In the speech flow, phrasal, clock and verbal stress is distinguished.
Word stress is the emphasis during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Word stress is one of the main external signs independent word. Service words and particles usually do not have an accent and are adjacent to independent words, making up one phonetic word with them: [under-mountain], [on-side], [that's it].
The Russian language is characterized by power (dynamic) stress, in which the stressed syllable stands out in comparison with non-stressed syllables with greater intensity of articulation, especially the vowel sound. A stressed vowel is always longer than its corresponding unstressed sound. Russian stress is different: it can fall on any syllable (exit, exit, exit). Variation of stress is used in Russian to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms ( about rgan - org but n) and individual forms of various words (m about yu - mo Yu), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of the word (х but os - ha about c) or attaches to the word stylistic coloring(young e c - m about well). The mobility and immobility of the stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: the stress or remains in the same place of the word (ogor about d, -a, -y, -om, -e, -s, -ov, etc.), or moves from one part of the word to another (g about genus, -a, -y, -om, -e; - but, -about in etc.). The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms (to at pite - kup And those n about gi - legs And etc.).
IN individual cases the difference in the place of verbal stress loses all meaning: cf .: tv about horn and creation about G, And nache and in but Che, about boo and about at x, etc.
Words can be unstressed or weakly stressed. Usually unaccented official words and particles, however, they sometimes take on stress, so that the preposition followed by an independent word has one stress: [n but-winter], [h but-city], [n about d-evening].
Weakly stressed can be disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, connectives to be and become, some of introductory words.
Some categories of words have, in addition to the main one, an additional, secondary stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one is in the second, for example: drêvner at ssky. These words include:
1) polysyllabic, as well as complex in composition (aircraft building e nie),
2) compound abbreviations (gôstelets e ntr),
3) words with prefixes after-, over-, archi-, trans-, anti-, etc. (transatlant And Czech, post-Oct I Brsky),
4) some foreign words (pôstskr And ptum, postf but ktum).
Bar stress is the emphasis in pronunciation of what is more important in semantic relation words within a speech tact. For example: Am I wandering | along noisy streets, | do I enter | to a crowded temple, | I'm sitting | between mad youths, | I surrender | my dreams (P.).
Phrasal stress is the allocation in the pronunciation of the most important word in the semantic sense within the utterance (phrase); such an accent is one of the clock. In the example above, the phrasal stress falls on the word dreams.
Clock and phrase stress is also called logical.
Phonetic words are combined into speech measures. speech beat - this connection is even more high rank. It consists of one or a group phonetic words, united by time stress. clock accent - this is an increase or decrease in the tone of voice on the stressed syllable of one of the words, highlighting the accent word against the background of neighboring ones.
The speech beat is a sound envelope syntagmas - the semantic unity of the explanatory and the explained.
Phrase consists of one or more speech measures. A phrase is a segment of the speech flow, which is characterized by intonational completeness.
notice, that sentence relates to the phrase in the same way as the beat to the syntagma.
Phrase creates phrasal stress. If the phrase consists of several measures, then the stress of one of them is the most significant. Most often, the most significant word in a phrase is characterized by the greatest duration of the stressed word. There is not always only one phrasal stress in a phrase. For example, on each component homogeneous series should be phrasal stress.
B.I. Osipov emphasizes that phrasal and bar stress have much in common: first of all, they are united by a function - highlighting the words that are most important in meaning, designing the actual division. Therefore, there is a need for a common name for both types of stress - logical stress (it is in this sense that this term is used by R.I. Avanesov, school grammar).
Unlike the logical emphatic stress is not just highlighting a word, but its special, deliberate underlining.
Tutorial B.I. Osipova (§14) makes it possible to study in more detail the question of the disorder of terminology associated with logical stress, as well as what subtypes emphatic stress is allocated by the author of this manual himself.
So, let's sum up. Our speech is not linear, but "two-linear": on the first "floor" of sounding speech - sounds and their sequence; on the second - supersegmental means (syllabic character of sound, stress, dierems, clock stress, intonation), which, layered on chains of sounds, form supersegmental units (syllables, phonetic words, speech measures, phrases).
In speech, the second "floor" is impossible without the first.
Interestingly, the same segment of speech can have different status(to be a syllable, a word, a speech tact). The status does not depend on the length of the segment, but on the number of super-segment funds imposed on this segment: [ bra "t - kə]- stressed syllable; [ mo "jbra "t ] is a phonetic word with verbal stress; [ bra""t / pr'ije"həl dΛmo"j] – speech measure with time stress.
Questions and tasks:
Exercise 1. What units are called supersegment? Name the supersegment means that form them. What supersegmental means is involved in the creation of a phonetic word? Does the phonetic word always coincide with the word in lexical sense?
Transcribe by isolating enclitics and proclitics. What part of speech words usually play this role? Can function words carry verbal stress?
October has already come - the grove is already shaking off the last leaves from its naked branches.
Round, not a month, yellow, not butter, with a tail, not a mouse (riddle).
Task 2. Match the phonetic word and beat. What is the qualitative difference between verbal and bar stress? How is a phrase divided into speech measures? How arbitrary is this division? Name formally - grammatical features such a division. Are the statements true that a) the boundaries of speech measures are always marked by pauses; b) how many tone changes are in a phrase, so many speech measures are in it; in) bar stress Is it the same as syntagmatic? Divide sentences into bars. Make sure that the meaning of the sentence changes depending on the location of the boundary.
It cannot be allowed.
How struck his brother's words.
He remembered very clearly every minute of that day.
On this warm, quiet evening, I did not want to talk about anything, only to be silent, silent and think.
