Leontiev's doctrine. A. Leontiev - Russian psychologist and linguist: biography, main works

A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinstein are the creators of the Soviet school of psychology, which is based on the abstract concept of personality. It was based on the works of L. S. Vygotsky devoted to the cultural-historical approach. This theory reveals the term "activity" and other related concepts.

History of creation and main provisions of the concept

S. L. Rubinshtein and A. N. activity was created in the 30s of the twentieth century. They developed this concept in parallel, without discussing or consulting with each other. Nevertheless, their work turned out to have much in common, since scientists used the same sources when developing psychological theory. The founders relied on the work of the talented Soviet thinker L. S. Vygotsky, and the philosophical theory of Karl Marx was also used to create the concept.

The main thesis of the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev briefly sounds like this: it is not consciousness that forms activity, but activity forms consciousness.

In the 1930s, on the basis of this provision, Sergei Leonidovich determined the main provision of the concept, which is based on a close relationship between consciousness and activity. This means that the human psyche is formed during activity and in the process of work, and in them it manifests itself. Scientists pointed out that it is important to understand the following: consciousness and activity form a unity that has organic basis. Alexey Nikolaevich emphasized that this connection in no case should it be confused with identity, otherwise all the provisions that take place in the theory lose their force.

So, according to A. N. Leontiev, "activity - consciousness of the individual" is the main logical relationship of the whole concept.

The main psychological phenomena of the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein

Each person unconsciously reacts to an external stimulus with a set of reflex reactions, but activity is not among these stimuli, since it is regulated by the mental work of the individual. Philosophers in their presented theory consider consciousness as a certain reality that is not meant for human self-observation. It can manifest itself only through a system of subjective relations, in particular, through the activity of the individual, in the process of which he manages to develop.

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev clarifies the provisions voiced by his colleague. He says that the human psyche is built into his activity, it is formed thanks to it and manifests itself in activity, which ultimately leads to a close connection between the two concepts.

Personality in the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev is considered in unity with action, work, motive, operation, need and emotions.

The concept of activity of A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein is a whole system that includes methodological and theoretical principles that make it possible to study psychological phenomena person. The concept of activity of A. N. Leontiev contains such a provision that the main subject that helps to study the processes of consciousness is activity. This research approach began to take shape in psychology Soviet Union in the 20s of the twentieth century. In the 1930s, two interpretations of activity were already proposed. The first position belongs to Sergei Leonidovich, who formulated the principle of unity cited above in the article. The second formulation was described by Aleksey Nikolaevich together with representatives of the Kharkov psychological school, who determined the commonality of the structure, affecting external and internal activities.

The main concept in the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev

Activity is a system that is built on the basis of various forms realization, expressed in the relation of the subject to material objects and the world as a whole. This concept Alexey Nikolaevich formulated, and Sergey Leonidovich Rubinshtein defined activity as a set of any actions that are aimed at achieving the goals. According to A. N. Leontiev, activity in the mind of the individual plays a paramount role.

Activity structure

In the 1930s in psychological school A. N. Leontiev put forward the idea of ​​the need to build a structure of activity in order to complete the definition of this concept.

Activity structure:

This scheme is valid when reading from top to bottom and vice versa.

There are two forms of activity:

• external;
• internal.

External activity

External activity includes various forms, which are expressed in the subject-practical activity. In this form, the interaction of subjects and objects occurs, the latter are openly presented for external observation. Examples of this form of activity are:

• the work of mechanics with the help of tools - this can be driving nails with a hammer or tightening bolts with a screwdriver;
• production of material objects by specialists on machine tools;
• games of children, for the implementation of which extraneous things are required;
• cleaning the premises: sweeping the floors with a broom, wiping windows with a rag, manipulating pieces of furniture;
• construction of houses by workers: laying bricks, laying foundations, inserting windows and doors, etc.

Internal activities

Internal activities differs in that the interactions of the subject with any images of objects are hidden from direct observation. Examples of this kind are:

• solution mathematical problem scientists when using mental activity inaccessible to the eye;
• inner work an actor over a role that includes reflections, worries, anxiety, etc.;
• the process of creating a work by poets or writers;
• writing a script for a school play;
• mental guessing of a riddle by a child;
• emotions evoked in a person when watching a touching film or listening to soulful music.

motive

The general psychological theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein define the motive as an object of human need, it turns out that in order to characterize this term, it is necessary to turn to the needs of the subject.

In psychology, the motive is the engine of any existing activity, that is, it is an impetus that brings the subject into an active state, or a goal for which a person is ready to do something.

