jesuits were completely expelled from Germany.
In building his foreign policy, Bismarck proceeded from the situation that developed in 1871 thanks to the victory of Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War and the acquisition of Alsace and Lorraine, which turned into a source of continuous tension. Using a complex system of alliances that made it possible to ensure the isolation of France, the rapprochement of the German state with Austria-Hungary, and the maintenance of good relations with Russian Empire(the union of three emperors: Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1873 and 1881; the existence of the Austro-German union in 1879; the conclusion of the "Triple Alliance" between the rulers of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1882; "Mediterranean Agreement" of Austria-Hungary , Italy and England in 1887, as well as the conclusion of a "reinsurance treaty" with Russia in 1887), Bismarck maintained peace throughout Europe. During the reign of Chancellor Bismarck, the German Empire became one of the leaders in the international political arena.
Building his foreign policy, Bismarck made a lot of efforts to consolidate the gains obtained as a result of the signing of the Frankfurt Peace Treaty in 1871, sought to ensure the diplomatic isolation of the French Republic and tried by any means to prevent the formation of any coalition if it could become a threat to German hegemony. He preferred not to take part in the discussion of claims for the weakened Ottoman Empire... Though " Triple Alliance"Was concluded against France and Russia, the" iron chancellor "was firmly convinced that a war with Russia could be extremely dangerous for Germany. The existence of a secret treaty with Russia in 1887 - the "reinsurance treaty" - shows that Bismarck did not hesitate to act behind the backs of his own allies, Italy and Austria, in order to preserve the status quo both in the Balkans and in the Middle East.
And Bismarck until 1884 did not give a clear definition of the course of colonial policy, the main reason for this was friendly relations with England. Among other reasons, it is customary to name the desire to preserve state capital, while minimizing government spending. The first expansionist plans of the "Iron Chancellor" were met with vigorous protest from every party - Catholics, Socialists, statists, as well as among his own class of Junkers. Despite this, it was during the reign of Bismarck that Germany became a colonial empire.
In 1879, Bismarck broke with the liberals, who later relied only on the support of a coalition of large landowners, military and state elites, and industrialists.
At the same time, Chancellor Bismarck managed to get the Reichstag to accept the protectionist customs tariff... Liberals ousted from big politics... The direction of the new course of economic and financial policy The German Empire reflected the interests of large industrialists and agrarians. This union managed to occupy a leading position in the field government controlled and political life... Thus, Otto von Bismarck's gradual transition from the policy of "kulturkampf" to the beginning of the persecution of socialists took place. After the attempt on the life of the sovereign in 1878, Bismarck passed through the Reichstag an "exceptional law" directed against the socialists, since it prohibited the activities of any social democratic organization. The constructive side of this law was the introduction of a system state insurance in case of illness (1883) or injury (1884), as well as the provision of an old-age pension (1889). But even these measures were not enough for the German workers to distance themselves from the Social Democratic party, although this distracted them from the revolutionary ways of solving social problems... However, Bismarck strongly objected to any version of legislation that would regulate the working conditions of workers.
During the reign of William I and Frederick III, who ruled for no more than six months, Bismarck's position could not be shaken by a single opposition group. The self-confident and ambitious Kaiser was disgusted with the secondary role, and at the next banquet in 1891 he declared: "There is only one master in the country - I, and I will not tolerate anything else." Shortly before this, William II made a hint about the desirability of Bismarck's resignation, whose application was submitted on March 18, 1890. A couple of days later, the resignation was accepted, Bismarck was granted the title of Duke of Lauenburg and awarded the title of Colonel General of the Cavalry.
After retiring to Friedrichsruhe, Bismarck did not lose interest in political life. The newly appointed Reich Chancellor and Minister-President, Count Leo von Caprivi, was particularly eloquent on his part. In Berlin, in 1894, there was a meeting between the emperor and the already aging Bismarck, organized by Clovis Hohenlohe, Prince of Schillingfürst, Caprivi's successor. The entire German people participated in the celebration of the 80th anniversary of the "Iron Chancellor" in 1895. In 1896, Prince Otto von Bismarck happened to be present at the coronation Russian emperor Nicholas II. Death overtook the "Iron Chancellor" on July 30, 1898 at his estate Friedrichsruhe, where he was buried.
Tough, firm, strong-willed - throughout his life, Minister-President of Prussia and Chancellor of Germany Otto fot Bismarck skillfully created such an image among those around him. Behind an iron will, willfulness and rare obstinacy, he tried to hide a deep mind and natural resourcefulness. Everything that this man did, he did reliably.