Task 3. What role does logic play? Come up with contexts in which the logical stress will fall on the highlighted words, for example:
I am always pleased to see you.
Task 4. What is intonation in the narrow and broad sense? What semantic load does intonation carry in Russian speech? Prove that intoonemes are units of the phonological system of the modern Russian language.
a) Read the sentences with correct intonation:
He returned (1).
What about his comrades? (4)
Where can we keep up with them!(6)
When did he return? (2)
Is he back?(3)
When did they all have time? (7)
How much they saw!(5)
B) Come up with contexts that would justify the use of the phrase Who doesn't know this with IC - 1, IC - 2, IC - 3, IC - 4.
C) Transcribe the text. Insert missing phrase boundary characters. Define IC types. Highlight the boundaries of speech measures. Check possible options pronunciation of individual sounds.
Who did not curse the stationmasters, who did not scold them, who in a moment of anger did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write in it their useless complaint of oppression, rudeness and malfunction, who does not consider them monsters of the human race equal to the deceased clerk or at least Let us be fair to the Murom robbers, however, let us try to enter into their position and perhaps we will begin to judge them much more condescendingly.
ACTIVITY 7
SYLLABLE PRINCIPLE OF RUSSIAN GRAPHICS*
Literature:
Zinder L.R. Feature article general theory letters. - L., 1987.
Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling. - M., 1991. S. 10-77. section "Graphics".
Osipov B.I. History of Russian writing. - Omsk, 1990. S. 18 - 40 ("History of Graphics").
Russian language. Encyclopedia. - M., 1997. S.339 - 344. Article "Letter".
1. The concept of writing. Letter types.
Writing arose from the need of a person to communicate something in a situation where this cannot be done with the help of sounds or gestures. The letter was supposed not only to replace the oral form of speech, but also to reflect it.
The letter, writes Zinder, is code view, which converts an acoustic signal into an optical one. The set of elements of this code is called the alphabet, and the elements themselves are called letters. The obligatory property of the code is conditionality: the code is created consciously as a result of an agreement, and it can be changed arbitrarily (now, for example, the issue of translation is being seriously discussed Tatar language from Cyrillic to Latin).
In other words, letter - This is a sign system for fixing speech with the help of graphic elements, which allows you to transmit information at a distance and fix it in time.
Depending on whether what is an object of a graphic sign (undivided speech, word, syllable, phoneme) distinguish two types of writing with several subtypes.
oldest view letters - pictography, those. drawing letter. Pictography conveys the content of the message as a whole, not through individual language units, and does not report anything about the sound side of the language, does not reflect the grammatical relationships between words. The pictogram can be read as a word. Suggestion, multiple suggestions. All these facts allow some scientists, for example, I.M. Dyakonov, to deny pictography the right to be called a letter. It is impossible to fully agree with this opinion, because. the reasons for the emergence of pictography are the same as for another type of writing: the inability to use the oral form of speech. At the same time, of course, a certain idea is conveyed in a picture letter beyond at least a primitive speech design.
The pictograph has been replaced hieroglyphic writing, or logography. It is similar to pictography in that it does not reflect the plan of expression in any way, but differs in that it correlates with the plan of content, the concept.
For example, the character for "sun" reflects the concept of "sun" in both Chinese and Japanese, but does not indicate how to read it, so the Japanese and Chinese voice it in their own way. If a hieroglyph or a concept designated by it is unknown to a person, then he will not be able to read such a hieroglyph and will not be able to perceive it as a concept.
Hieroglyphics appeared in that period of language development, when word.
place, both pictography and logography are called ideography(translated from Greek - "I write the meaning").
Currently, of the most famous hieroglyphic systems (ancient Egyptian, Sumerian, Cretan, ancient Chinese, Maya), there are Chinese and Japanese derivatives from it. The Chinese letter also spread in Korea, but it turned out to be inconvenient due to a different grammatical structure. Therefore, in Korea there is also the letter "kunmun" (letter), along with the hieroglyphic.
Hieroglyphics has some advantages: the international nature of logograms, a smaller number of characters in a segment of text compared to alphabetic writing. Among the disadvantages of hieroglyphics are the multiplicity of signs (up to hundreds of thousands), the difficulty in mastering reading.
The second type of letter is phonography ( translated from Greek - "I write the sound"). This type of writing conveys not only the content, but also the sound side of significant language units(words, morphemes).
Phonographic writing arose at that stage in the development of the language, when the division of the word into syllables and sounds arose.
The phonographic letter, depending on what is the object of the graphic sign, is divided into syllabography(this is an earlier type of writing, its object is a syllable) and phonemography(its object is a phoneme, it is an alpha-sound writing). Interestingly, the term "phonography" is used as a synonym for the term "phonemography" because of its simplicity.
So let's conclude from the above.
There are two types of writing - ideography and phonography. Ideography is divided into pictography and logography (hieroglyphics). Phonography is divided into syllabography and phonemography.
3. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
Alphabet - this is a set of graphic signs arranged in a certain order - letters used when writing in a particular language (definition by V.F. Ivanova).
Another definition is given by L.R. Zinder: an alphabet is an inventory of letters used in the written code of a given language. Zinder believes that in theory the order of the alphabet is not necessary, so he does not include it in the definition. In fact, orderliness is needed only for vocabulary and for memorizing letters in learning.
Each letter in the modern alphabet is presented in four versions: two printed (lowercase and uppercase) and two handwritten (lowercase and uppercase). These "variants" of letters (more precisely, the letters themselves) are called allographs one graphemes(compare: allophones of one phoneme).
grapheme is an abstract unit of the alphabet that has four forms of expression.