Needs

Need in general theory activities of A.N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein has two transcripts:

1. Need is a kind of "internal condition", which is a prerequisite for any activity performed by the subject. But Aleksey Nikolaevich points out that this type of need is in no way capable of causing directed activity, because it main goal becomes an orienting-exploratory activity, which, as a rule, is directed to the search for such objects that would be able to save a person from an experienced desire. Sergey Leonidovich adds that this concept is a "virtual need", which is expressed only within oneself, so a person experiences it in his state or feeling of "incompleteness".
2. Need is the engine of any activity of the subject, which directs and regulates it in material world after the person meets the object. This term is characterized as "actual need", that is, the need for a specific thing at a certain point in time.

"Objective" need

This concept can be traced on the example of a just-born caterpillar, which has not yet met with any specific object, but its properties are already fixed in the mind of the chick - they were transferred to it from the mother in the most general form at the genetic level, so it does not have a desire follow any thing that will be in front of his eyes at the time of hatching from the egg. This happens only during the meeting of the caterpillar, which has its own need, with the object, because it does not yet have a formed idea about the appearance of its desire in the material world. This thing in the chick, it fits in the subconscious to the scheme of a genetically fixed exemplary image, so it is able to satisfy the need of the gosling. This is how the imprint of a given object, suitable for the desired characteristics, takes place as an object that satisfies the corresponding needs, and the need takes on an "objective" form. This is how a suitable thing becomes a motive for a certain activity of the subject: in this case in the following time, the nestling will follow its "objectified" need everywhere.

Thus, Alexey Nikolaevich and Sergey Leonidovich mean that the need at the very first stage of its formation is not such, it is at the beginning of its development the body's need for something that is outside the body of the subject, despite the fact that it is reflected on his mental level.

Target

This concept describes that the goal is the directions for the achievement of which a person implements a certain activity in the form of appropriate actions that are prompted by the motive of the subject.

Differences between purpose and motive

Aleksey Nikolaevich introduces the concept of "goal" as a desired result that arises in the process of planning a person for any activity. He emphasizes that motive is different from this term, because it is that for which any actions are performed. The goal is what is planned to be done to realize the motive.

As reality shows, in everyday life the terms given above in the article never coincide, but complement each other. Also, it should be understood that there is a certain relationship between the motive and the goal, so they are dependent on each other.

A person always understands what is the purpose of the actions performed or proposed by him, that is, his task is conscious. It turns out that a person always knows exactly what he is going to do. Example: submitting documents to a university, passing pre-selected entrance exams, etc.

The motive in almost all cases is unconscious or unconscious for the subject. That is, a person may not guess about the main reasons for performing any activity. Example: an applicant really wants to apply to a particular institute - he explains this by the fact that the profile of this educational institution matches his interests and desires future profession, in fact, the main reason for choosing this university is the desire to be close to your beloved girl who studies at this university.

Emotions

The analysis of the emotional life of the subject is the direction that is considered the leading one in the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein.

Emotions are a direct experience by a person of the meaning of the goal (the motive can also be considered the subject of emotions, because at the subconscious level it is defined as the subjective form of the existing goal, behind which it is internally manifested in the psyche of the individual).

Emotions allow a person to understand what they really are. true motives his behavior and activities. If a person achieves the goal, but does not experience the desired satisfaction from this, that is, on the contrary, negative emotions arise, this means that the motive has not been realized. Therefore, the success that the individual has achieved is actually illusory, because that for which all the activity was undertaken has not been achieved. Example: an applicant entered the institute where his beloved is studying, but she was expelled a week before that, which devalues ​​the success that the young man has achieved.

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Leontiev Alexei Nikolaevich (February 5, 1903, Moscow - January 21, 1979, Moscow) - Soviet psychologist who dealt with the problems of consciousness and activity. Student of L. S. Vygotsky. In 1924 he graduated from Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov.

From 1941 he was a professor at Moscow State University and from 1945 he was head of the department of psychology at the Faculty of Philosophy. In 1948 he joined communist party. Since 1950, he has been a full member of the APN of the RSFSR, and since 1968, the APN of the USSR. Founded in 1966 the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University and led it in the 1960s and 70s. Son - A. A. Leontiev.

“Personal meaning is generated by the existence of a person, life ...”

Leontiev Alexey Nikolaevich

Scientific contribution

With the active participation of Leontiev, a series of psychological discussions took place, in which he defended the point of view that the psyche is formed mainly by external factors.

Critics note the fact that Leontiev was one of the most consistent supporters of the ideologization of Soviet psychology. In all his works, including the programmatic book Activity, Consciousness, Personality (1975), he consistently pursued the thesis: modern world psychology performs an ideological function and serves class interests; It's impossible to ignore this."

In 1976, he opened a laboratory for the psychology of perception, which still operates today.