Strong Power Principles
It took Bismarck less than nine years to unite centuries of fragmented Germany. He ruled the empire he created for 19 years. His state system was distinguished by stability and ability to develop, reliable international position... In his Thoughts and Memories, Bismarck formulated the principles on which his power rested.
Principle 1: power over law.
Having come to power, Bismarck introduced a system of total vertical subordination: the king (Kaiser) - the chancellor - ministers - officials. Only with the help of such a device state power and you can create a strong state. Any opposition was reduced to powder. Power is higher than law, the chancellor believed.
Principle 2: Any means are good if it serves the interests of the state.
If the requirements of the current moment are such that war is needed, then there will be war! So, in order to induce southern Germany to an alliance with Prussia, Bismarck needed to provoke aggression from France. With clever diplomatic moves, he completely confused Napoleon III, angered French Foreign Minister Gramont, calling him a fool. Then he shortened the letter of William I to the French king (the so-called "Emsian dispatch") in such a way that it took on a completely offensive character for France. Bismarck ordered this document to be published in all newspapers and sent to all European missions. As a result, France considered herself insulted and declared war (which was what the Reich Chancellor wanted).
Principle 3: the necessary should always come first, and then the desirable.
A wise politician must firmly pursue the intended goal. But at the same time, be flexible, see "several moves ahead", understand and feel what is preferable in this particular situation, be able to adapt to circumstances and benefit from everything.
Principle 4: after defeating the enemy, the main thing is not to go too far.
Whenever possible, war should be avoided. But if it is inevitable, then it must be won and the subjects must be convinced of its necessity, justifying their actions. It is only necessary to be able to transfer the formal responsibility for its occurrence to the enemy. But the main thing is not to go too far, not to engage in punitive justice. Bismarck, in principle, respected the interests of other European powers. A defeated people should not feel insulted and enslaved, otherwise they will be an unreliable ally.
Principle 5: you need to feel responsible for your subjects and give them at least a minimum of social benefits.
An important concern of the Reich Chancellor was to ensure the development of Germany. He succeeded - to late XIX in. in terms of development rates, Germany was second only to Great Britain. In 1872-1875. On the initiative of Bismarck, laws were passed to deprive the clergy of the right to supervise schools, to abolish the articles of the constitution that provided for the autonomy of the church. In 1881-1889. he spent a number of " social laws»: On insurance of workers against illness and injury, on old age and disability pensions. Insurance, which now exists almost all over the world, was an innovation of the Iron Chancellor.
About politics and politicians
Assume that a statesman can make a plan for distant perspective and to consider for himself the law what he will undertake in a year, two or three years, would mean not understanding the essence of politics ... In politics, one cannot draw up a plan for a long period and follow it blindly.
The government should not hesitate. Once having chosen the road, it must, without looking back to the right and left, go to the end.
It is possible only in general outline adhere to the chosen direction; it, however, must be adhered to unshakably, but the paths along which we go to the goal, we are not always familiar. A statesman is like a traveler in the forest: he knows the route of the campaign, but not the point at which he will leave the forest. Likewise, the politician must lay torn roads in order not to get lost.
Politics is the art of adapting to circumstances and making use of everything, even that which is sickening.
Whoever calls me a shameless politician, let him first test his own conscience on this bridgehead.
Never fight on two fronts!
The only sound basis large state, and in this it essentially differs from the small, it is state egoism, not romance, and unworthy great country to dispute about a matter that is not in the sphere of her own interests.
Opposing views, without doing any good, can, in any case, do harm., for they can give rise to doubts and indecision, and in my opinion, any policy is better than a policy of hesitation.
For a prudent politician, the first place is always the necessary, and only then the desirable, i.e. first, the equipment of the house, and only then its expansion. And the ability to wait, observing the development of events, is a prerequisite
practical policy.
If we do not take on the role of the hammer, then it can easily happen that only the role of the anvil will remain.
On officials and ministers
An official is like a musician in an orchestra: no matter what instrument he sits at - the first violin or the triangle - he must, without looking at the whole thing and not trying to influence him, perform his part as expected. I want to play the kind of music that I myself recognize as good, or none at all.
There is no case that is so entangled that its core cannot be hushed up in a few words.
With bad laws and good officials, it is quite possible to rule the country. But if the officials are bad, even the best laws will not help.
One, and only one, person should be responsible for each assigned task.