Letter, or grapheme, is a sign (as opposed to a phoneme) that has signified(phonemes or combinations of phonemes transmitted in writing) and signifying(inscription), the relationship between which conditional.
The letter has, as a rule, several sound meanings, i.e. conveys several different phonemes in writing. This is a consequence of the discrepancy between the number of letters of the alphabet and the number of phonemes.
Letter values are not equal. Some meanings are basic, others are secondary, or additional (A.N. Gvozdev calls them “substitute”). For example, the letter "Be" has four meanings: struggle - [b], running -, timid - [p], swell -.
How to find out which of the meanings of the letter is basic and which is not? Zinder writes about this: "The name of the letter, which is associated with its function in a strong position, indicates the main meaning." Osipov offers a "reliable" way to determine the basic meaning of a letter: the basic is the meaning that it retains, regardless of the nature of the rule. The value stipulated by the rule is optional.
For example, in the words "fight" and "running" the spelling is not determined by the rules, therefore, the main meanings of the grapheme "Be" are presented here. But the words "timid" and "swell" obey the rule, therefore, these are non-basic meanings.
Via 33 letters Russian alphabet (10 vowels, 21 consonants, ъ and ь signs) are indicated 42 phonemes of the Russian language (if we consider Ш as a separate phoneme).
In alphabetical order unambiguous letters letters (c, y, d), two-digit(i, l, m, u, etc.). It only counts main the meanings of the letters, otherwise the letters could be multi-valued.
A serious theoretical question for any alphabet is the question of the necessary and sufficient number of letters of the alphabet.
It is believed that the ratio "one phoneme - one letter" is not always desirable and uneconomical.
Yes, in Slavic languages letters would be needed to designate hard, soft, voiced, deaf consonants.
This is the main issue that is being addressed in the second category of writing - charts.
4. Restrictions and Violations syllable principle Russian graphics.
Graphics(from the Greek “I write”) is a set of general rules on the appointment of written characters (letters), a system of relationships between letters and phonemes in a text.
The question of the necessity and sufficient number of letters of the alphabet was already raised by Baudouin; he intended to derive a mathematical formula for the rational construction of the alphabet, but did not derive it. The formula was deduced by Nikolai Fedorovich Yakovlev (1926, publication - 1928) and called it "the formula for constructing the most economical (in terms of pure letters) alphabet."
This formula is universal. You can learn more about this formula from the book by V.F. Ivanova “Modern Russian Spelling” (p. 38 - 40).
The economy of the construction of the Russian alphabet is achieved by the fact that one hundred differential signs of softness and hardness in consonant phonemes are indicated by subsequent vowels.
This method of Russian writing is called syllabic (V.A. Bogoroditsky’s term), or syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
So, the graphic syllable acts as a unit of reading and writing.
The combination of consonant and vowel letters is an integral graphic element, "letter combination", both parts of which are mutually conditioned. Both vowels and consonants are written and read taking into account neighboring letters.
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics in relation to consonants: an indication of the hardness and softness of a consonant is carried out in writing by the subsequent vowel letter (foam, foam). At the end of words and before a consonant, softness is denoted by "b" (kon, horse).
In Russian there are softening (indicate the softness of the consonant - i, e, e, u, i) and non-softening (indicate the hardness of the consonant - a, o, u, e, s) vowels. Thus, 4 "extra" vowels exist in Russian instead of 16 special consonants.
The differential sign of hardness at the end of words and between consonants is indicated by the absence of "ь" at the end of a word or after a hard consonant.
The syllabic principle of graphics in relation to vowels is carried out as follows: vowels are read taking into account neighboring letters. So, the letters e, e, u, i, and not only softening, but also iotized. There are positions where the vowels e, e, u, i, and denote two phonemes:
And after b: nightingale;
E, e, yu, i: a) at the absolute beginning of the word (yula, spruce, tree, pit)
b) after vowels (reading, clown, sing, sing);
c) after b and b (congress, tenant, blizzard, withdraw).
The letter y denotes a minor shade of the phoneme
So, the vowels e, e, u, i, and are two-valued, and, o, e, y, s are single-valued.
There are limitations and deviations in the application of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
Restrictions, according to V.F. Ivanova, these are cases of violation of the syllabic principle, when it is powerless as a law: it cannot prevent the inevitability of spelling variation.
Restrictions include:
a) the choice of a / / i, u / / u, e / / e after hissing and c;
b) the choice of s / / and after hissing and c;
c) the choice of e / / o after hissing and c.
Let's explain these limitations.
a) Reading unpaired hard w, w, c and unpaired soft h, u does not depend on the subsequent vowel.
Ch, u are already soft, they don’t need an additional designation of softness, w, w, c are always hard, and writing I, u after such consonants is irrational. Therefore, selected rational option- a, y (compare the borrowed Saint-Just, jury, Zurich, where "u" denotes the softness of pronunciation).
The choice of e after the hissing and c from the pair e//e is also rational. Consonants before the sound [e] in Russian are usually soft, according to the laws of the Russian language, hard consonants in borrowed words can also become soft. Therefore, the letter e turns out to be more “targeted” at a special function. She emphasizes an unusual hardness for the Russian language: plein air. But x, w, ts do not require a special hardness indicator, so it is logical to write the more commonly used letter e.
b) The letters s / / and denote alternating phonemes. At the same time, after zh.sh, ts, you can write both “s” and “and” - only “s” will be read, but the spellings “chyn, swords, shchy” are almost unreadable. Thus, after h, u you can write only "and". And since h, u already combined in spelling with a, y, e with w, sh, it is advisable to choose from a pair of s / / and spelling with and (the spelling “zhi / / shi” does not interfere with the correct pronunciation).