Major Publications

• List of printed works of A. N. Leontiev
• The development of memory., M., 1931
• Movement recovery. -M., 1945 (co-author)
• On the Question of the Consciousness of the Teaching, 1947
• Psychological questions of the consciousness of the doctrine of idem / / Izvestiya APN RSFSR. - M., 1947. - Issue. 7.
• Essay on the development of the psyche. - M., 1947
• Psychological development of a child in preschool age // Questions of the psychology of a child before school age. - M.-L., 1948
• Feeling, perception and attention of children of primary school age // Essays on the psychology of children (junior school age). - M., 1950
• Mental development of the child. - M., 1950
• Human psychology and technical progress. - M., 1962 (co-author)
• Needs, motives and emotions. - M., 1973
• Activity. Consciousness. Personality (idem), 1977
• Will, 1978
• Category of activity in modern psychology// Vopr. psychology, 1979, no. 3
• Problems of the development of the psyche. - M., 1981 (Foreword, table of contents, comments)
• Selected psychological works (idem - Table of contents, From the compilers, Introduction, Abstract & Comments: vol. 1, vol. 2), 1983; In 2 volumes. Volumes 1 and 2.
• The problem of activity in the history of Soviet psychology, Questions of Psychology, 1986, N 4
• Discussion about the problems of activity // Activity approach in psychology: problems and prospects. Ed. V. V. Davydova and others - M., 1990 (co-author).
• Philosophy of Psychology, 1994
• Lectures on General Psychology, 2000
• In English: Alexei Leont'ev archive @ marxists.org.uk: Activity, Consciousness, and Personality, 1978 & Activity and Consciousness, 1977

LEONTIEV ALEXEY NIKOLAEVICH.

Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev was born in Moscow on February 5, 1903, his parents were ordinary employees. Naturally, they wanted to give Alexei a good education. Therefore, it is not surprising that the scientific activity of Alexei Leontiev dates back to his student years. In 1924 he graduated from the faculty social sciences Moscow University, where G.I. Chelpanov taught a general course in psychology.

Chelpanov headed the Institute of Psychology at Moscow State University in those years, leading a group of students for research work. It was within the walls of this university that Alexei Nikolaevich wrote the first scientific work- abstract "James' doctrine of ideo-motor acts" and a work on Spencer. After graduating from the university, Alexei Nikolaevich became a graduate student at the Institute of Psychology. Here in 1924 A.N. Leontiev with L.S. Vygotsky and A. R. Luria.

And soon their joint work began, as these three people with outstanding abilities quickly found mutual language, and their union foreshadowed many useful things. But, unfortunately, this activity was interrupted. Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky died. For so short term joint work The results of their activities were still impressive.

The article “The Nature of Human Conflict” published by Leontiev and Luria was a resounding success. it was in it that the technique of “conjugated motor reactions” was presented and the idea of ​​mastering affect through speech output was born. Further, Leontiev personally developed the idea and embodied it in an article entitled "Experience structural analysis chain associative series. This article, published in the Russian-German Medical Journal, is based on the fact that associative reactions are determined by the semantic integrity that lies "behind" the associative series. But it was this development that did not receive worthy recognition.

He met his wife in 1929, when he was 26 years old. After a brief acquaintance, they got married. His wife never interfered scientific activity Alexei Leontiev, on the contrary, helped and supported him in the most difficult moments.

Leontiev's interests lay in the most various fields psychology: from psychology creative activity to experimental human perception of objectivity. And to the need to find a completely new approach to the subject and content of psychophysiological research, which is now developing from common system psychological knowledge, Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev addressed many times.

At the end of 1925, his famous "cultural-historical concept" was born, which was based on well-known formula L.S Vygotsky S-X-R, where S - incentive, motive; X - means; R - the result of activity. Aleksey Leontiev began to develop the ideas of this work, but at the Institute of Psychology, which at that time was busy with completely different issues, it was not possible to implement this undertaking.

It is for this reason that A.N. Leontiev and A.R. Luria moved to the Academy of Communist Education, also working simultaneously at VGIK, at GITIS, at the clinic of G. I Rossolimo and at the Institute of Defectology. Approximately in 1930, the Health Committee of Ukraine decided to organize a sector of psychology at the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Institute, where A. R. Luria temporarily took the post of head, and A.N. Leontiev - Head of the Department of Child and Genetic Psychology.

By this time, Aleksei Nikolaevich had already left VGIK and AKB, and Vygotsky was forced to return to Moscow. Consequently, all the work was taken over by Leontiev, who later became the leader of the Ukrainian group of psychologists. Developing more and more new projects, Alexei Leontiev published the book “Activity. Consciousness. Personality”, where he defends his point of view that a person does not just adjust his activity to external conditions society, and these same conditions of society carry the motives and goals of its activities.

In parallel, A.N. Leontiev begins work on the problem of the development of the psyche, namely, the study of extrapolation reflexes in animal individuals. In 1936, Alexei Nikolaevich returned to the Institute of Psychology, where he worked until he left for the department of psychology at Moscow State University. At the institute, he deals with the issue of skin photosensitivity. At the same time, AN Leontiev teaches at VGIK and GITIS. He collaborates with CM Eisenstein and conducts an experimental study of the perception of films. In the prewar years, he became the head of the department of psychology at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. N.K. Krupskaya.

