November 27th, 2013
Castle del Monte (Castel del Monte) rises alone on the secluded hill of Western Murge in the desert area of the city of Andria, province of Bari, at an altitude of 560 meters above sea level. The castle complex received its modern name only at the end of the 15th century; the original name has not been preserved. The castle Castel del Monte was named after the ancient settlement of the same name at the foot of the hill, on which was the small monastery of Santa Maria del Monte. Often the locals of Andria call it the “Crown of Apulia”.
Middle Ages - huge historical period, associated with large-scale events and significant changes in all spheres of life, both individual states and entire nations of Europe and Asia. This is the time of the fall of the Roman Empire and the Great Migration that began after this, which in the future, for many centuries, will serve as fertile ground for the emergence of countless cultural, linguistic and religious conflicts between the Germanic and Romanesque peoples who previously lived on the territory of the once united empire. “The Dark Ages,” as the famous Italian poet Petrarch rightfully called this era, despite the global upheavals, without which not a single civilization has survived in the history of its development, will also become a time of great transformations.
As never before, the church in the person of the Pope will gain unprecedented power and power, which everyone will have to reckon with, from the inhabitants of remote settlements and residents of enlightened cities to monarchs and kings. This is the heyday of the ideals of monasticism and the unlimited power of the Inquisition, sowing the same horror in the souls of both inveterate heretics and the most devout parishioners. A time of chivalry and constant clashes, when Christians shed each other's blood in constant internecine wars, and the time of the Great Crusades, when no less blood was shed by Muslims and crusaders on the battlefields in the struggle for sacred Jerusalem. 
Of course, to get even an approximate idea of the Middle Ages, which occupied almost nine centuries in the history of mankind, you will need to be familiar with much more extensive information. But the mention of these several significant events allows us to get an idea of the time and conditions in which the largely mysterious and in its own unique castle of Castel del Monte was built. And in order to better understand the features of the architecture of the castle or its true purpose, and perhaps try to find clues to some of the mysteries that generously shroud Castel del Monte, it is worth paying attention to the direct owner of the castle, whose personality seems just as colorful , how contradictory.
Much can be said about this man, whose lust for power and cruelty knew no bounds, but the mention of just one fact from his turbulent life gives a very clear and visual idea of the ambiguous character and disposition of this person. So, never having deep religious feelings and in every possible way delaying his participation in the next Crusade, this man still managed to achieve the seemingly impossible - to be excommunicated from the church and, despite the papal anathema, to win the Crusade and return to the Christian world Jerusalem. It's about about none other than the Holy Roman Emperor, ruler of Germany, king of Sicily and Jerusalem, Frederick II of Hohenstaufen.
The construction of the castle is mentioned only in one document that has survived to this day. It is dated January 29, 1240 and it states that the Holy Roman Emperor Empire Frederick II Staufen ( German Friedrich II von Hohenstaufen) orders the governor and the judge Richard de Montefuscolo buy lime, stone and everything you need...
…pro castro quod apud Sanctam Mariam de Monte fieri volumus…
(for the castle we want to build next to the Church of St. Mary on the hill).
However, further from the document it is not entirely clear what is meant - the beginning of construction or some final work. In favor latest version says another document released in 1241-1246. - Statutum de reparatione castrorum ( list of fortifications that require repairs). It lists Castel del Monte as an already built castle.
As the site for the future construction of the next castle, Frederick II chooses Apulia, a region that was at that time part of the Kingdom of Sicily (now the region of the province of Bari in southern Italy), where he, in fact, grew up and lived all his childhood and youth. According to the prevailing legend, Castel del Monte (from Italian “castle on the mountain” or “castle of the mountain”) was built on the site of the ruins of the abandoned monastery of St. Mary, or rather, on a small hill in the form of a hill located in the middle of a deserted flat area (in 16 km from the city of Andria), later called Terra di Bari. Hence the origin original name Castle Castrum Santa Maria de Monte, which remained with him for a long time.
The construction of the castle began in 1240, and the completion of the work dates back to 1250, that is, by a strange (and perhaps purely coincidental) coincidence, the completion of Castel del Monte coincided with the year of the death of Frederick II. Which, even putting aside the feigned mystery, involuntarily suggests some symbolism, because after the death of the emperor, the entire House of Hohenstaufen will soon disappear. And one of the most striking reminders of the great dynasty of South German kings and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire remains the Castel del Monte castle, which has consistently towered over the flat terrain of Apulia for almost 800 years.
According to surviving written evidence, it is known that Frederick II gave preference to the construction of objects and structures exclusively for military purposes. Therefore, it is not surprising that during his reign he managed to rebuild more than 200 castles and fortresses and was mentioned as the founder of only one church in Altamura. There were even legends about the emperor’s passion for defensive fortifications, as if court nobles sometimes begged their ruler to finally take a break and not build so many new castles. But it is not difficult to explain such a sacrifice of the spiritual needs of one’s people for the sake of purely practical military goals; one need only remember the difficult and irreconcilable relationship between the emperor and the Pope.
In those days, the Papal States sought at all costs to protect itself and its possessions from the encroachments of the Holy Roman Empire, and therefore extremely tense relations always remained between each newly elected pope and the emperor. And even the first and second excommunications of Frederick II (in 1227 and 1239) and the nickname of “the real Antichrist”, which was firmly attached to the emperor, are hardly capable of showing the hostility and hatred that they had for each other, perhaps, at that time two of the most powerful rulers in the Catholic world. Therefore, the struggle between Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX for the central part of Italy, which over time developed into an open and fierce confrontation, simply could not help but affect the policies pursued by the emperor. All the more mysterious against the backdrop of the constant wars and uprisings that Frederick II waged and suppressed is his idea of building the Castel del Monte castle, which, in fact, is neither a castle nor a fortress.
The basis of the two-story building of Castel del Monte was taken from a completely non-standard shape of a regular octagon, thanks to which the castle remains the only fortification with such an unusual layout. Moreover, among all the medieval castles of Western Europe. Which, in fact, complicates and often baffles modern researchers who are busy searching for reliable analogues that in the 13th century could have inspired Frederick II to build such an unusual structure for his era. But knowing that the emperor was well acquainted with the mentality oriental people(especially the Saracens), his tolerance for foreign cultures and religions and his extreme free-thinking, it can be assumed that the prototypes of the future Castel del Monte could have been borrowed by Frederick II from the Muslim world, during his Crusade to the Holy Land.