Certain morphological correspondences interfere with complete analogy in writing and after q (for more details, see Ivanova, p. 107).
c) In the case of e / / o after hissing and c, the choice of letter is dictated by spelling rules. Their appearance is a necessity caused by the special position of hissing and q in the system of consonant phonemes (their unpaired hardness/softness). The syllabic principle here is unable to "dictate" the conditions of writing, and the issue is resolved within the framework of spelling.
Now let's turn to retreats from the syllable principle.
Deviations are those cases of violation of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics, when it can be observed, but not observed.
These violations include:
a) The designation of iota in borrowed words (the internationally accepted graphic appearance of the word is preserved): iodine, iot, New York, Yemeni, major, district, mayonnaise, foyer, fireworks (compare: major, rayon).
Or: writing "o" instead of "e" after "b" (broth, shignoe, guillotine).
b) Writing e after the letters denoting solid sounds(in borrowed words not assimilated by the Russian language - the spelling "in advance"): requiem, muffler, cafe, highway. Compare already assimilated words with soft pronunciation: theme, plywood, cream, pioneer.
Until 1956, there were many vacillating spellings in print (adequate, bacon). After the reform of 1956, the spelling with “e” was left only in three common nouns (peer, sir, mayor) and the same root with them.
A special question: new borrowings like “happy ending and happy ending are options; common nouns from proper names - Thatcherism; words formed from the names of letters - kaveen, menes, chepe.
c) Writing e after vowels and at the beginning of a word without indicating iotation due to fluctuations in pronunciation: project, diet, ekane (pronounced sometimes with j, sometimes without it).
d) The syllabic principle does not work in writing complex abbreviated words: village executive committee, communication publisher, glavyuvelirtorg, ministry of justice, foreign language.
These words are read as a chain of separate words with the preservation of the laws of reading at the junctions of words.
Thus, we conclude: the syllabic principle of Russian graphics operates only within words, but does not operate even on the border of abbreviated words.
So, graphics- the second component of the letter as a whole (the first component, I recall, was the alphabet).
Exercise 1. Find in the text deviations from the syllabic principle of Russian graphics. Give spellings that would match it.
1) Even an esthetician is amazed by your erudition in the field of impressionistic painting.
2) During the search, the police seized books and pamphlets of revolutionary organizations that were not allowed by the censors.
3) Only an iron will to live gave the young man the strength to fight a serious illness.
4) Works in pastel and gouache look more interesting than overly careful pencil drawings.
Task 2. There are two ways to read abbreviations: 1) read like a regular word, i.e. spelled out; 2) create a word by adding the names of letters, i.e. read each letter in the abbreviation as a syllable. For example, the name of the Moscow Art Theater (Moscow Art Theater) used to be read more in the second way, though not completely (it should have been read as uh-ha-te), but after the theater was given the title of academic, its name, retaining the old sound, began to be read according to the first method (like the Moscow Art Theater).
Find in these abbreviations those that read like ordinary words, and those in which the letters have become signs of a syllabary. What is usually associated with the difference in reading abbreviations? Give a phonetic transcription of abbreviations and show division into syllables using syllabic divisions. Does it match the letter names?
USSR, VLKSM, GUM, MTS, ZhSK, Moscow State University, Vocational School, Youth Theater, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, MIMO, RUDN, MGPI, MISI, NEP, HPP, KVN, USA.
Task 3. A. In these lines of poetry by I. Annensky, find all cases of the realization of the phoneme
B. In example 2, explain the use cases b. What "work" is this letter doing here? In all cases, is its use dictated by the rules of graphics?
1. I fell in love with your crazy impulse,
But you can't be you and me at the same time,
And, revealing hieroglyphs of prophetic dreams
Patterned I write a clear phrase.
2. You say ... Here happiness beats
A wing clinging to a flower,
But a moment - and it will rise up
Irrevocable and light.
And the heart, maybe dearer
The arrogance of consciousness
Sweeter flour, if in it
There is a subtle poison of remembrance.
ACTIVITY 8
RUSSIAN SPELLING AND ITS PRINCIPLES*
Literature:
Gvozdev A.N. Fundamentals of Russian spelling. - M., 1954.
Gvozdev A.N. Selected works in spelling and phonetics. - M., 1963, p.213 - 251.
Zinder L.R. Essay on the general theory of writing. - L., 1987, p.89 - 111 (sections "Spelling", "The problem of improving writing").
Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling. - M., 1991.
Osipov B.I. History of Russian writing, - Omsk, 1990 (chapter 2 "History of spelling").
Reference materials:
1. The concept of spelling, spelling.
Spelling(from the Greek “I write correctly”) is a set of rules for writing that meets the standards of the literary language.
Russian spelling is divided into 5 sections:
1) rules for the transmission of sounds (phonemes) by letters as part of words and morphemes;
2) rules on continuous, semi-fused (hyphenated) and separate spellings of words;
3) rules for the use of uppercase (large) and lowercase (small) letters;
4) rules for transferring words from one line to another;
5) rules for graphic abbreviation of words.
spelling- this is the spelling chosen or still sought, in the case where the writer is given a choice of letters to designate a particular sound (phoneme).
Phonemes in weak positions can be designated in different ways, but, firstly, the choice of letters for their designation is limited to certain limits, and secondly, this choice is made on the basis of guidelines. principles those. guiding ideas the choice of letters by a native speaker where the sound (phoneme) can be designated variably.
In strong positions, sounds (phonemes) are indicated by each his letter, here we do not solve spelling problems. An exception is the designation of vowels after hissing and c.