In the second half of the 1930s. Leontiev developed the following problems:

a) the phylogenetic development of the psyche, and in particular the genesis of sensitivity.

b) "functional development" of the psyche, that is, the problem of the formation and functioning of activity,

c) the problem of consciousness

These problems were well covered in A. N. Leontiev's doctoral dissertation "Development of the psyche", defended at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. And I. Herzen in 1940. Only a part of the results of his research was included in the dissertation. But this work of Leontiev has not been completely preserved.

The dissertation contained articles dealing, inter alia, with memory, perception, emotions, will, and arbitrariness. There is also a chapter called "Activity-Action-Operation", where the basic conceptual system of the activity psychological theory is given. According to Leontiev, activity is inseparable from the object of its need, and in order to master this object, it is necessary to focus on its properties that are vitally indifferent in themselves, but are closely related to other vital properties of objects, i.e. "signal" about the presence or absence of the latter.

Thus, due to the fact that the activity of the animal acquires an objective character, a form of reflection specific to the psyche arises in its infancy - a reflection of an object that has properties that are vital, and properties that signal them. to such influences, which are correlated by the organism with other influences, i.e. which guide Living being in the subject content of his activity, performing a signal function.

Leontiev undertakes research in order to test the hypothesis put forward by him. First in Kharkov, and then in Moscow, with the help of the experimental methodology he developed, he reproduces under artificially created conditions the process of turning imperceptible stimuli into perceptible ones (the process of a person experiencing the color of the skin of the hand). Thus, A.N. For the first time in the history of world psychology, Leontiev made an attempt to define an objective criterion for the elementary psyche, taking into account the sources of its origin in the process of interaction between a living being and the environment.

Summing up the data accumulated in the field of zoopsychology and based on his own achievements, Leontiev developed a new concept mental development animals as the development of a mental reflection of reality, due to changes in the conditions of existence and the nature of the process of animal activity on different stages phylogenesis: stages of sensory, perceptual and intellectual psyche. This direction works by A.N. Leontiev was directly connected with the development of the question of activity and the problem of consciousness.

Developing the problem of personality, Alexei Leontiev adhered to two areas of his activity. He worked on the problems of the psychology of art. In his opinion, there is nothing where a person could realize himself so holistically and comprehensively as in art. Unfortunately, today it is almost impossible to find his works on the psychology of art, although during his lifetime Alexei Nikolayevich worked a lot on this topic.

In 1966, Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev finally moved to the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow University, from that time until last day During his lifetime, Leontiev was the permanent dean and head of the department of general psychology. Alexei Nikolaevich left our world on January 21, 1979; overestimate it scientific contribution impossible, because it was he who managed to force many to reconsider their views and approach the subject and content of psychophysiological research from a completely different angle.

From the book Portraits in words author Khodasevich Valentina Mikhailovna

Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy I would like to recall and describe memorable meetings with Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy. I am an artist, and in connection with my individual qualities, there was probably a selection in my memory of those and not other facts from the life of Alexei Nikolaevich. ABOUT

From the book Emperor Nicholas II and his family by Gilliard Pierre

Chapter II. Alexey Nikolaevich Trips to the Crimea (autumn 1911 and spring 1912) and Spala (autumn 1912) The royal family usually spent the winter in Tsarskoye Selo, a beautiful town, summer cottage, about 20 kilometers south of Petrograd. It is located on a hill top part

From the book Dossier on the stars: truth, speculation, sensations. Idols of all generations the author Razzakov Fedor

Valery LEONTIEV V. Leontiev was born on March 19, 1949 in the village of Ust-Usa, Komi ASSR. His father - Yakov Stepanovich - worked as a military livestock specialist, his mother - Ekaterina Ivanovna - raised three children (besides Valery, there were two more daughters in the Leontyev family). Son Ekaterina Ivanovna

From the book My "Contemporary" author Ivanova Ludmila Ivanovna

Avant-garde Leontiev And I also want to tell you about a very modest artist, albeit a popular one - about Avant-garde Leontiev. Now everyone knows him, he is known to the public not only as a theater artist, but also as a film actor. Everyone remembers his role in the film "A Few Days in the Life of Oblomov", or

From the book 99 names of the Silver Age author Bezelyansky Yuri Nikolaevich

From the book Reminiscences of Archimandrite Macarius, Abbot of the Russian Monastery of St. Panteleimon on Mount Athos author Leontiev Konstantin Nikolaevich

Konstantin Nikolayevich Leontiev Remembrance of Archimandrite Macarius, Abbot of the Russian Monastery of St.<ятого>Panteleimon on the mountain

From the book Most closed people. From Lenin to Gorbachev: Encyclopedia of Biographies author Zenkovich Nikolai Alexandrovich