The Dome of the Rock mosque, built in Jerusalem back in the 7th century AD, is often associated with this version. and also shaped like an octagon. Returning to the castle, it is worth noting that in addition to the octagonal walls 25 meters high, each corner of the castle is adjacent to octagonal towers, whose tops rise above the ground a little higher - 26 meters. As is easy to see, the number of corners and, accordingly, towers of Castel del Monte is eight, but on each of the two floors of the castle there are eight identical halls, and if you look closely at the decoration of the rooms, you can also find a frequent eightfold repetition of the details of the internal ornament.
And as if this repetition of the number 8 seemed small, the courtyard of the castle, which could well have the shape of a circle or square, is also the same octagon. Hence, it is not surprising that there is a strong association of the Castel del Monte castle with the mysterious number 8, which constantly serves as an object of intense interest to historians, adherents of numerology, and ordinary lovers of secrets and riddles.
Due to its external similarity, Castel del Monte is often called the “crown of Apulia”. Indeed, this comparison seems fair, and not only due to the external similarity, but also because Frederick II wore an eight-pointed crown. So the castle and it characteristic shape could serve as a symbol of the emperor’s power, which he wished to capture “in stone.” Strictly speaking, only limestone (base) and marble (columns, decoration of windows and portals) were used in the construction of the castle, but this in no way violates the version of the castle-symbol, but rather the opposite, only once again confirms it. Marble as a building material undoubtedly has a lot of advantages, but it is hardly suitable for the construction of such powerful defensive fortifications as castles, fortresses or forts.
Thus, the origin of the number 8 is largely associated directly with the architecture of the Castel del Monte castle. True, there are other assumptions, because the same figure can be seen in the ring of Frederick II decorated with eight petals, and looking into history different cultures and teachings, you can also find own interpretation symbolism of the number 8, as the personification of power, wealth, success or good luck. But let’s finally leave the numbers and move directly to the features of the castle, which could equally well be called a hunting residence, a monument, a kind of observatory, or even a religious building.
During construction fortifications During the Middle Ages, paramount importance was always given to the ability of a castle or fortress to withstand any attack and its ability to withstand long sieges. But, turning to the history of Castel del Monte, you can discover a strange feature - ditches were never dug around the castle or even earthen ramparts were poured. In addition, there are no storage facilities in the castle where food supplies should be stored in the event of a siege. On the other hand, taking a closer look at the castle, along with small windows, you can also notice narrow slits of loopholes located along the perimeter of all the towers. This means that the small garrison that could be accommodated in the interior could still count on at least some advantage (besides the impressive walls) during the defense of the castle. But then it becomes completely unclear why the spiral staircases in the towers of Castel del Monte are twisted “in the wrong direction.” According to one of the rules of “castle building”, spiral staircases should rise from floor to floor in a clockwise direction.
This gives castle defenders a better position, as attacking soldiers have to climb stairs and fight in an awkward position. But the thing is that the soldiers going to storm the castle are deprived of the opportunity to deliver the most powerful blows with their main weapons - swords, because this requires swinging from right to left, while the soldiers defending the castle, thanks to the twisting of the stairs and a higher her position will always be slightly to the right. So the non-standard (counterclockwise) direction spiral staircases Castel del Monte would have received at least some justification only if the castle had been besieged by troops consisting exclusively of left-handers. Or, what is more obvious, Frederick II in this way once again emphasized the non-defense purpose of the castle.
Among the emperor's hobbies, falconry occupied a special place, to which he devoted a lot of his free time. And based on his own observations and experiments, Frederick II even wrote a treatise “The Art of Hunting with Birds.” Thus, based on the emperor’s passion for hunting, there is an assumption about the construction of Castel del Monte as a hunting residence. But such an idea is called into question by the extreme luxury and exorbitant richness of the interior furnishings that the castle could boast of at the time of its completion. Another purpose of Castel del Monte is associated with the peculiarities of the orientation of its entrances and windows to the cardinal points.
The main gate of the castle faces exactly to the east, and the spare gates are located strictly in the opposite - western - direction. As for the windows, both external and facing the courtyard, they are arranged in such a way that the rooms of the second floor are illuminated by direct sunlight throughout the year, and the eight halls of the first floor are precisely during the summer and winter solstice receive natural and, interestingly, absolutely uniform lighting. This is where the version of the castle as a medieval observatory or a huge astronomical calendar was born.
Supporters of occultism and mysticism make their contribution to the emergence of much more sacred reasons for the construction, as well as the very purpose of Castel del Monte. They are of the view that followers of some secret teachings or societies hidden from the eyes of the uninitiated (to which Frederick II could belong) used the castle to conduct their ritual or religious rites.
Of course, direct evidence of such a version cannot be found, but many tourists, after visiting the castle, often point out the strange and unusual sensations that they experience when they first find themselves inside Castel del Monte. Perhaps people are impressed by the massiveness and impressiveness of the structure or the antiquity of the castle and its centuries-old history, which inevitably takes their breath away. But who knows, whether some mysterious energy is making itself known, which has not yet lost its power and is still stored within the walls of Castel del Monte?
Well, in conclusion, just a brief acquaintance with the most famous medieval castle In Italy, if we still ignore otherworldly forces, it is worth recalling that Castel del Monte, shortly after the death of Frederick II, would serve as a prison for his grandchildren. Then, having lost its former significance and grandeur, after numerous lootings, the castle will lose both its former splendor and its austere beauty. Over the centuries, the octagonal fortress, a monument to the power of the Hohenstaufen family, the hunting residence of the emperor, and a cult-astronomical structure would become a refuge where the local nobility would seek salvation from the plague epidemics that broke out more than once throughout Europe and reached the very southern regions Italy.