It is unacceptable for a king to have two foreign ministers.
The duty of a minister, in my opinion, is, first of all, to be a faithful adviser to his sovereign, to provide the means to fulfill his intentions and, most importantly, to keep his image untainted in the eyes of the world.
Inserts
With a gentleman, I will always be half big gentleman, with a crook, half a big crook.
During his student years, Bismarck acquired a reputation for revelers and madcap. For 18 months, he participated in 27 duels and won all, while receiving 28 marks, and some of the duels were scaled. With this option, the duelists stand motionless against each other at a distance less than the blade and strike. Although critical organs are protected, the wounds can still be dire. Bismarck's ability to drink without getting drunk has become a legend. He has not lost a single alcoholic fight. The young Bismarck was in the habit of informing friends of his arrival with shots to the ceiling. One day he appeared in a neighbor's living room and brought him on a leash like a dog, a frightened fox, and then, amid loud hunting cries, let her go. For his violent temper, the neighbors nicknamed him "the mad Bismarck." He recalled: "I enjoy some authority among the landlord neighbors, because ... I smoke very strong cigars ... and with polite composure I solder my friends." In spite of similar image life, Busmark managed to increase its value by more than a third during the years during which he managed his family estate. He even managed to breed a successful breed of Ulm Great Danes (Bismarck Great Danes), crossing Danish Great Danes with German Mastiffs.
You can learn more about the life and work of the great chancellor Otto von Bismarck in just half an hour by reading the mini-book "Thoughts and Memories" by Otto von Bismarck in the Library "Main Thought".
Bismarck is 21 years old. 1836
They never lie so much as during the war, after the hunt and before the elections.
"Bismarck is happiness for Germany, although he is not a benefactor of mankind," wrote the historian Brandes. "For the Germans, he is the same as for the short-sighted, a pair of excellent, unusually strong glasses: happiness for the patient, but a great misfortune that he needs them." ...
Otto von Bismarck was born in 1815, the year of Napoleon's final defeat. The future winner of three wars grew up in a family of landowners. His father left at 23 military service than angered the king so much that he took away the rank of captain and uniform from him. In a Berlin grammar school, he faced the hatred of the educated burghers towards the nobles. "With my antics and insults, I want to open myself access to the most sophisticated corporations, but all this is child's play. I have time, I want to lead my local comrades, and in the future - people in general." And Otto chooses not a military profession, but a diplomat. But the career doesn't work out. "I will never be able to endure the authorities" - the boredom of the life of an official makes the young Bismarck commit extravagant deeds. The biographies of Bismarck describe the story of how the young future chancellor of Germany got into debt, decided to recoup at the gambling table, but lost terribly. In despair, he even thought about suicide, but in the end he confessed everything to his father, who helped him. However, the failed secular dandy had to return home, to the Prussian backwoods, and start doing business on the family estate. Although he turned out to be a talented manager - through reasonable economy he managed to increase the income of the parent's estate and soon paid off all creditors in full. Not a trace of his former extravagance remained: he never borrowed money again, he did everything to financially to be absolutely independent, and by old age was the largest private landowner in Germany.
Even a victorious war is an evil that must be prevented by the wisdom of the nations.
“From the outset, by their very nature, trade deals and bureaucratic positions dislike me, and I do not at all consider it an absolute luck for myself to become even a minister,” Bismarck writes at the time. rather than writing administrative orders. My ambition is not to obey, but rather to command. "
"It's time to fight," Bismarck decided at thirty-two, when he, a landowner middle hand, was elected deputy of the Prussian Landtag. "They never lie as much as during the war, after hunting and elections," he would say later. The debate in the Landtag captures him: “It's amazing how much audacity - compared to their ability - the orators express in their speeches and with what shameless complacency they dare to impose such large assembly his empty phrases. "Bismarck crushes his political opponents so much that when he was recommended as a minister, the king, deciding that Bismarck was too bloodthirsty, drew a resolution:" Good only when the bayonet reigns supreme. "But soon Bismarck was in demand. Parliament, using the old age and inertia of his king, demanded to reduce the costs of the army. And the "bloodthirsty" Bismarck was needed, who could put presumptuous parliamentarians in their place: the Prussian king must dictate his will to parliament, and not vice versa. In 1862, Bismarck becomes the head of the Prussian government, later nine years old, the first chancellor of the German Empire, and for thirty years he "with iron and blood" created a state that was to play a central role in the history of the 20th century.