2. Principles of Russian spelling. morphological principle.
So, the possible principles of Russian spelling:
BUT) phonetic- letters are written according to pronunciation (this principle prevails in Serbo-Croatian orthography);
B) traditional- they write as they wrote before (example - English spelling);
IN) morphological- a consequence of understanding the structural articulation of the word according to its significant parts (morphemes). This principle results in a uniform transmission of these parts in writing.
In addition to these principles, one can use differentiation writing ( ideographic principle), for example burn - burn. A.N. Gvozdev calls this not a principle, but writing.
Leading the principle of Russian spelling, which determines most spellings, is morphological, or, in Zinder's terminology, morphematic principle. Its definition is given by V.F. Ivanova: “This is such a principle of designation of positionally alternating phonemes, which preserves the graphic uniformity of the morpheme; to achieve this goal, phonemes in weak positions are denoted by letters that are adequate to phonemes strong positions”(On the history of the formation of the morphological principle - see Ivanova, pp. 93 - 108).
In addition to the designation of phonemes of weak positions, the morphological principle sometimes regulates the designation of phonemes of strong positions in those cases when, in strong positions, the graph provides an opportunity to choose letters. This happens when designating vowels after sibilants and ц, and the choice itself is made on the basis of graphic trimming of morphemes with sibilants and ц to morphemes with non-sibilants of the same meaning. For example: black, not black, because. blacken; saves, not saves, because carries etc.
3. Violations and limitations of the morphological principle.
However, there are cases in Russian violations And restrictions morphological principle of spelling.
Violations:
1. Two instead of three consonants, one instead of two consonants:
A) the junction of the prefix and the suffix: quarrel and get angry are written the same way, because in Russian there are only two degrees of longitude. Long consonants in writing convey double letters. Identical consonants can be transmitted different letters(sew, compress), possibly underlined morphological spelling(ignited).
B) the junction of the root and the suffix: bath - bathroom is written in the same way as long, although it should be in the word "bathroom" -nnn-. At the junction of the root and the suffix, truncation to one consonant is possible, for example, a five-tone, crystal, finca, etc.
2. The tabular, grainy, getter do not correspond to the morphological principle (tch is written instead of tsch, chch, because this combination of letters is not accepted in Russian words (cf. foreign language capriccio).
3. A violation of the morphological principle is the presence of spellings corresponding to the phonetic principle.
It is necessary to distinguish from violations of the morphological principle spellings that also do not preserve the unity of the graphic appearance of morphemes, but do not preserve this unity absolutely irresistibly. They are called restrictions morphological principle (they were identified by A.N. Gvozdev). These include:
A) spellings associated with historical alternations of the type run - run, friend - friends, laughter - funny, watch - consider;
B) spellings caused by the syllabic principle of Russian graphics, for example ash - earth, solemn - quiet.
So, in these examples, the uniform spelling of morphemes is not observed, but in neither case there are spellings, these are cases that are outside the competence of spelling principles.
4. Other principles of Russian spelling (general characteristics).
Phonetic principle -"Write as you hear." Another definition is such a principle of designating phonemes when phonemes of weak positions are indicated by letters that are adequate to these phonemes. Baudouin called such spellings "phonemography"; the term "phonemic principle" is used by Maslov, Zinder, Selezneva.
The phonetic principle is opposed to the morphological one; if deemed appropriate, one can always replace phonetic spellings with morphological ones. Therefore, spellings according to the phonetic principle are violations of the morphological principle. The following orthograms correspond to the phonetic principle:
A) spelling of prefixes on z / s (morphologically always "z"). This principle is not fully preserved even within the framework of this spelling, see the words "tasteless", "ruthless", "reckless";
B) the spelling of the prefixes "roses / times" - "rose / races". There was an exception "search, detective" but the 1991 dictionary already gives "search, detective";
C) s in place and at the root after prefixes ending in a solid consonant, for example, unprincipled. The exception is words with foreign prefixes, with the prefixes "between" and "over". Until 1956, s was written only in Russian words, so there was an idealess, uninteresting prehistory.
The spelling reform of 1956 regularized these spellings.
D) O in suffixes after hissing in a strong position (morphologically it should be “e” - owlet, mouse).
We emphasize that spellings such as bitches, country, gender, hold, etc. are not phonetic, because in some of them there are simply no spellings (hold, gender), while in others the spelling is based on morphological comparisons (females - bitches, country - countries).
Traditional the principle of spelling in Russian is such a principle that phonemes in weak positions are designated by one of a number of letters that are phonologically possible to designate a given phoneme (phonemic-traditional principle).
Traditional spellings include:
B) alternating roots o//a, e//i;
C) traditional hieroglyphic spellings, where not by pronunciation they designate phonemes of strong positions, for example, the ending -th / / - it in place - va; -ch in place -sh.
In Russian, you need to know where to write -shn, and where -chn, for example, a city worker, but a trifle - an assistant instead of writing an assistant;
D) traditional historical spellings: kind, brittle, quiet, strict, although according to the morphological principle - expensive, raw (for a historical commentary on this spelling, see Ivanova, pp. 123 - 124);
E) traditional etymological spellings - are preserved etymologically, but in the modern Russian language they are archaic, non-systemic, conflict with similar, but systemic spellings: "b" (jump, you see. Doing) - here "b" is etymological; cheboty, bangs - there are no examples of alternations in modern Russian, but etymologically there are the words "chelo", "chebotar".
Peripheral is the principle of graphic-morphological analogies. It includes the spellings: "b" to equalize the paradigms of the 3rd declension (shoal - quiet); imperative mood(suspension - cut off); infinitive (to do - to save). Read more about this principle in the referenced literature.
Exercise 1. Give examples of Russian words, the spelling of which is observed: 1.phonetic principle of writing; 2. morphemic-phonemic principle of writing (4-5 examples).