Around the 17th century, the castle suffered the unenviable fate of being abandoned and living out its last days in complete desolation. But, fortunately, after almost 200 years of slow and therefore imperceptible destruction, the abandoned castle will be remembered again. In 1876, following the unification of Italy in single state Restoration work will begin at Castel del Monte, and in 1996 the castle will become one of the historical sites protected by the UNESCO World Heritage Fund. (whc.unesco.org/en/list/398)
And although today Castel del Monte has become a historical and tourist attraction, it still serves as a living reminder of the entire Hohenstaufen dynasty, which gave the world such great rulers as Conrad III, Frederick I Barbarossa and Henry VI.
In 1459, the fortress came into the possession of the noble Italian family of Lord Ferrante of Aragon. And in 1656, the castle last served as a residence for noble families of Italy fleeing the plague, which was raging in the city of Andria. And after some time, Castel del Monte was empty and only in the 19th century it became the home of shepherds, local bandits and marauders. During this period, the castle was looted, precious marble materials were stripped from the walls, and the rich sculptures were sold.
In 1876, the fortification came into the possession of the noble Carafa family, which began its restoration and reconstruction.
Currently, the Castel del Monte castle is a monument medieval architecture and is open to all interested tourists.
If you want to plunge into a truly magical atmosphere, if you dream of getting lost among the narrow streets of picturesque medieval villages and feeling like real counts and countesses, even if only for a day, follow us: the portal "Italy in Russian" invites you to go on a journey to discover for 20 of the most beautiful castles in Italy!
Lost in the midst of majestic mountains, surrounded by inaccessible gorges, proudly facing the wind or washed by the waves, all these castles and fortresses are completely different from each other in character and historical purpose, but identical in their splendor; their beauty, at times, borders between reality and fantasy, and it doesn’t matter whether the strongest personalities in history have set foot here - rest assured, the fate of these castles was an incredible number of intrigues, forbidden love stories and bloody battles.
Scaliger Castle in Malcesine, Veneto
Castello Scaligero di Malcesine
Take a medieval castle perched on a rocky cliff, add a little romantic atmosphere and picturesque landscapes of an ancient borgo that are truly worth your attention, and mentally mix well: here it is, the perfect cocktail for the curious traveler, because no tourist has ever visited the village of Malcesine , did not leave there dissatisfied with the trip.
Restored in 1300 by the noble Ghibelline family of the Scaligers, who ruled from 1262 to 1387, this regal-looking castle today houses within its walls various museums (Museum natural history Lake Garda, Goethe Museum, Monte Baldo Museum and Fisheries Museum). Admire its towers and battlements, repeating the swallowtail - a signature feature of all Scaliger fortresses - and, as soon as you get inside, enjoy a breathtaking view of the beautiful waters of the lake.
Photo by Thinkstock
Find out more about the beautiful Veneto region!
Rocca Scaligera in Sirmione, Lombardy
Rocca Scaligera di Sirmione
We remain on Lake Garda to admire another castle of the powerful Scaligeri, but we move to another region of Italy, to. We go to the town of Sirmione, one of those magical places that immediately win the heart of a traveler. Its historical center is a peninsula cutting into the lake, offering the traveler breathtaking landscapes for photography and video shooting and, above all, for the soul.
Rocca, a majestic and beautiful castle, dominates the cityscape and is one of the best preserved examples of a fortified lake fortress in Europe. The fort was built in the 13th century as a defensive structure located at the only gate to the city. When Sirmione joined the Venetian Republic, the fortress was garrisoned, but now there is a museum and a small church open to visitors
If you have not been here yet, be sure to visit Sirmione and its “guardian: you will definitely thank us for the advice.
Lake Garda is one of the most beautiful places in Italy, click on to discover it.
Aragonese Castle - Ischia, Campania
Castello Aragonese
The oldest castle, founded on a small peninsula formed from volcanic lava in the southeast, dates back to the reign of the Syracusan tyrant, Gelone. Later, the fortress was dominated by the Greeks and Romans, and then it was taken over by the Aragonese from the clan d'Avalos, who gave the fortress a modern appearance.
A fortress that seems to float on the waves Gulf of Naples, really makes an indelible impression, because the Aragonese castle today looks almost as majestic as it did centuries ago. The most peculiar attraction of the castle is definitely the Torture Museum, a place definitely not for the faint of heart, where you can see a full arsenal of instruments for torturing prisoners.
For those who consider themselves to be sensitive and delicate, we recommend that you bypass this place and simply admire the castle at sunset, when crimson-golden colors color the panoramas, giving the landscape an unforgettable charm...
Discover the island of Ischia by clicking on !
Rocca Calascio - Abruzzo
Rocca Calascio
In the Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga National Park, at almost 1,500 meters above sea level, rises the Rocca Calascio, a medieval fortified fort that from the first moment captures the soul and mind of the visitor with its powerful appearance. The location of Calascio Castle, the highest in all of Italy, is truly impressive: the views you can enjoy from climbing one of the four towers of the fortress will never be forgotten. You will see small charming villages of Abruzzo, emerging like sprouts in spring, between formidable mountains and emerald valleys.
The charm of this place has captivated more than one director: several films have been shot here, some of them very famous. Are you intrigued? Then go to the town of Calascio and visit its formidable fort, especially since the entrance to the fortress, to the delight of tourists, is absolutely free.
Find out about the incredibly beautiful places in Abruzzo by clicking on !
Fort Diamante - Liguria
Forte Diamante
To fully enjoy the grandeur of this fortress, you must look at it from below due to its impressive size. Fort Diamante - an eighteenth-century fortified fortress, for all its bulk, seems to rest neatly on the green peak of Monte Diamante, from which the castle takes its name. Used to defend the walls of the city of Genoa, the castle contains within its walls milestones from the history of the Republic and the Habsburg dynasty.
The fort can only be reached on foot: part of the journey can be made by the picturesque Trenino di Casella locomotive, departing from the station located near Piazza Manin - a journey to the castle along the green hills between the Val Polcevera and Val Bisagno valleys you will never forget! Then you will have a climb to the top of the mountain where the fortress is located, lasting about 40 minutes. Believe me, the fort is worth it!