Bismarck in his office
It was Bismarck who made the map of modern Germany. Since the Middle Ages, the German nation has been split. IN early XIX For centuries, the inhabitants of Munich considered themselves primarily Bavarians, subjects of the Wittelsbach dynasty, Berliners identified themselves with Prussia and the Hohenzollerns, Germans from Cologne and Münster lived in the Kingdom of Westphalia. They were all united only by the language, even the faith was different: in the south and southwest Catholics prevailed, the north was traditionally Protestant.
The French invasion, the shame of a swift and complete military defeat, the enslaving peace of Tilsit, and then, after 1815, life dictated from St. Petersburg and Vienna provoked a powerful response. The Germans are tired of humiliation, begging, trading in mercenaries and governors, dancing to someone else's tune. National unity has become a universal dream. Everyone spoke of the need for reunification - from the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm and church hierarchs to the poet Heine and the political emigrant Marx. The most likely collector of German lands was Prussia - aggressive, rapidly developing and, unlike Austria, nationally homogeneous.
Bismarck became chancellor in 1862 and immediately announced that he intended to create a unified German Reich: "The great issues of the era are decided not by the opinion of the majority and liberal chatter in parliament, but by iron and blood." First of all Reich, then Deutschland. National unity from above, through total subordination. In 1864, having concluded an alliance with the Austrian emperor, Bismarck attacked Denmark and, as a result of a brilliant blitzkrieg, annexed two provinces inhabited by ethnic Germans from Copenhagen - Schleswig and Holstein. Two years later, the Prussian-Austrian conflict began for hegemony over the German principalities. Bismarck determined the strategy of Prussia: no (yet) conflicts with France and a quick victory over Austria. But at the same time, Bismarck did not want a humiliating defeat for Austria. Bearing in mind the imminent war with Napoleon III, he was afraid to have a broken, but potentially dangerous enemy... The main doctrine of Bismarck was to avoid war on two fronts. Germany forgot its history in 1914 and 1939
Bismarck and Napoleon III
On June 3, 1866, in the battle of Sadova (Czech Republic), the Prussians utterly defeated the Austrian army thanks to the crown prince's army that arrived in time. After the battle, one of the Prussian generals said to Bismarck:
- Your Excellency, now you great person... However, if the crown prince were a little late, you would be a great villain.
“Yes,” Bismarck agreed, “it has passed, but it could be worse.
In the ecstasy of victory, Prussia wants to pursue the already harmless Austrian army, to go further - to Vienna, to Hungary. Bismarck is making every effort to stop the war. At the Council of War, he mockingly, in the presence of the king, invites the generals to pursue the Austrian army across the Danube. And when the army is on the right bank and loses contact with those who are behind, "the wisest decision would be to go to Constantinople and establish a new Byzantine empire, and leave Prussia to her fate. "The generals and the king convinced by them dream of a parade in defeated Vienna, Bismarck does not need Vienna. Bismarck threatens to resign, convinces the king with political arguments, even military-hygienic (the cholera epidemic was gaining strength in the army), but the king wants to enjoy the victory.
- The main culprit can go unpunished! the king exclaims.
- Our business is not to rule the court, but to deal with German politics. Austria's fight against us is no more worthy of punishment than our fight against Austria. Our task is to establish German national unity under the leadership of the King of Prussia
Bismarck's speech with the words "Since the state machine cannot stand, legal conflicts easily turn into questions of power; whoever has power in his hands, he acts according to his own understanding" provoked a protest. The liberals accused him of pursuing a policy under the slogan "Power over law." "I did not proclaim this slogan," Bismarck grinned. "I was just stating a fact."
The author of the book "The German Demon Bismarck" Johannes Wilms describes the Iron Chancellor as a very ambitious and cynical man: There really was something bewitching, deceiving, demonic in him. Well, and the "Bismarck myth" began to be created after his death, partly because the politicians who replaced him were much weaker. Delighted followers came up with a patriot who thought only of Germany, a super-astute politician. "
Emil Ludwig believed that "Bismarck always loved power more than freedom; and in this he was also a German."
“Beware of this man, he says what he thinks,” Disraeli warned.
And in fact, the politician and diplomat Otto von Bismarck did not hide his vision: "Politics is the art of adapting to circumstances and taking advantage of everything, even from that which is sickening." And having learned about the saying on the coat of arms of one of the officers: "Never repent, never goodbye!", Bismarck said that he had been applying this principle in his life for a long time.
