Probably every user who is little familiar with computers has encountered a bunch of incomprehensible characteristics when choosing a central processor: technical process, cache, socket; I turned for advice to friends and acquaintances who were competent in the matter of computer hardware. Let's look at the variety of various parameters, because the processor is the most important part of your PC, and understanding its characteristics will give you confidence in your purchase and further use.
CPU
CPU personal computer is a chip that is responsible for performing any operations with data and controls peripheral devices. It is contained in a special silicon package called a die. For short designation use the abbreviation - CPU(central processing unit) or CPU(from the English Central Processing Unit - central processing device). On modern market computer components there are two competing corporations, Intel and AMD, who constantly participate in the race for the performance of new processors, constantly improving the technological process.
Technical process
Technical process is the size used in the production of processors. It determines the size of the transistor, the unit of which is nm (nanometer). Transistors, in turn, make up internal base CPU. The bottom line is that continuous improvement in manufacturing techniques makes it possible to reduce the size of these components. As a result, there are much more of them placed on the processor chip. This helps improve the performance of the CPU, so its parameters always indicate the technology used. For example, the Intel Core i5-760 is made using a 45 nm process technology, and the Intel Core i5-2500K is made using a 32 nm process. Based on this information, you can judge how modern the processor is and how superior it is in performance to its predecessor, but when choosing, you must also take into account a number of other parameters.
Architecture
Processors are also characterized by such a characteristic as architecture - a set of properties inherent in a whole family of processors, usually produced over many years. In other words, architecture is their organization or internal design of the CPU.
Number of Cores
Core- most main element central processor. It is a part of the processor that can execute one thread of instructions. The cores differ in cache memory size, bus frequency, manufacturing technology, etc. Manufacturers assign new names to them with each subsequent technological process (for example, the AMD processor core is Zambezi, and Intel is Lynnfield). With the development of processor production technologies, it has become possible to place more than one core in one case, which significantly increases CPU performance and helps to perform several tasks simultaneously, as well as use several cores in programs. Multi-core processors will be able to quickly cope with archiving, video decoding, the operation of modern video games, etc. For example, Intel's Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad processor lines, which use dual-core and quad-core CPUs, respectively. On this moment Processors with 2, 3, 4 and 6 cores are widely available. Their large quantity used in server solutions and is not required by the average PC user.
Frequency
In addition to the number of cores, performance is affected by clock frequency. The value of this characteristic reflects the performance of the CPU in the number of clock cycles (operations) per second. Another important characteristic is bus frequency(FSB - Front Side Bus) demonstrating the speed at which data is exchanged between the processor and computer peripherals. The clock frequency is proportional to the bus frequency.
Socket
So that the future processor, when upgraded, is compatible with the existing one motherboard, you need to know its socket. A socket is called connector, in which the CPU is installed on the computer motherboard. The socket type is characterized by the number of legs and the processor manufacturer. Different sockets correspond to specific types of CPUs, so each socket allows the installation of a specific type of processor. Intel uses the LGA1156, LGA1366 and LGA1155 socket, while AMD uses AM2+ and AM3.
Cache
Cache- the amount of memory with a very high access speed, necessary to speed up access to data that is permanently located in memory with a slower access speed (RAM). When choosing a processor, remember that increasing the cache size has a positive effect on the performance of most applications. The CPU cache has three levels ( L1, L2 and L3), located directly on the processor core. It receives data from RAM for higher processing speed. It is also worth considering that for multi-core CPUs, the amount of first level cache memory for one core is indicated. L2 cache performs similar functions, but is slower and larger in size. If you plan to use the processor for resource-intensive tasks, then a model with a large second level cache will be preferable, given that for multi-core processors The total L2 cache size is indicated. The most powerful processors are equipped with L3 cache, such as AMD Phenom, AMD Phenom II, Intel Core i3, Intel Core i5, Intel Core i7, Intel Xeon. The third level cache is the least fast, but it can reach 30 MB.
Energy consumption
The power consumption of a processor is closely related to its manufacturing technology. With decreasing nanometers of the technical process, increasing the number of transistors and increasing the clock frequency of processors, the power consumption of the CPU increases. For example, Intel Core i7 processors require up to 130 watts or more. The voltage supplied to the core clearly characterizes the power consumption of the processor. This parameter is especially important when choosing a CPU to use as a multimedia center. Modern processor models use various technologies that help combat excessive power consumption: built-in temperature sensors, systems automatic control voltage and frequency of processor cores, energy-saving modes with low load on the CPU.