Miramare Castle, Friuli Venezia Giulia
Castello Miramare
This elegant and sophisticated castle, surrounded by the waters of the Adriatic Sea, served as the residence of the rulers of the Habsburg dynasty. At first glance snow-white castle, which seems downright magical, it becomes clear that interior decoration the residence is no less luxurious than its appearance. Surrounded by a magnificent green park full of rare plants, created by landscape designers who managed to take into account every smallest detail, the castle houses in its interiors original pieces of furniture that belonged to one of the richest dynasties in Europe. Really fabulously beautiful. Continuing the fairy-tale theme, as in any magical story, they claim that a terrible curse reigns over the castle... Aren't you scared? Then go to - you won't regret it!
Fort Bard, Valle d'Aosta
Forte di Bard
We climb the "boot" to the North and head to Bard, in the region, in a beautiful borgo, dominated by a truly impressive, beautiful and almost intact fort built by the Savoyard rulers in the early nineteenth century.
The fortress, consisting of three buildings located on three levels, was intended to protect Italy from the border with France, which was especially important after the Napoleonic invasion. Later, a military prison and a powder magazine for the Italian army were set up here. The bastion occupies almost 15,000 m of area; today, inside the fortress walls there is an interesting multimedia Museum of the Alps, dedicated to the thousand faces of the majestic mountains.
Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome, Lazio
Born along calm waters Tiber and reachable via the famous bridge guarded by angelic faces, also known as the Mausoleum of Hadrian because it originated as the tomb of a Roman emperor - one of the attractions " must see"The Eternal City.
During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the Castel Sant'Angelo was modified several times until it took on its present appearance. According to legend, in 590, when the plague was roaming the streets of Rome, Pope Gregory saw the Archangel Michael on the top of the castle, sheathing his sword. The Vatican interpreted the sign as the end of the epidemic, and the fortress was named the Castle of the Holy Angel. In the Middle Ages, the castle served as a refuge for the Popes, and later as both a prison and a residence. Perhaps the most laconic description of Castel Sant'Angelo would be the words: "Two thousand years of history and splendor." There is no need to say more.
Wondering where to stay in Rome? The best hotels here are:
Torrechiara Castle, Emilia-Romagna
Castello di Torrechiara
Castelluccia Battipaglia, Campania
La Castelluccia di Battipaglia
This beautiful ancient castle seems straight out of the pages of history books. Castelluccia is the symbol of the city of Battipaglia, which, unfortunately, is in a deplorable state. Built on site ancient fort in the year 1000, Castelluccia, as it was nicknamed by the locals, retains original walls from the seventh century and towers built much later, in the thirteenth century. The original plan of the castle itself was completely modified in 1920 by the architect Farinelli. Inside the castle you can also admire a beautiful church with wonderful ancient frescoes.
Travel to Battipaglia to discover the history of Castelluccia and the stunning landscapes of the territory in which he was born.
Bon Voyage!
In many Italian cities, ancient churches and palaces have been preserved; time stood still on narrow cobblestone streets, stopped in the Middle Ages or the Renaissance.
But castles have a special, harsh charm; their walls heard the clang of swords and the whistling of arrows, blood flowed over the rough stones, they still retained the salty smell and bittersweet taste of victories and defeats. Generals gave commands, and engineers created defensive structures that were amazing in their scale, ingenuity and precision of thought. Ancient castles are scattered throughout Italy from north to south, we will tell you about some of the most beautiful castles in Italy.
Castel del Monte is located in Puglia, 50 km from Bari and is protected by UNESCO.
Castel del Monte was built in 1229-49. by order of Emperor Frederick II. It amazes with the simplicity and clarity of its forms, as well as its precise dimensions and geographical location, according to secret teachings. What is this Temple of Knowledge or a Castle for unknown reasons? This remains a mystery.
Sforzesco Castle in Milan.
The Sforzesco Castle in Milan was erected by the will of the Visconti in 1368, the work was continued by the Sforzas, who lived in it until 1466.
The Este Castle in Ferrara was built in 1385 according to the design of Bartolino da Novara. It was a real fortress, built for protection. At the end of the last century the castle was opened. The fortress is included in the list world heritage UNESCO.
Fenis Castle is located in Valle d'Aosta. The first mention of the castle dates back to 1242, but it looked much more modest then.
Later the castle became the property of the noble family Chalan, who expanded it. Fenis Castle acquired its modern appearance in 1320-1420.
Now the castle is open to the public.
Aragonese castle in Taranto.
The Aragonese castle in Taranto (Apulia) dates back to 916, at which time the Byzantines began to build fortified structures to defend against Saracen pirates and attacks from the Venetian Republic. In 1486, the castle was expanded by order of Ferdinand II of Aragon. Nowadays, naval services are located here, which, in addition to their main work, conduct tours of the castle.
The Fenestrelle fortress is located in the north of Piedmont, it is the largest defensive structure in Europe. Alas, the fate of the grandiose fortress was not so brilliant; Fenestrelle became famous not in military battles, but as a prison for opponents of the ruling government.
The Castle of San Giorgio was built in 1395-1400. by the will of Francesco I Gonzaga. It is located in the very center of the city of Mantua, behind its walls is the Ducal Palace.
The plan of the fortress is a square with towers at the corners.
The castle has always belonged to the Gonzaga family. For many years, Isabella d'Este, the wife of Francesco Gonzaga, lived here. One of the most beautiful rooms of the castle is the spouses' room, covered with frescoes by Andrea Mantegna.
Nowadays the fortress hosts exhibitions and cultural events.
Norman castle in Bari.
The Norman castle in Bari was built by Emperor Frederick II. Once upon a time the castle was located on the seashore, but the water has gone away.
The castle was a royal residence and now houses a museum.
Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome.
Castel Sant'Angelo was built in 123 as a burial mausoleum for Emperor Hadrian and his family. Later it was strengthened and used for defensive purposes.
The castle got its name after Pope Gregory I had a vision of an angel sheathing his sword, which symbolized the end of the plague that had engulfed Rome.
Nowadays the Castel Sant'Angelo houses a museum.