He believed that with the help of diplomatic dialectics and human wisdom, anyone could be fooled. With conservatives, Bismarck spoke conservatively, with liberals - liberally. Bismarck told a Democrat politician in Stuttgart how he, a spoiled mama's boy, marched in the army with a gun and slept on straw. Mom's son he never was, and slept on straw only on the hunt, and he always hated drill
The main people in the unification of Germany. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (left), Minister of War of Prussia A. Roon (center), chief general staff G. Moltke (right)
Hayek wrote: "When the Prussian parliament led one of the most violent in German history battles over legislation, Bismarck beat the law with the help of the army, which defeated Austria and France. If then it was only suspected that his policy was completely two-faced, now there can be no doubt about it. Reading the intercepted report of one of the foreign ambassadors he had fooled, in which the latter reported on the official assurances he had just received from Bismarck himself, and this man was able to write in the margins: "He really believed it!" - this master of bribery, on Having corrupted the German press for many decades with the help of secret funds, he deserves everything that has been said about him. It is now almost forgotten that Bismarck almost surpassed the Nazis when he threatened to shoot innocent hostages in Bohemia. Forgotten is the wild incident with democratic Frankfurt, when he, threatening with bombing, siege and looting, forced a German city to pay a huge indemnity, which never raised weapons. It was only recently that the story of how he provoked a conflict with France was fully understood - only in order to make southern Germany forget about his aversion to the Prussian military dictatorship. "
Bismarck answered all his future critics in advance: "Whoever calls me a shameless politician, let him first test his own conscience on this bridgehead." But really, Bismarck provoked the French as best he could. With clever diplomatic moves, he completely confused Napoleon III, angered French Foreign Minister Gramont, calling him a fool (Gramont promised to take revenge). The "showdown" for the Spanish inheritance came just in time: Bismarck, secretly not only from France, but practically behind the back of King William, offers Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern to Madrid. Paris is furious, French newspapers are raising hysteria about "the German elections for the Spanish king, which took France by surprise." Gramont begins to threaten: “We do not think that respect for the rights of a neighboring state obliges us to allow a foreign power to put one of its princes on the throne of Charles V and thus, to our detriment, upset the current balance in Europe and jeopardize the interests and the honor of France. If so, we would be able to fulfill our duty without delay or flinching! " Bismarck chuckles: "It's like a war!"
But he did not triumph for long: a message arrives that the applicant refused. King William, 73, did not want to quarrel with the French, and the jubilant Gramont demands a written statement from William about the prince's abdication. During lunch, Bismarck receives this encrypted message, confused and indistinct, he is furious. Then he casts another glance at the dispatch, asks General Moltke about the combat readiness of the army and, in the presence of the guests, quickly shortens the text: demanding that he authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King pledged to never consent at all times if the Hohenzollerns renewed their candidacy.Then His Majesty decided not to receive the French ambassador a second time and notified him through the adjutant on duty that His Majesty nothing more to tell the ambassador. " Bismarck did not write anything in, did not distort anything in the original text, he only deleted the unnecessary. Moltke, hearing new text dispatches, admiringly noted that before it sounded like a signal to retreat, and now - like fanfare for battle. Such editing Liebknecht called "a crime, the equal of which has not been seen in history."
"He conducted the French quite admirably," writes Bismarck's contemporary Bennigsen. "Diplomacy is one of the most deceitful pursuits, but when it is conducted in German interests and in such a magnificent way, with cunning and energy, as Bismarck does, it cannot be denied a share of admiration." ...
A week later, on July 19, 1870, France declared war. Bismarck achieved his goal: both the Bavarian Francophile and the Württemberg-Prussophod united in the defense of their old peace-loving king against the French aggressor. In six weeks, the Germans occupied the whole of northern France, and in the battle of Sedan, the emperor, along with an army of one hundred thousand, was captured by the Prussians. In 1807, Napoleonic grenadiers staged parades in Berlin, and in 1870 the cadets marched across the Champs Elysees for the first time. On January 18, 1871, the Second Reich was proclaimed in the Palace of Versailles (the first was the empire of Charlemagne), which included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, seven principalities and three free cities. Lifting up their bare checkers, the winners proclaimed Wilhelm of Prussia the Kaiser, Bismarck stood next to the emperor. Now "Germany from Meuse to Memel" existed not only in the poetic lines "Deutschland uber alles".
Wilhelm loved Prussia too much and wanted to remain its king. But Bismarck fulfilled his dream - almost by force, he forced Wilhelm to become emperor.