Additional features
Modern processors have acquired the ability to operate in 2- and 3-channel modes with RAM, which significantly affects its performance, and also support a larger set of instructions, which increases their functionality by new level. GPUs process video on their own, thereby offloading the CPU, thanks to technology DXVA(from the English DirectX Video Acceleration - video acceleration by the DirectX component). Intel uses the above technology Turbo Boost to dynamically change the clock frequency of the central processor. Technology Speed Step manages CPU power consumption depending on processor activity, and Intel Virtualization Technology hardware creates virtual environment to use multiple operating systems. Also modern processors can be divided into virtual cores using technology Hyper Threading. For example, a dual-core processor is capable of dividing the clock speed of one core into two, resulting in high processing performance using four virtual cores.
When thinking about the configuration of your future PC, do not forget about the video card and its GPU(from the English Graphics Processing Unit - graphic processing unit) - the processor of your video card, which is responsible for rendering (arithmetic operations with geometric, physical objects, etc.). The higher the frequency of its core and memory frequency, the less load on the central processor will be. Particular attention to GPU Gamers must show themselves.
Cell biology of living organisms studies prokaryotes that do not have a nucleus (nucleus, core). Which organisms are characterized by the presence of a nucleus? The nucleus is the central organelle.
In contact with
Important! The main function of the cell nucleus is storage and transmission hereditary information.
Structure
What is the core? What parts does the nucleus consist of? Components listed below are part of core:
- Nuclear envelope;
- Nucleoplasm;
- Karyomatrix;
- Chromatin;
- Nucleols.
Nuclear envelope
Karyolemma consists of two layers- external and internal, separated by a perinuclear cavity. The outer membrane communicates with rough endoplasmic tubules. The fibrillar proteins of the core of the nuclear substance are attached to the inner shell. Between the membranes there is a perinuclear cavity formed by the mutual repulsion of ionized organic molecules with similar charges.
The karyolemma is penetrated by a system of openings - pores formed by protein molecules. Through them, ribosomes, the structures in which protein synthesis occurs, as well as messenger RNAs penetrate the cytoplasmic reticulum.
Intermembrane pores are tubules filled with. Their walls are formed by specific proteins - nucleoporins. The diameter of the hole allows the cytoplasm and the contents of the nucleus to exchange small molecules. Nucleic acids, as well as high molecular weight proteins, are not able to independently flow from one part of the cell to another. For this purpose, there are special transport proteins, the activation of which occurs with energy costs.
High molecular weight compounds move through pores with the help of karyopherins. Those that transport substances from the cytoplasm to the nucleus are called importins. Movement in the opposite direction is carried out by exportins. In what part of the nucleus is the RNA molecule located? She travels throughout the cell.
Important! High-molecular substances cannot independently penetrate through the pores from the core to and from the core.
Nucleoplasm
Represented by karyoplasm- a gel-like mass located inside a two-layer shell. Unlike the cytoplasm, where pH >7, the environment inside the nucleus is acidic. The main substances that make up the nucleoplasm are nucleotides, proteins, cations, RNA, H2O.
Karyomatrix
What components make up the core? It is formed by fibrillar proteins of a three-dimensional structure - lamins. Plays the role of a skeleton, preventing deformation of the organoid under mechanical stress.
Chromatin
This main substance, represented by a set of chromosomes, some of which are in an activated state. The rest are packed in compacted blocks. Their opening occurs during division. What part of the nucleus contains the molecule we know as DNA? consist of genes, which are parts of a DNA molecule. They contain information that transmits hereditary characteristics to new generations of cells. Therefore, this part of the nucleus contains a DNA molecule.
In biology they distinguish the following types of chromatin:
- Euchromatin. Appears as filamentous, despiralized, non-staining formations. It exists in the resting nucleus during the interphase between cycles of cell division.
- Heterochromatin. Non-activated spiralized, easily stained regions of chromosomes.
Nucleols
The nucleolus is the most compacted structure that makes up the nucleus. It has predominantly round shapes, however, there are segmented ones, like leukocytes. The nucleus of the cells of some organisms does not have nucleoli. In other cores there may be several of them. The substance of the nucleoli is represented by granules, which are subunits of ribosomes, as well as fibrils, which are RNA molecules.
Nucleolus: structure and functions
Nucleols are represented by the following structural types:
- Reticular. Typical for most cells. It is characterized by a high concentration of compacted fibrils and granules.
- Compact. Characterized by a multiplicity of fibrillar accumulations. Found in dividing cells.
- Annular. Characteristic of lymphocytes and connective tissue cells.
- Residual. Prevails in cells where the division process does not occur.