The Castle of the Egg (Castel dell'Ovo) is the oldest fortress of Naples, it is picturesquely located in the bay, connected to the land by a thin isthmus. Waves hit its powerful walls, creating romantic images. A legend is associated with the name of the castle: Virgil put an egg in an enchanted amphora, placed in an iron cage, and a castle was erected on top.To destroy the fortress, you must first break this egg.
The Swabian castle was built on the foundations of a Norman fortress. It is distinguished by geometrically precise shapes and a powerful appearance. Knights stayed within the walls of the castle, preparing to go on a crusade to the Holy Land. Now the castle houses a museum and library.
Breno Castle rises on a hill above the town of the same name in Lombardy.
First, a chapel was erected on the site of the fortress, dedicated to St. Michael the Archangel, protector of the Lombards, who at that time controlled these lands. Around the 12th century, the church was expanded and then demolished to build a citadel. The first castle had two floors, a high tower and a wall decorated with swallowtails. Most likely, a wealthy Guelph family lived here. Since the 1250s. They began to surround the hill with a fortification wall. The houses began to be transformed into fortified structures, and the fortress passed into the hands of the Ghibellines.
In 1350 - 1450 In the valley there were skirmishes between the Venetians and Milanese for control of the territory. After this, the fortress was conquered by Francesco Sforza, becoming part of the Duchy of Milan. In subsequent centuries, the Republic of Venice ordered the destruction of all the fortresses and forts of the valley, except for the castle of Breno, which was intended for noble families.
In 1516, the citadel passed to the French, and later it lost its military necessity.
The temple complex at Karnak or Karnak Temple is superior to all other ancient Egyptian monuments except . This abode of the gods, built on a giant rock, includes three separate temple complexes, the most magnificent of which is the sanctuary of Amun, which belonged to the supreme god of the New Kingdom. The territory of this complex can accommodate ten cathedrals. The enormous size and complexity of the ensemble's layout are the result of construction work that lasted for thirteen centuries. The main core of the temple of Amun was formed during the XII dynasty, and since that time it has expanded in two directions - towards the river and towards the temple of Mut, while the temple enclosure reaches the sanctuary of Montu. Although Akhenaten renounced faith in Amun, destroyed his images and erected the Temple of Aten in Karnak, through the efforts of the priesthood the status quo was restored soon after the death of this ruler.
During Karnak's heyday, its wealth was fantastic. The list of temple property dating back to the reign of Ramesses III includes 65 villages, 433 gardens, 421,662 heads of cattle, fields with total area 2395 square kilometers, 46 objects under construction, 83 ships and 81,322 workers, which also included slaves. Egyptologist T. James compared the temple to an industrial giant, “generating a mass of business activity secondary to the cult, and producing a huge army of officials and workers.” However, the common people were forbidden to be inside the temple fence, and no one except the pharaoh or his representative could enter the sanctuary of Amun. The ancient Egyptians called the Karnak temple Ipet-Isut - “the most perfect place.”
The Karnak temple complex is located 2.5 kilometers north of Luxor, its territory is about 100 acres. The easiest way to get to the temple of Amun (daily, winter - 6:00-17:30; summer - 6:00-18:30; 40 pounds, for students - 20 pounds; photography with a tripod - 20 pounds), where at night There is a light and sound show. This part of the complex covers an area of 62 acres: a superficial acquaintance with the temple will require at least two hours, and three to four for a more careful inspection. There are very few shaded areas here, so be sure to wear a hat and bring plenty of water. Tour groups usually throng the temple in the early afternoon. In the evening, the crowds become much smaller, so if you can handle the heat, this is the best time to visit the monument.
The café by the Sacred Lake serves tea and cold drinks, toilets are located at the spectator stands and near the museum. A separate ticket (£20) is required to visit the outdoor museum and must be purchased from the ticket office outside the temple grounds. From the city you can get to Karnak in two ways: along the embankment or along Sharia el-Karnak, the route of which approximately coincides with the Avenue of the Sphinxes, which once connected the Luxor and Karnak temples, past the gate of Evergeta II and the temple fence. In principle, you can walk or bike to Karnac, but it is better to save your energy for visiting the monument itself. The cheapest way to get to Carnac (and back) is to take a local minibus (25 piastres per person).
As you pass through the pylon, you can see inscriptions written high on the right: these are Napoleon's topographers who recorded the population of Karnak and the distance from here to other temples in Upper Egypt. The forecourt is another later addition, incorporating three older buildings. In the center stands a single column with a capital in the shape of papyrus, which belonged to the colonnade of Taharqa (Ethiopian king of the XXV dynasty), also called “Taharqa’s kiosk”. It is believed that this was an outdoor pavilion where, during New Year's celebrations, a statue of Amun was placed for a regenerative reunion with the sun. On the left is the so-called “Tomb of Seti”, made of gray sandstone and pink granite: in fact, the sacred boats of Amun, Mut and Khonsu were placed here.
Amun and the Theban Triad
Amun was originally one of the deities of the Great Eight of Hermopolis. The rise of his cult began shortly before the onset of the Middle Kingdom and was apparently associated with support from local rulers who had strong power during the First Intermediate Period. After the expulsion of the Hyksos (circa 1567 BC), the rulers of the 18th Dynasty elevated Amun to state deity and made Karnak his main cult center in Egypt.
Being “Invisible” (next to the hieroglyph denoting the name of god, the Egyptians did not put the usual determinative sign, but left empty space), Amon assimilated the images of other gods. As a result, such incarnations as Amon-Ra (the supreme creator god), Amon Min (“the bull who satisfies cows”) or Auf-Ra with the head of a ram, reviving the dead while sailing along the river, arose. underground world and himself reborn as Khepri. However, most often Amon is depicted as a man with the horns of a ram or a suga crown with two tall feathers. Mut, the wife of Amun, was a local goddess in the predynastic period, and subsequently became associated with Nekhbet, the patroness of Upper Egypt.
At the beginning of the reign of the 18th dynasty, she “married” with Amon, completely assimilated the image of his former companion Amunet and became the Heavenly Lady. She was usually depicted wearing a complex headdress combining wings bird of prey, uraeus and the crown of the Two Lands. The son of Amon and Mut Khoksu - “The Wanderer” - traveled across the night sky in the guise of the Moon, uttered prophecies and helped Thoth, the scribe god. He was depicted either with the head of a falcon, or as a man with a “lock of youth.” Karnak was the largest of the temples dedicated to the Theban triad of gods.