KOSYGIN Alexey Nikolaevich (02/21/1904 - 12/18/1980). Member of the Politburo (Presidium) of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks - CPSU from 04.09.1948 to 05.10.1952 and from 04.05.1960 to 21.10.1980 Candidate member of the Politburo (Presidium) of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks - CPSU from 03/18/1946 to 09/04/1948, from 10/16/1952 to 03/05/1953 and from 06/29/1957 to 05/04/1960 Member of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks - CPSU

From the book Path to Chekhov author Gromov Mikhail Petrovich

Veselovsky Aleksey Nikolaevich (1843–1918) Younger brother of A. N. Veselovsky, Russian philologist, professor at Moscow University, chairman of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature. Was familiar with and corresponded with Chekhov about the story for the collection "Delo",

From the book of Tulyaki - Heroes of the Soviet Union author Apollonova A. M.

Davydov (real name Gorelov Ivan Nikolaevich) Vladimir Nikolaevich (1849-1925) Actor of the St. Petersburg Alexandrinsky Theater; also played in the Russian Drama Theater of F. A. Korsh in Moscow, was the first performer of the role of Ivanov (1887) and Svetlovidov in Chekhov's play "Swan

From the book of Bunin without gloss author Fokin Pavel Evgenievich

Pleshcheev Alexei Nikolaevich (1825–1893) Famous poet, author of the poems “Forward! Without fear and doubt…”, who was serving a Siberian exile at the same time as Dostoevsky for participating in the Petrashevsky circle. A. N. Pleshcheev in the 1880s was the editor of the fiction department of the journal Severny

From the book silver Age. Portrait Gallery of Cultural Heroes of the Turn of the 19th–20th Centuries. Volume 1. A-I author Fokin Pavel Evgenievich

Shatalin Aleksey Nikolaevich Born in 1908 in the village of Krutoy Verkh, Uzlovsky District Tula region. He worked on a collective farm. In 1941 he was called to Soviet Army, at the front was the commander of the gun crew. Member of the CPSU. The title of Hero of the Soviet Union was awarded on July 22, 1944.

From the book Silver Age. Portrait Gallery of Cultural Heroes of the Turn of the 19th–20th Centuries. Volume 3. S-Z author Fokin Pavel Evgenievich

Father Alexei Nikolaevich Bunin Margarita Valentinovna Golitsyna: Alexei Nikolaevich was above average height, rather densely built, with an open, cheerful pink face, with white-gray hair that ended in curls at the neck. He was always lively, cheerful, fast,

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From the author's book

Alexey Leontiev Pavka I will forget everything that I knew and touched ... - Next! - But will I be glad to forget completely ... - Next, damn it! .. - That Pavel Kogan once lived Along the Leningrad highway ... Pavka looks at me and smiles. - You know, good, he says. - Thanks. But you are reading

From the author's book

Alexey Nikolayevich Tolstoy Many times I mentioned Alexander Nikolayevich Tikhonov, who in different years my life was sometimes close, sometimes far. He lived either in Leningrad, or in Moscow, or he was nowhere to be found. Tikhonov, in my opinion, introduced me to Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy. AND

activities called a system of various forms of realization of the relationship of the subject to the world of objects. This is how the concept of “activity” was defined by the creator of one of the variants of the activity approach in psychology, Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903 - 1979) (10).

Eshe in the 30s. 20th century in the school of A. N. Leontiev, the structure of a separate activity was carefully developed, and in the following decades the structure of a separate activity was carefully developed. Let's represent it in the form of a diagram:

Activity- motive(object of need)

Action - Purpose

Operation- A task(goal in certain conditions)

This scheme of structure of activity is open both upwards and downwards. From above, it can be supplemented by a system of activities of various types, hierarchically organized; below - psychophysiological functions that ensure the implementation of activities.

In the school of A. N. Leontiev, two more forms activity of the subject (according to the nature of its openness for observation): external Andinternal (12).

In the school of A.N. Leontiev, a separate, specific activity was singled out from the system of activities according to the criterion motive.

motive is usually defined in psychology as that which “drives” activity, that for which this activity is carried out.

Motive (in the narrow sense of Leontiev)- as an object of need, i.e., in order to characterize the motive, it is necessary to refer to the category of "need".

A.N.Leontiev determined need in two ways:

Definition of NEED	decoding
1) as an "internal condition", as one of the prerequisites for activity, which, however, is not capable of causing a directed activity, but causes - as a "need" - only an orienting research activity aimed at finding an object that can save the subject from a state of need .	"virtual need" need "in oneself", "need state", just "need"
2) as something that directs and regulates the specific activity of the subject in the subject environment after his encounter with the subject.	"current need"(need for something specific)

Example: Before meeting with a specific object, the properties of which are fixed in the most general form in the genetic program of the gosling, the chick does not need to follow exactly that specific object that will be in front of its eyes at the moment of hatching from the egg. However, as a result of the meeting of an “unobjectified” need (or a “need state”) with an appropriate object that fits the genetically fixed scheme of an exemplary “sample”, this particular object is imprinted as an object of need - and the need is “objectified”. Since then, this object has become the motive for the activity of the subject (chick) - and he follows him everywhere.