Task 2. If in a number of words there is a change of phonemes within the same morpheme, then what in this case, the Russian spelling conveys:
identity of morphemes or change of phonemes? Give examples of such words.
Task 3. A. Which of these words do not correspond in their spelling to the rules of Russian graphics? The leading principle of Russian spelling? B. On the basis of what principle of spelling are these words written? What letters violate the phonemic principle of Russian spelling here? How can one explain the specifics of such writings?
My, major, adjutant, New York, mayonnaise, mayonnaise, maya, broth, beacon, yogi, south, iotated, happiness, scatter, July, find, transcription, match, grammar, jump, black, today, sewed.
QUESTIONS FOR THE PHONETICS EXAM
1. The subject of phonetics. The connection of sound with meaning. sound and phoneme. Phonetics and phonology.
2. Articulatory classification of vowels and consonants.
3. Sound, allophone, phoneme. Strong and weak positions. Neutralization. Differential and integral signs of phonemes.
4. Composition and system of vowel phonemes. The question of the phonemic independence of the phoneme<у>.
5. Vowels in the flow of speech. Vowel reduction. Reduction levels. Potebny's formula. The concept of vowel accommodation.
6. Composition and system of consonant phonemes.
7. Consonants in the flow of speech.
8. The concept of alternation. Positional (neophonetic) and historical (paleophonetic) alternations.
9. Positional alternation of vowel and consonant phonemes in modern Russian.
10. Historical alternations vowel and consonant phonemes.
11. Supersegmental units of language. Syllable.
12. Phonetic word. Tact. Phrase. Word, clock, phrasal stress. Logical and emphatic stress.
13. Intonation. Types of intonational constructions in the modern phonetic system.
14. Russian graphics. The principle of Russian graphics (syllabic).
15. Deviations and limitations of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
16. Russian spelling. Principles of Russian spelling.
17. Violations and limitations of the morphological principle of Russian spelling.
word stress is called the selection during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Word stress is endowed with an organizing function. A group of syllables connected by a common stress forms a special phonetic unit. It's called a phonetic word, for example: [gl ^ vá] head, [ná (glvu] on the head. Within the framework of a phonetic word, the stressed syllable is the reference point, in relation to which the nature of the pronunciation of other syllables is determined. Unstressed words can behave differently. Some of them, they obey the usual rules for pronunciation of sounds: [da_sád] to the garden (cf.: [d^sád] annoyance); [l 'e´j_kj] lei-ka (cf.: [l 'e´jkj] watering can). Others , despite being unstressed, retain some phonetic signs of an independent word... They may, for example, contain vowels that are uncharacteristic of unstressed syllables: [shto(nám] what to us (cf.: [pants] pantsam); [t'e(l' isá] - those forests (cf.: [t'l'isá] body). Verbal stress is one of the main external features of an independent word. Service words and particles usually do not have stress and are adjacent to independent words, making up one phonetic word with them : [under-mountain], [on-side], [here-that-time]. The Russian language is characterized by power (dynamic) stress, in which the stressed syllable stands out in comparison with the unstressed ones with greater tension of articulation, especially the vowel sound. A stressed vowel is always longer than its corresponding unstressed sound. In Russian, the stress is different - it is not assigned to a syllable defined in a row: light (the emphasis falls on the first syllable), brighten (the emphasis falls on the second syllable), firefly (the emphasis falls on the last syllable). In this way, Russian accent can fall on any syllable (exit, exit, exit). The diversity of stress is used in Russian to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms (organ - organ) and individual forms of various words (my - mine), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of the word (chaos - chaos) or gives the word a stylistic coloring (well done - well done). Stress norms for most words in Russian are contained in spelling dictionary. The mobility and immobility of the stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: the stress either remains in the same place of the word (garden, -a, -y, -om, -e, -s, -ov, etc. .), or moves from one part of the word to another (city, -a, -y, -om, -e; -a, -ov, etc.). The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms (buy - buy, legs - legs, etc.). In some cases, the difference in the place of verbal stress loses all meaning: cf .: cottage cheese and cottage cheese, differently and differently, butt and butt, etc. Words can be unstressed or weakly stressed. Functional words and particles are usually devoid of stress, but they sometimes take on stress, so that the preposition with the independent word following it has one stress: [in winter], [out of town], [under-evening]. Weakly impacted can be disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, connectives to be and become, some of the introductory words. Some categories of words have, in addition to the main one, an additional, secondary stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one is in the second, for example: Old Russian. These words include words: 1) polysyllabic, as well as complex in composition (aircraft building), 2) complex abbreviated (gostelecenter), 3) words with prefixes after-, super-, archi-, trans-, anti-, etc. (transatlantic , post-October), 4) some foreign words (postscript, post factum).
Phrase, clock and logical stress. Clitics.
Phrase stress - highlighting one of the words in a phrase by strengthening the word stress that combines different words in one sentence. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech tact (syntagma): There is an initial autumn / short, / but marvelous time / /.