From the Temple of Ramesses III to the second pylon
The first truly grandiose building on your way is the temple of Ramesses III, where the procession with the sacred boats of the Theban triad also stopped. Behind its pylon, decorated on both sides with colossi, is a festive hall with Osiric pilasters. Behind them are reliefs with scenes of the annual festival in honor of Amun-Min. Behind the hypostyle, the chapels are hidden in the twilight. In the dedicatory inscription you can read the following words: “I built and dressed it with sandstone, bringing huge doors of the purest gold; I filled his treasuries with gifts brought by my hands.”
Although the pink granite colossus of Ramesses II standing in front of the second pylon immediately attracts attention, it is worth walking along the side wall of the temple and looking at the portico, which was built by the kings of the XXII Dynasty, who came from the city of Bubastis in the Delta. Along the way you will see several recesses in the wall of the second pylon: it was here that Henri Crevier in 1820 found many pieces of reliefs and statues from the destroyed temple of Aten (including the colossi of Akhenaten, now in museums and Luxor), which were used as filler under Horemheb material for pylon construction.
After passing through the portico, turn left to the Sheshenq relief, immortalizing the triumphal victories of this pharaoh of the XXII dynasty. Scientists traditionally identify him with the biblical Susakim (III Kings), who sacked Jerusalem in 925 BC, and thus establish a connection between ancient Egyptian and Old Testament chronology. This view was challenged in David Rohl's book A Test of Time. On the relief, the figure of Shoshenq is practically indistinguishable, but the image of Amun watching the scene of the beating of Palestinian captives is well preserved. It is better to examine other reliefs on the wall after visiting the Great Hypostyle.
To get there, return to the courtyard and pass through the second pylon - one of several rather shoddy structures begun under Horemheb, the last ruler of the 18th dynasty. On the interior walls, just behind the entrance, you can see the cartouches of Seti I, who completed the construction, and two Ramesses - I and II - who were Seti's father and son, respectively.
Great Hypostyle at Karnak
The Great Hypostyle - the pride of Karnak - looks like a forest of huge columns with an area of 6 square kilometers. In this space, Rome's St. Peter's Cathedral and all combined would fit. The grandeur of the building is especially noticeable in the early morning or late evening, when diagonal shadows enhance the effect produced by the columns. In ancient times, the hall was covered with sandstone slabs; the twilight of the room was cut through by the rays of the sun passing through the windows above the central nave.
Perhaps the hypostyle began as a processional road, along which stood 12 or 14 columns 23 meters high and 15 meters in girth (six people holding hands could completely encircle the column trunk). To these columns, Seti I and Ramesses II added 122 smaller columns arranged in several rows, as well as walls and a roof. All columns consist of half-drums held together with mortar.
The columns of the central aisle have capitals in the shape of open papyrus flowers and once supported a raised section of flooring with an upper row of windows (the stone grilles of some of them still remain). The columns of the side wings have capitals in the shape of papyrus buds. On some of the lintels, the paint with which they were painted in ancient times has been preserved. The reliefs depict the king making sacrifices to the gods of the Theban triad, mainly Amon. The latter is often depicted in a state of excitement. Some Egyptologists believe that the temple priestesses pleased the statue of Amun with erotic caresses, and the pharaoh ensured the fertility of the Egyptian land by pouring semen into the waters of the Nile during the festival of Opet.
Cult scenes of similar content adorn the back and side walls of the hall, and the reliefs demonstrate two different styles of stone carving. Seti decorated the northern wing of the hypostyle with bas-reliefs; Ramesses II chose the less expensive technique of incised relief for the southern wing. You can compare the two types of monuments on the front wall of the hall, where almost symmetrical procession scenes with the boat of Amon are depicted. In the northern wing, built under Seti, the “story” of the procession begins on the northern wall with the image of Amun’s boat, first hidden under a cover, then revealed. At the doorway, Thoth is depicted, recording the years of Seti's reign on the leaves of the sacred tree - Perseus. Passing through the opening, you will see scenes of the battles of Seti I: details erased by time are best seen in the early morning or late evening. Some reliefs tell of the capture of Syrian Kadesh (lower tiers) and the victory of Seti over the Libyans (above).
Elsewhere, campaigns against the Shasu in northern Palestine and the assault on Pa-Canaan are depicted, which the Egyptians "plundered with countless atrocities." Returning to the hypostyle, in the southern wing you will find similar reliefs made on the orders of Ramesses II. They retain traces of the original coloring. Behind the processional scenes, Ramesses himself is depicted sitting on a throne between the goddesses Wadjet and Nekhbet, while Thoth and Horus place royal crowns on him. On the outer wall are battle scenes featuring the pharaoh, which begin with the Battle of Kadesh (circa 1300 BC). Scientists believe that the battle ended in a draw, but Ramesses himself declared complete victory over the Hittites. The text of the peace treaty concluded after the battle (the earliest document of its kind known to us) is carved on the outer wall of the courtyard where the cache of statues was found.
This monument is known as the "wall of Ascalon" after one of the reliefs framing the text. The second possibly depicts a battle with the Israelites. D. Rohl argues that the depictions of the enemy chariots in this scene contradict the accepted chronology, since the Israelites did not know them until the time of Solomon, and the reign of Ramesses is generally believed to have taken place several centuries earlier, in the time of Moses. Other evidence of the “wall of Ascalon”, the reliefs of Shoshenq and the “Stela of Israel” formed the basis for D. Rol’s assumptions that the biblical Susakim was not Shoshenq at all, but Ramses II and, therefore, there was a 300-year error in correlating the biblical and ancient Egyptian chronology due to an overestimation of the duration of the Third Intermediate Period (dynasties XXI-XXV).