Thus, the need at the first stage of its development is not yet a need, but the need of the body for something that is outside of it, although it is reflected on the mental level.

The activity prompted by a motive is realized by a person in the form action, aimed at achieving a certain goals.

Purpose (according to Leontiev)- as a desired result of activity, consciously planned by a person, i.e. a motive is something for the sake of which a certain activity is performed, a goal is what is planned to be done in this regard to realize the motive.

As a rule, in human activity motive and purpose do not match.

If the goal is always conscious of the subject(he can always be aware of what he is going to do: apply to the institute, take entrance exams on such and such days, etc.), then the motive, as a rule, is unconscious for him (a person may not be aware of the true reason for his admission to this institute: he will assure that he is very interested, for example, in technical sciences, while in fact he is motivated to go there by the desire to be close to his loved one).

At the school of A.N. Leontiev Special attention is given to the analysis of the emotional life of a person. emotions are considered here as a direct experience of the meaning of the goal (which is determined by the motive behind the goal, so emotions can be defined as a subjective form of the existence of motives). Emotion makes it clear to a person what the true motives for setting a particular goal may be. If a negative emotion arises when a goal is successfully achieved, then this success is imaginary for a given subject, since that for which everything was undertaken has not been achieved (the motive has not been realized). A girl entered the institute, but a loved one did not enter.

The motive and the goal can pass into each other: the goal, when it acquires a special motivating force, can become a motive (this mechanism for turning a goal into a motive is called in the school of A.N. Leontiev " shifting motive to a goal”) or, on the contrary, the motive becomes the goal.

Example: Suppose that the young man entered the institute at the request of his mother. Then the true motive of his behavior is "to maintain a good relationship with his mother," and this motive will give the appropriate meaning to the goal of "study at this institute." But studying at the institute and the subjects taught in it captivate this boy so much that after a while he begins to attend all classes with pleasure, not for the sake of his mother, but for the sake of obtaining the appropriate profession, since she completely captured him. There was a shift of the motive to the goal ( former target acquired the motivating force of the motive). In this case, on the contrary, the former motive can become a goal, i.e. change places with it, or something else can happen: the motive, without ceasing to be a motive, turns into a motive-goal. This last case happens when a person suddenly, clearly realizes the true motives of his behavior and says to himself: “Now I understand that I didn’t live like that: I didn’t work where I wanted, I didn’t live with who I wanted. From now on, I will live differently and now, quite consciously, I will achieve goals that are really significant for me.

The set goal (which the subject is aware of) does not mean that the way to achieve this goal will be the same under different conditions for achieving it and always aware of it. Different subjects often have to achieve the same goal in different conditions (in broad sense words). Mode of action under certain conditions called operation and corresponds fromtask (i.e. a goal given under certain conditions) (12).

Example: admission to the institute can be achieved in different ways (for example, you can pass through the entrance exams “through the sieve”, you can enter according to the results of the Olympiad, you can not get the points you need for the budget department and still go to paid department- etc.) (12).