Bar Accent- highlighting one of the words in the speech tact (syntagma) by strengthening the word stress, which combines different words into one syntagma. The syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the speech tact: There is an initial / short / but marvelous time in autumn / /. The speech tact usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech uttered by one pressure of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of the speech tact as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonational design. On the stressed syllable of the word as part of the speech tact, the intonation center is concentrated - the tact stress: On dry aspen / gray crow / ... Each speech tact is formed by one of the intonational structures. The speech tact is sometimes called a syntagma. The main means of dividing into syntagmas is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced drastic changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last one) is characterized by the strongest stress (In logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma). The phrase usually stands out, contains several speech measures, but the boundaries of the phrase and measure may coincide: Night. // The outside. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy // (Block). The selection of speech measures can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine and Field/behind the ravine.
word stress- a type of stress defined within a word and consisting in the selection of one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (clock), syllabic stress. S. at. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish. Within the beat (less often - phrases) there are two types of clock (phrasal) stress, depending on the functions - logical and emphatic. logical stress- an accent that allows any word in a phrase to be made a semantic center. emphatic stress- To characterize the emotional expressiveness of the word Shcherba introduced the term "emphatic stress". This stress "puts forward" and enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the affective state of the speaker in connection with a particular word. Briefly, the difference between logical and emphatic stress can be formulated as follows: logical stress draws attention to a given word, and emphatic stress makes it emotionally rich. In the first case, the intention of the speaker is manifested, and in the second, an immediate feeling is expressed.
In Russian, emphatic stress consists in a greater or lesser lengthening of the stressed vowel: the most beautiful worker, a wonderful work of art.
clitic- a word (for example, a pronoun or a particle), grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent. Clitics, by definition, are, in particular, all words that do not make up a syllable (for example, the prepositions в, к, с). Clitics can join the stressed word form of any one part of speech (for example, Romance pronominal forms in indirect cases- only to the verb) or to word forms of any part of speech (such are Russian particles, are they); the latter are called transcategorical.
16. The concept of Russian intonation, its means, types, functions.
Intonation- this is a set of rhythmic-melodic components of speech: melody, intensity, duration, tempo of speech and timbre.
Elements of intonation:
1) melodic speech - the main component of intonation, raising - lowering the voice in a phrase (cf., the pronunciation of interrogative and declarative sentences);
2) rhythm speech - regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables. The rhythm of speech serves to organize poetic and prose texts;
3) volume speech - the strength or weakness of pronouncing an utterance (cf. the different intensity of speech at a rally and in a room);
4) pace speech - the speed of pronunciation (sounds, syllables, words), the speed of the flow of speech, the duration of the sound of speech in time (for example, by the end of the utterance, the pace of speech slows down,
segments containing secondary information are pronounced quickly, informatively significant segments are pronounced in slow motion);
5) timbre speech - the sound coloring of speech, conveying its emotionally expressive shades (for example, intonation of distrust, playful intonation, etc.).
intonation functions.
1) A means of formalizing an utterance, revealing its meaning. With the help of intonation, the speech flow is divided into semantic segments (cf. intonation of completeness and incompleteness of a sentence).
2) Distinguishes types of statements according to purposefulness (cf. intonation of motivation, question, narration, etc.).
3) Conveys syntactic relations between parts of a sentence or sentences (cf. intonation of enumeration, explanation, comparison).
4) Expresses emotional coloring (cf. exclamatory intonation, non-exclamatory).
5) Reveals the subtext of the statement (a special meaning that does not follow from the meanings of words).
6) Characterizes the speaker and the communication situation as a whole (emotionally neutral, elevated tone, mystery, secrecy, importance, intimacy).
16. Emphasis. word stress
Stress - the allocation by any acoustic means of one of the components of speech:
A syllable as part of a phonetic word is word stress,
Words in the syntagma - logical stress,
Syntagms in the composition of the phrase - syntagmatic stress.
In Russian beats gl-th differs from unstressed forces-mi, quantity and quality of characteristics
ami. On average, a stressed vowel is 1.5-2 times longer than an unstressed one. The stress can be on any syllable and any part of words (rule, alphabet, bourgeoisie); in different grammatical forms of the same word, the stress can move from one syllable to another (leg - leg, accepted - accepted). Nevertheless, there are certain patterns: for example, in Russian (unlike modern Church Slavonic, which is close to it), the “th” / “th” ending cannot be stressed. Some compound words, as well as words with prefixes anti-, inter -, near-, counter-, super-, super-, ex-, etc., can have, in addition to the main one, side (or secondary) stress. The secondary stress is usually the first in order (closer to the beginning of the word), and the main stress is the second (closer to the end of the word): perjury, near-earth, vice president.
17. Phrase, clock, logical stress
French - creates a general rhythmic pattern of the phrase. A syntagma is a group of words representing a single semantic whole for a given context. The background syntagma is framed. For example, A tall, leggy blonde / passed by. 2 syntagmas, basically each has a single meaning. Syntagmatic stress is associated with division into syntagmas. The meaning of the statement depends on this. Recently / a visiting doctor appeared in the press. A recently arrived doctor / spoke in print. Related to the question of the articulation of syntagmas is the question of unuded words (clitics).
Logical ud-nie - a means of semantic allocation of any significant unit of the statement. Superimposed on the obligatory verbal stress, L. u. usually enhances the phonetic characteristics of the word, emphasizing information that is new or controversial for one of the interlocutors. For example, in the phrase "Your sister has come" L. u. can select any of the three words.
A speech beat is a part of a phonetic phrase, limited by a small pause and characterized by intonation incompleteness. Grammatically, the speech tact correlates with the common members of the sentence. If the speech tact consists of several phonetic words, the selection of one of the words (the most important) within the speech tact is called sigmatic stress.
Phrasal stress is the selection in the speech flow of the most important word in the semantic sense, such stress is one of the clock ones.
18. The concept of orthoepy. Russian literal pronunciation in his
East development
Orthoepy is literally the correct pronunciation. 1) R.o. is a section of the science of language, devoted to the norms of literary production and 2) R.o. - cos-st of the rules of normative literary pronunciation. The science that studies the variation of production norms of r.i. and develop pronounce recommendations. Orthoepy: 1. sound design of words. 2. pronunciation of a group of words (leg by foot) 3. pronunciation of separate gram. forms. 4. accentology.