Pylons and obelisks at Karnak
Behind the Great Hypostyle of the 19th Dynasty there is a section of the temple territory that was built up during the reign of the 18th Dynasty. The third pylon, forming the rear wall of the hypostyle, was conceived by Amenhotep III as a monumental temple gate. Amenhotep (as later, forty years later, Horemheb) ordered the destruction of earlier buildings in order to use the stone for backfilling the pylon. Fragments of blocks were removed from the walls by archaeologists, now they are exhibited in the museum under open air. On the far wall of the pylon you can see two huge reliefs depicting the sacred boat of Amon.
In the narrow space between the third and fourth pylons there once stood four obelisks of the 18th dynasty. The stone foundations preserved near the third pylon once belonged to two obelisks of Thutmose III, the fragments of which are scattered around. One of the two pink granite obelisks built under Thutmose II still stands in its place. Its height is 23 meters and its weight is estimated at 143 tons. In ancient times, the obelisk was decorated with a top made of sparkling electra; its edges are covered with magnificent reliefs, among which are visible the cartouches of Ramesses IV and Ramesses VI, who appropriated the monument to themselves.
Here it is better for you to go through the fourth pylon, without turning into the courtyard where the cache with the statues was found. Behind the pylon you will see many columns that may have once formed a second hypostyle. Above them rises the obelisk of Hatshepsut, the famous female pharaoh, carved from pink granite. To commemorate the sixteenth year of her reign, Hatshepsut ordered two obelisks to be cut out of the quarries of Aswan and installed at Karnak.
The work was completed in seven months. The height of the obelisk that still stands is 27 meters, weight – 320 tons. A dedicatory inscription is carved along its entire height. Fragments of the second obelisk, which fell and broke into pieces, are scattered throughout the temple territory. After the death of Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, who had remained in the shadows for a long time, came to power. He ordered the queen’s cartouches to be upholstered wherever possible, and the lower part of the obelisks to be covered with walls, which saved them from further destruction during the Amarna era.
The top of the fallen obelisk of Hatshepsut can be seen near the Sanctuary of Osiris and the Sacred Lake. On the way here, you will see a granite bas-relief of the fifth pylon depicting Amenhotep II, who draws a bow string while standing on a chariot. The construction of this limestone pylon is attributed to Thutmose I, the father of Hatshepsut. Behind it is a courtyard decorated with a colonnade and Osiric statues. It was built under one of the descendants of Thutmose I and may have been part of a large courtyard surrounding the original temple of the Middle Kingdom.
The sixth pylon is badly damaged, but the walls on both sides of the entrance remain. It is here that the famous “Annals” of Thutmose III are located - lists of the peoples he conquered: on the right - the names of the Nubian tribes, on the left - the Asian ones. The list of Asian peoples is followed by a text describing the king's victory at Megiddo in 1479 BC. Thutmose did not destroy his enemies, but imposed tribute on them. This approach gives us the right to call him the world's first imperialist.
Around the sanctuary
The further away the territory behind the sixth pylon becomes, the more confusing the visitor is, but some things can be said with complete certainty. At the very beginning there are two square heraldic pillars, on the front faces of which are depicted a lotus and papyrus, the sacred plants of the Two Lands, and on the side faces - Amon, embracing Thutmose III. On the left are two colossal statues of Amun and Amunet, dedicated to the temple by Tutankhamun (who is also depicted with the gods) after the restoration of the cult of Amun. There is also a statue of Amenhotep II sitting on a throne.
Next is a granite sanctuary built by Philip Arrhidaeus, half-brother of Alexander the Great, on the site of an 18th Dynasty chapel dedicated to the sacred boat of Amun (its pedestal is still in situ). Reliefs on the inner walls of the sanctuary depict Philip making sacrifices to Amun in his various forms, the ceiling of the room is decorated with stars. The outer walls are decorated with incised reliefs with coronation scenes, figures of Thoth welcoming the ruler, and Amunet breastfeeding the infant king. Some reliefs have retained their bright colors.
To the left of the sanctuary is a wall on which is carved a list of the victories of Thutmose III: this pharaoh erected it to hide the reliefs depicting Hatshepsut, which have now been moved to another room. After extensive restoration, Hatshepsut's wall is now open again. Thutmose replaced the queen's figures with images of sacrificial tables or bouquets, and instead of her cartouches he ordered the names of his father and grandfather to be carved. Behind these monuments is a central courtyard, believed to be the site of the original Temple of Amun, built during the 12th Dynasty. The alabaster slabs of its foundation are still visible between the pebbles covering the courtyard.
Jubilee Temple of Thutmose III at Karnak
At the rear of this courtyard stands the jubilee (hebsed) temple of Thutmose III, a personal place of worship at the outskirts of the sanctuary of Amun. Like the rulers of the Old Kingdom, the Theban kings periodically renewed their temporal and spiritual power through the rituals of the Heb-sed festival. On both sides of the entrance to the temple, reliefs and damaged statues of Thutmose in ritual attire have been preserved. Turning left, you will find yourself in the Festive Hall with its peculiar columns, similar to poles for awnings. The capitals of the columns are painted blue and white, the beams with carved images of falcons and owls, ankh signs and other symbols are also brightly painted. In the Christian era, the hall was used as a church, so the faces of saints were preserved on some of the pillars.
In a small room adjacent to the hall from the southwest, there is a copy of the “Royal List” (the original is kept in the Louvre), which depicts Thutmose making sacrifices to his predecessor kings. Hatshepsut, as one might expect, is excluded from this list. All that remained of the premises behind the hall were mostly ruins. So-called Botanical Garden consists of walls with painted reliefs depicting various plants and animals that Thutmose encountered during his military campaigns in Syria. On the other side of the passage there remains a covered room decorated with images of Alexander the Great in front of Amun and other gods. The Sanctuary of Sokar is a miniature temple to the Memphis god of darkness, adjacent to the Sanctuary of the Sun (now closed). Next comes a suite of rooms dedicated to Thutmose.
Oratory (of the Hearing Ear)
Ordinary residents of Thebes, who could not enter the sacred territory of the temple of Amun and turn to the gods of the Theban triad, offered prayers to the intermediary deities. These lower-ranking gods had their own shrines, known as "Learning Ear" chapels (sometimes they were actually decorated with images of ears). These sanctuaries were located in the wall of the temple complex and one side faced the external world. However, at Karnak they gradually became less accessible, and eventually ended up inside the complex’s enclosure, which still exists to this day. Immediately behind the Hebsed Temple of Thutmose III there are several prayer houses built by the same pharaoh. They are centered around a large alabaster paired statue depicting the king and Amun.