	Definition	Note
Activity	a separate "unit" of the subject's life, prompted by a specific motive, or an object of need (in the narrow sense according to Leontiev). it is a set of actions that are caused by one motive.	Activities are hierarchical. Level of specific activities (or specific activities) Action level Operations level Level of psychophysiological functions
Action	basic unit of activity analysis. A process aimed at achieving a goal.	action includes, as a necessary component, an act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal. action is at the same time an act of behavior. In contrast to behaviorism, activity theory considers external movement as an inextricable unity with consciousness. After all, movement without a goal is more a failed behavior than a true essence. action = inseparable unity of consciousness and behavior through the concept of action, the theory of activity affirms the principle of activity the concept of action “brings” human activity into the objective and social world.
Subject	carrier of activity, consciousness and knowledge	Without a subject there is no object and vice versa. This means that the activity, considered as a form of relationship (more precisely, a form of realization of the relationship) of the subject to the object, is meaningful (necessary, significant) for the subject, it is performed in his interests, but is always directed at the object, which ceases to be "neutral" for subject and becomes the object of his activity.
An object	what the activity (real and cognitive) of the subject is directed to
Subject	denotes a certain integrity, isolated from the world of objects in the process of human activity and cognition.	activity and object are inseparable(that is why they constantly talk about the "objectivity" of activity; there is no "objective" activity). It is thanks to activity that the object becomes an object, and thanks to the object, activity becomes directed. Thus, activity combines the concepts of "subject" and "object" into an inseparable whole.
motive	an object of need, something for the sake of which this or that activity is carried out.	Each individual activity is motivated by a motive, the subject himself may not be aware of his motives, i.e. don't be held accountable for them. Motives give rise to actions, that is, they lead to the formation of goals, and goals, as you know, are always realized. The motives themselves are not always understood. - Conscious motives(motives - goals, characteristic of mature individuals) - Unconscious motives(manifested in consciousness in the form of emotions and personal meanings) Polymotivation of human motives. The main motive is the leading motive, secondary - motives - incentives.
Target	image of the desired result, i.e. that result, which must be reached during the execution of the action.	The goal is always conscious. Incited by this or that motive to activity, the subject sets himself certain goals, those. consciously plans actions achieve any desired result. At the same time, the achievement of the goal always occurs in specific conditions which may change depending on the circumstances. The goal sets the action, the action ensures the realization of the goal.
A task	purpose given under certain conditions
Operation	Ways to take action	The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed. If the action meets the goal, then the operation meets the conditions (external circumstances and opportunities) in which this goal is given. The main property of the operation is that they are little or not realized at all. The operation level is filled with automatic actions and skills. Operations are of 2 types: some arise through adaptation, direct imitation (they are practically not realized and cannot be called into consciousness even with special efforts); others arise from actions by automating them (they are on the verge of consciousness and can easily become actually conscious). Any complex action consists of a layer of actions and a layer of operations “underlying” them.
Need	it is the original form of activity of living organisms. The objective state of a living organism. This is the state of the organism's objective need for something that lies outside it and constitutes necessary condition its normal functioning.	The need is always subjective. The organic need of a biological being for what is necessary for its life and development. Needs activate the body - the search for the necessary object of need: food, water, etc. Before its first satisfaction, the need "does not know" its object, it must still be found. In the course of the search, there is a “meeting” of the need with its object, its “recognition” or "objectification of need". In the act of objectification, a motive is born. The motive is defined as an object of need (concretization). By the very act of objectification, the need changes, is transformed. - biological need Social need (the need for contacts with their own kind) Cognitive (need for external impressions)
Emotions	reflection of the relation of the result of activity to its motive.
personal meaning	experiencing an increased subjective significance of an object, action, event, caught in the field of activity of the leading motive.

The subject acts in the process of performing this or that activity as an organism with its own psychophysiological characteristics, and they also contribute to the specifics of the activity performed by the subject.

From the point of view of the school of A. N. Leontiev, knowledge of the properties and structure of human activity is necessary for understanding the human psyche (12).

Traditionally, in the activity approach, there are several dynamic components(“parts”, or, more precisely, functional organs) activities necessary for its full implementation. The main ones are indicative and executive components, the functions of which are, respectively, the orientation of the subject in the world and the performance of actions based on the received image of the world in accordance with the goals set by him.

task executive The component of activity (for the sake of which activity generally exists) is not only the adaptation of the subject to the world of objects in which he lives, but also the change and transformation of this world.

However, for the full implementation of the executive function of activity, its subject must navigate in the properties and patterns of objects, i.e., having learned them, be able to change their activities (for example, use certain specific operations as ways to carry out actions under certain conditions) in accordance with the known patterns. This is precisely the task of the indicative "part" (functional organ) of activity. As a rule, a person must, before doing something, orient himself in the world in order to build an adequate image of this world and an action plan corresponding to it, i.e. orientation should run ahead of execution. This is most often done by an adult in normal conditions of activity. At early stages of development (for example, in young children), orientation takes place in the process of performance, and sometimes even after it (12).

Summary

Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness)

behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness. The principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior.

activity is an active, purposeful process (principle of activity)

human actions are objective; they realize social - industrial and cultural - goals (the principle of the objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditionality) (10).

Years of life: 1903 - 1979

Homeland: Moscow ( The Russian Empire)

Leontiev Aleksey Nikolaevich - psychologist, full member of the APN of the RSFSR (1950), doctor pedagogical sciences(in psychology) (1940), professor (1932).

In 1924 he graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of Moscow University. In 1924-31. conducted scientific and teaching work in Moscow (Institute of Psychology, Academy of Communist Education named after N. K. Krupskaya), in 1931-1935. - in Kharkov (Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy, Pedagogical Institute). In 1936-1956. - Institute of Psychology APN. During the years of the Great Patriotic War- Head of the experimental hospital for the restoration of movements near Sverdlovsk. Since 1941 - professor at Moscow State University, since 1950 - head. Department of Psychology, since 1966 - Dean of the Faculty of Psychology, Moscow State University. Academician-Secretary of the Department of Psychology (1950-1957) and Vice-President (1959-1961) of the APS of the RSFSR.

Leontiev's professional development as a scientist took place in the 1920s. under the influence of his direct teacher L. S. Vygotsky, who literally blew up traditional psychology with his methodological, theoretical and experimental work who laid the foundations of a new psychology. With his work in the late 1920s Leontiev also contributed to the development of the cultural-historical approach created by Vygotsky to the formation of the human psyche.