Bismarck introduced favorable internal tariffs and skillfully regulated taxes. German engineers became the best in Europe, German masters worked all over the world. The French grumbled that Bismarck wanted to make Europe a "solid gesheft". The British pumped out their colonies, the Germans worked to support them. Bismarck was looking for foreign markets, the industry developed at such a pace that it was cramped in Germany alone. By the beginning of the 20th century, Germany surpassed France, Russia and the United States in terms of economic growth. Only England was ahead.
Bismarck demanded clarity from his subordinates: in oral reports - brevity, in written - simplicity. Paphos and superlatives are prohibited. Bismarck came up with two rules for his advisers: "How easier word, the stronger it is, "and:" There is no case that is so entangled that its core cannot be hushed up in a few words. "
The Chancellor said that even better no Germany than Germany ruled by parliament. He hated liberals with all his heart: "These talkers cannot rule .., I must resist them, they have too little intelligence and too much contentment, they are stupid and impudent. The expression" stupid "is too general and therefore imprecise: among these people there are and intelligent, for the most part they are educated, they have a real German education, but they understand as little in politics as we did when we were students, even less, in foreign policy they are just children. "A little less he despised the socialists: in them he found something of the Prussians, at least some desire for order and system. But from the podium he shouts at them:" If you give people tempting promises, with a mockery and mockery to declare everything that has been sacred for them until now, and faith in God, faith in our kingdom, attachment to the fatherland, to the family, to property, to the transfer of inheritance - if you take all this away from them, then it will not be at all difficult to bring a person with a low level of education to the point that in the end, shaking his fist, he will say: cursed be hope, cursed be faith, and above all be cursed with patience! And if we have to live under the yoke of bandits, then all life will lose its meaning! "And Bismarck expels the socialists from Berlin, closes their circles and newspapers.
He transferred the military system of total subordination to civilian soil. The vertical Kaiser - Chancellor - Ministers - officials seemed to him ideal for state structure Germany. The parliament became, in fact, a buffoon's deliberative body, little depended on the deputies. Everything was decided in Potsdam. Any opposition was reduced to powder. "Freedom is a luxury that not everyone can afford," said the Iron Chancellor. In 1878, Bismarck introduced the "exceptional" legal act against the socialists, putting the adherents of Lassalle, Bebel and Marx virtually outside the law. He pacified the Poles with a wave of repressions, they were not inferior in cruelty to the tsarist ones. The Bavarian separatists were defeated. WITH Catholic Church Bismarck led the Kulturkampf - the fight for free marriage, the Jesuits were expelled from the country. Only secular power can exist in Germany. Any rise of one of the confessions threatens a national split.
Great continental power.
Bismarck never rushed outside the European continent. He said to a foreigner: "How I like your map of Africa! But look at mine - this is France, this is Russia, this is England, this is us. Our map of Africa lies in Europe." On another occasion, he said that if Germany were chasing colonies, she would become like a Polish nobleman who boasts a sable coat without having nightdress... Bismarck skillfully maneuvered in the European diplomatic theater. "Never fight on two fronts!" - he warned the German military and politicians. As is known, the appeals were not heard.
“Even the most favorable outcome of the war will never lead to the disintegration of the main force of Russia, which is based on millions of Russians proper ... These latter, even if they are dismembered by international treatises, rejoin each other as quickly as particles of a cut piece of mercury. Russian nation, strong in its climate, its space and limited needs ", - wrote Bismarck about Russia, which has always liked the Chancellor for its despotism, became an ally of the Reich. Friendship with the tsar, however, did not prevent Bismarck from intriguing against the Russians in the Balkans.
Decrepit by leaps and bounds, Austria has become a loyal and eternal ally, rather even a servant. England watched the new superpower anxiously as it prepared for a world war. France could only dream of revenge. Germany, created by Bismarck, stood like an iron horse in the middle of Europe. They said about him that he made Germany big and Germans small. He really didn't like people.
Emperor Wilhelm died in 1888. The new Kaiser grew up to be an ardent admirer of the Iron Chancellor, but now the boastful Wilhelm II considered Bismarck's policies too old-fashioned. Why stand aside when others are dividing the world? In addition, the young emperor was jealous of the glory of others. Wilhelm considered himself a great geopolitician and statesman... In 1890, the aged Otto von Bismarck was retired. The Kaiser wanted to rule himself. It took twenty-eight years to lose everything.