On both sides of it are the pedestals of another pair of obelisks of Hatshepsut, of which nothing else remains. Further to the east are the dilapidated halls and colonnades of the Temple of the Hearing Ear, built by Ramesses II. Behind it is the pedestal of the tallest (31 meters) obelisk known to us, which, under Emperor Constantine, was transported to Rome and installed in the Circus Maximus. Subsequently, the obelisk was transported to Lateran Square, hence its name - Lateran Obelisk. Since the Egyptians rarely erected single obelisks, the pair for this monument was apparently supposed to be an unfinished obelisk, which remained lying in the quarries after a crack was discovered in the stone.
Around the Sacred Lake
From Hatshepsut's obelisk or the courtyard where the cache of statues was found, you can stroll to the Sacred Lake of Karnak Temple, which looks no more holy than the pond in the city park. On its far bank there are spectator stands built specifically for the light and sound show. The main local attraction is a shaded (and expensive) cafe where you can take a break and try to imagine what the place looked like in ancient times.
At sunrise, the priests of Amun released the sacred geese from the poultry house, in the place of which there is now a mound on the southern side of the lake. Here, as in Hermopolis, the goose, or the Great Gogotun, was revered as a bird that laid a cosmic egg at the dawn of creation. However, there was a goose in Karnak sacred bird Amon, not Thoth. In the Late Period, Pharaoh Taharqa built an underground sanctuary of Osiris here, symbolically combining the rebirth of Osiris with the rising of the sun. The giant scarab standing nearby is the embodiment of the god Khepri, the reborn sun.
From north to south of the temple complex at Karnak
The buildings located on the north-south axis of the complex are not so diverse, so if you are short on time, there is no point in going further than the eighth pylon. You can get to this part of the temple, starting from the courtyard where the cache was found, through the gate of Ramesses IX in the southern part of the courtyard between the third and fourth pylons. A cache of statues was discovered in this temple courtyard at the beginning of the 20th century. Almost 17,000 bronze statues and votive reliefs and 800 stone sculptures were apparently hidden during one of the purges of temple storerooms in Hellenistic times.
Magnificent sculptures different eras(from the Old Kingdom to the Late Period) are now kept in the museums of Cairo and Luxor. In the northwest corner of the courtyard is a relief with scenes of Ramesses' military exploits and a hieroglyphic text known as the Poem of Pentaur. In the opposite corner of the courtyard is the inscription of Merneptah, consisting of eighty lines, and a copy of the stele of Israel, the original of which is in . In the list of conquered peoples, the only ancient Egyptian mention of Israel is found - “Israel is empty, there is no seed thereof.” David Rohl argues that the text of the stele has been misread. In his opinion, the inscription lists the achievements of Merneptah's father and grandfather, Ramesses II and Seti I.
The seventh pylon provides even more clear evidence of the complexity of such a science as Egyptology. It was built by Thutmose III, but about a hundred years later, the rulers of the 19th dynasty took credit for the construction and ordered the royal cartouches on the doorposts to be interrupted. In front of the pylon are seven statues of the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom, extracted from the internal parts of the pylon. Further on, the lower parts of two colossi of Thutmose III are visible. The eighth pylon is now closed for restoration. You can either walk around it and look at the four colossi from a distance, or try to get closer by paying baksheesh. The colossus of Amenhotep I is the best preserved.
Further, at the opposite end of the featureless courtyard, stands the ninth pylon - one of three built by Horemheb. Its internal masonry consists of fragments of the Temple of Aten, which is now being restored. Adjacent to the eastern wall of the last courtyard is the hebsed temple of Amenhotep II, which performed the same functions as the temple of Thutmose III in the main part of the temple. The brick houses of the village of Karnak are visible through the opening of the tenth pylon, from which the Avenue of the Sphinxes, connecting the temples of Amun and Mut, once began.
Temples of Khonsu and Opet in Karnak
In the southwestern part of the Amun complex there are two smaller temples associated with the cult of this god. The Temple of Khonsu was dedicated to the son of Amun and Mut. The main part of it was built under Ramesses III and Ramesses IV, some additions were made under subsequent kings. The temple is well preserved, but it is rather roughly decorated and poorly lit inside. Many reliefs depict Herihor, the first of the Theban high priests who ruled Upper Egypt after the Ramessides moved their capital to the Delta.
The change of power was also reflected in the reliefs of the pylons, where Pinuj, another High priest Amon, presenting gifts to the gods in the guise of a king. Nearby is a small temple to the goddess Opet, depicted in the guise of a hippopotamus and supposedly considered the mother of Osiris. The temple is closed periodically, but if you are lucky, be sure to check out the reliefs, which are more elegant than those at the Khonsu Temple. They date back to Hellenistic and Roman times. The high gate of Euergetes I with a cornice decorated with images of the solar disk was built in Hellenistic era. They are currently closed.
Open-air museum
In the northern part of the sacred site of Amon there is an open-air museum. To get into it, you need to buy a separate ticket (20 pounds) before entering the Karnak complex. The main attractions of the museum are two early chapels for sacred boats, they were restored from blocks found inside the third pylon. The beautiful White Chapel, completely covered with reliefs, dates back to the era of the XII dynasty. Among the numerous images of the djed pillar, ankh signs and other symbols are images of Senusret I and Amun-Min, who is easily recognized by his phallus.
The simpler-looking Alabaster Chapel of Amenhotep I is decorated with quite innocent scenes: the pharaoh brings gifts to Amon and his sacred boat. During the tour, you will pass by blocks from the Red Chapel of Hatshepsut, which archaeologists were unable to restore, since each slab is a complete relief, and not part of a larger composition. Egyptologists were more successful in restoring the chapel of Thutmose III. Note also the granite statues of Sekhmet from the small Temple of Ptah, located near the wall of the Karnak Temple. The ruins of the temple themselves are not worth the 300-meter trek over rough terrain, and the best statues of Sekhmet were transported to the Luxor Museum.
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