However, already in the early 1930s. Leontiev, without breaking with the cultural-historical paradigm, begins to discuss with Vygotsky about the ways of its further development. If for Vygotsky the main subject of study was consciousness, then for Leontiev it was more important to analyze the consciousness-forming human practice, life activity. In Leontiev's works of the 1930s, published only posthumously, he sought to establish the idea of ​​the priority role of practice in the formation of the psyche and to understand the patterns of this formation in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. His doctoral thesis was devoted to the evolution of the mental in the animal world - from elementary irritability in protozoa to human consciousness. dominated in old psychology Leontiev contrasts the Cartesian opposition "external - internal" with the thesis about the unity of the structure of external and internal processes, introducing the categorical pair "process-image". Leontiev develops the category of activity as a real (in the Hegelian sense) relation of a person to the world, which acts as the basis of this unity. This relationship is not in the strict sense individual, but indirectly through relationships with other people and socio-culturally developed forms of practice.

The structure of activity itself is sociogenic in nature. The idea that the formation mental processes and functions occur in activity and through activity, served as the basis for numerous experimental studies of the development and formation of mental functions in ontogenesis, carried out by Leontiev and his collaborators in the 1930s-60s. These studies laid the foundation for a number of innovative psychological and pedagogical concepts of developmental education and upbringing, which have become widespread in pedagogical practice in the last decade.

The period of the late 30s - early 40s also includes the development of Leontiev's well-known ideas about the structure and units of analysis of activity and consciousness. According to these ideas, three psychological levels are distinguished in the structure of activity: the actual activity (the act of activity), which is distinguished according to the criterion of its motive, actions, which are distinguished according to the criterion of orientation towards achieving conscious goals, and operations, which are correlated with the conditions for the implementation of the activity. For the analysis of consciousness, the dichotomy "meaning - personal meaning" introduced by Leontiev turned out to be fundamentally important, the first pole of which characterizes the "impersonal", universal, socio-culturally assimilated content of consciousness, and the second - its partiality, subjectivity, due to unique individual experience and the structure of motivation.

In the second half of the 1950-60s. Leontiev formulates the thesis about the systemic structure of the psyche and, following Vygotsky, develops the principle historical development mental functions. Practical and "internal" mental activity are not only one, but can pass from one form to another. In fact, we are talking about a single activity that can move from an external, expanded form to an internal, folded one (internalization) and vice versa (exteriorization), can simultaneously include proper mental and external (extracerebral) components.

In 1959, the first edition of Leontiev's book "Problems of the Development of the Psyche" was published, summarizing his work of the 1930-50s, for which he was awarded the Lenin Prize.

In the 1960s and 70s Leontiev continues to develop the "activity approach" or "general psychological theory of activity." He uses the apparatus of activity theory to analyze perception, thinking, mental reflection in the broad sense of the word. Considering them as active processes that have an activity nature made it possible to advance on new level their understanding. In particular, Leontiev put forward and supported by empirical data the hypothesis of assimilation, which states that in order to build sensory images, counter activity of the organs of perception is necessary.

In the late 1960s Leontiev addresses the problem of personality, considering it within the framework of unified system with activity and consciousness.

In 1975, Leontiev's book "Activity. Consciousness. Personality" was published, in which, summing up his work of the 60-70s, he sets out the philosophical and methodological foundations of psychology, seeks to "psychologically comprehend the categories that are most important for building an integral system psychology as a concrete science about the generation, functioning and structure of the mental reflection of reality, which mediates the life of individuals. The category of activity is introduced by Leontiev in this book as a way to overcome the "postulate of immediacy" of the impact of external stimuli on individual psyche, who found the most complete expression in the behaviorist formula "stimulus-response". Activity acts as a "molar, non-additive unit of the life of a bodily, material subject." The key feature of activity is its objectivity, in the understanding of which Leontiev relies on the ideas of Hegel and the early Marx. Consciousness is that which mediates and regulates the activity of the subject. It is multidimensional. Three main components are distinguished in its structure: sensory fabric, which serves as a material for constructing a subjective image of the world, a meaning that connects individual consciousness with social experience or social memory, and a personal meaning that connects consciousness with real life subject.

The basis for the analysis of the personality is also the activity, or rather the system of activities that carry out various relations of the subject with the world. Their hierarchy, or rather the hierarchy of motives or meanings, sets the structure of a person's personality. In the 1970s Leontiev again addresses the problems of perception and mental reflection, but in a different way. The key for him is the concept of the image of the world, which is primarily the idea of ​​the continuity of the perceived picture of reality and the images of individual objects. It is impossible to perceive a separate object without perceiving it in the integral context of the image of the world. This context sets the perceptual hypotheses that guide the process of perception and recognition. This area of ​​work has not had time to get any completion. Leontiev created an extensive scientific school in psychology, his work has had a marked influence on philosophers, educators, culturologists and representatives of other humanities.