Important language features were formed back in the 1st half of the 17th century as part of spoken language St. Petersburg has been competing with Moscow since the 18th century. This struggle continued into the 19th century. Now the pronunciation of Mi L is almost the same
19. Orthoepic norm. Norm options. Pronunciation styles.
Trends in the development of Russian lit. pronunciation
Orph.norm is understood as the only possible or preferred pronunciation option compared to others that are less consistent with the pronunciation system. normative scale: 1st level - a word without options (guardianship, alcohol). 2nd - equal options ("and") sparkling, flooded, lattice. 3rd - one is the main option, the second is acceptable ('gave - additional gave').
The unifying style is determined by the function of the system of language elements. You can distinguish between pronunciation styles: neutral, high, colloquial.
20. The concept of vocabulary and lexicology. Word. Lex. and gram-e
word meanings
L.-section of linguistics, from the vocabulary of the language, vocabulary. In a broader sense, see L.-the doctrine of words and stable phrases. Vuzkom, L. deals only with words. Allocate description and diahr-th L. + comparison. The word of the main structural-semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their St.S. Word-th Ur-n-roots-base for creating new words. Morph-th Ur-n-words form certain system groups.
According to the method of nomination: 1. independent, 2. service, 3. pronominal, 4. interjection.
According to the phonetic feature: single-beat, unstressed (clitics), multi-beat
By morphic feature: changeable, unchangeable.
S. have lex. and gram. values. L. the meaning of the word reflects one or another phenomenon of reality, character single word and individuate him; G.meaning-character of it as an element of a certain grammatical class.
21. Lex types. values
1) according to the degree of semantic motivation: involuntary / arbitrary
2) according to the method of nomination (direct, figurative) 3) if possible, lexical compatibility or type of relation between words 4) according to the nature of the functions performed.
22. Single-valued words. The phenomenon of polysemy. Transfer types
word meanings
One-word words - a clearly defined subject correlation (terms, tree names, property names.) Polysemy - the property of words to have several meanings. different items and real phenomena
23. System relations in vocabulary. Synonymy. Blue row.
Synonym types
Between the words that form the vocabulary of the language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express and in their phonetic design, i.e. by the similarity of their sound composition. From this point of view, three types of systemic relations between words are observed in the vocabulary of the Russian language: homonymous (coincidence of the sound of words with different meanings), synonymous (identity or similarity of the meaning of words with a complete difference in their sound), antonymic (opposite meaning of words with a difference in their sound ).S.-type of semantic relations jz \u003d x units, consisting in the complete or partial coincidence of their meanings. Types of synonyms: different sides or different degrees manifestations (fear-horror); - stylistic; - semantic-stylistic; semantic style
24. System relations in vocabulary. Antonymy. Antonym types
Between the words that form the vocabulary of the language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express and in their phonetic design, i.e. by the similarity of their sound composition. From this point of view, three types of systemic relations between words are observed in the vocabulary of the Russian language: homonymous (coincidence of the sound of words with different meanings), synonymous (identity or similarity of the meaning of words with a complete difference in their sound), antonymic (opposite meaning of words with a difference in their sound ).A.-yaz.phenomenon, reflecting the ratio of yz-x units with the opposite value. 2 types: - counter-A. (words with full opposite meaning) and complementary A. (between lexemes, which occupy an intermediate position)
In previous articles, we have already mentioned how to concretize your speech in English and make it more expressive. Having discussed the types of vocabulary, we have not considered such an aspect of the language as pronunciation.
Unfortunately, teachers in schools rarely pay attention to him. Of course, it is impossible to be able to explain to a group of students about the intricacies of prosody and practice intonation or phrasal stress without forgetting to explain the rule within the time planned in the study schedule.
However, we will not lose sight of this aspect - the skill correct pronunciation vowels and consonants, definitions of logical stress and stress in polysyllabic words. After all, it is the pronunciation that makes your speech in English expressive, understandable and natural-sounding.
So, stress in English is divided into three types:
- verbal;
- Phrasal;
- Boolean.
word stress
Word stress is the emphasis of a syllable in a word. If you are familiar with the transcription of the English language, then you probably paid attention to the sign [‘], which is in every, even monosyllabic, word. This sign is used to indicate word stress and is placed before each stressed syllable.
One of the functions of semantic stress is the ability to distinguish one part of speech from another. For example:
Import /ɪmˈpɔːt/ (ch.) - import, bring;
Import /ˈɪmpɔːt/ (n.) - import, import.
Phrase stress
Phrasal stress is interpreted in different ways, but whatever the definition, its essence is the same - it is the selection of significant words in a sentence. The group of significant words includes the following parts of speech:
- Nouns
Mary is at ‘school - Mary is at school.
- adjectives
The pen is 'black - The pen is black.
- Adverbs
He runs 'fast - He runs 'quickly.
- Semantic verbs
He'said that! — He ‘said it!
- Interrogative and demonstrative pronouns.
‘When will it happen? - When will it happen?
‘This is my book - ‘This is my book.
logical stress
Logical stress is the most subtle and, one might say, unpredictable. After all, the speaker can use such an accent when he wants to emphasize specific word(i.e. make it significant). Sometimes when using logical stress, the phrasal stress disappears.
This type of stress is used to contrast one word with another:
‘I did it first! – ‘I did it first! ("I" is opposed to another pronoun, such as "You" or "He").
The above facts cannot be called rules, since they are not permanent, but natural. Therefore, when studying stress in English, one should remember the patterns of pronunciation of certain words.
Do you want to try pronunciation exercises and understand word stress? We will address these issues in the second part of this article. Keep for updates.