- Separated. All components of the nucleolus are separated, plastic actions are impossible.
Functions
What function does the kernel perform? Nucleus is characterized by the following responsibilities:
- Transfer of hereditary characteristics;
- Reproduction;
- Programmed death.
Storage of genetic information
Genetic codes are stored in chromosomes. They differ in shape and size. Individuals different types have an unequal number of chromosomes. The complex of characteristics characteristic of the repositories of hereditary information of a given species is called a karyotype.
Important! A karyotype is a set of characteristics characteristic of the chromosomal composition of organisms of a given species.
There are haploid, diploid, and polyploid sets of chromosomes.
The cells of the human body contain 23 types of chromosomes. The egg and sperm contain a haploid, that is, a single set of them. During fertilization, the stores of both cells combine, forming a double - diploid set. Cells cultivated plants triploid or tetraploid karyotype is inherent.
Storage of genetic information
Transmission of hereditary characteristics
What vital processes occur in the nucleus? Gene coding is transmitted during the process of reading information, which results in the formation of messenger (messenger) RNA. Exportins excrete ribonucleic acid through nuclear pores into the cytoplasm. Ribosomes use genetic codes to synthesize necessary for the body proteins.
Important! Protein synthesis occurs in cytoplasmic ribosomes based on encoded genetic information delivered by messenger RNA.
Reproduction
Prokaryotes reproduce simply. Bacteria have a single DNA molecule. In the process of division she copies herself attaching to the cell membrane. The membrane grows between the two junctions and two new organisms are formed.
In eukaryotes there are amitosis, mitosis and meiosis:
- Amitosis. Nuclear division occurs without cell fragmentation. Binuclear cellae are formed. During the next division, polynuclear formations may appear. What organisms are characterized by such reproduction? Aging, non-viable, and tumor cells are susceptible to it. In some situations, amitotic division to form normal cells occurs in the cornea, liver, cartilaginous textures, and also in the tissues of some plants.
- Mitosis. In this case, nuclear fission begins with its destruction. A cleavage spindle is formed, with the help of which paired chromosomes are separated to different ends of the cell. Replication of the carriers of heredity occurs, after which two nuclei are formed. After this, the spindle is dismantled and a nuclear membrane is formed, which divides one cell into two.
- Meiosis. A complex process in which nuclear division occurs without duplication of diverged chromosomes. Characteristic for the formation of germ cells - gametes that have a haploid set of carriers of heredity.
Programmed Doom
Genetic information provides for the life span of the cell, and after the allotted time, it starts the process of apoptosis (Greek - leaf fall). Chromatin condenses and the nuclear membrane is destroyed. The cella disintegrates into fragments limited to the plasma membrane. Apoptotic bodies, bypassing the stage of inflammation, are absorbed by macrophages or neighboring cells.
For clarity, the structure of the core and the functions performed by its parts are presented in the table
| Core element | Structural features | Functions performed |
| Shell | Double layer membrane | Distinguishing the contents of the nucleus and cytoplasm |
| Pores | Holes in the shell | Export - import RNA |
| Nucleoplasm | Gel-like consistency | Medium for biochemical transformations |
| Karyomatrix | Fibrillar proteins | Support structure, protect against deformation |
| Chromatin | Euchromatin, heterochromatin | Storage of genetic information |
| Nucleola | Fibrils and granules | Ribosome production |
Appearance
The shape is determined by the configuration of the membrane. The following types of nuclei are noted:
- Round. The most common one. For example, most of the lymphocyte is occupied by the nucleus.
- Elongated. The horseshoe-shaped nucleus is found in immature neutrophils.
- Segmented. Partitions form in the shell. Segments attached to each other are formed, such as in a mature neutrophil.
- Branched. Found in the nuclei of arthropod cells.
Number of Cores
Depending on the functions they perform, cellas may have one or more cores or not have them at all. The following types of cells are distinguished:
- Non-nuclear. The formed components of the blood of higher animals are erythrocytes, platelets are carriers of important substances. To make room for hemoglobin or fibrinogen, the bone marrow produces these elements nuclear-free. They are not able to divide and die off after the programmed time has passed.
- Single core. This is the case with most cells of living organisms.
- Binuclear. Liver hepatocytes perform a dual function - detoxification and production. Heme is synthesized, which is necessary for the production of hemoglobin. For these purposes, two cores are required.
- Multi-core. Muscle myocytes perform a colossal amount of work; additional nuclei are required to perform it. For the same reason, cells are polynuclear angiosperms.
Chromosomal pathologies
Many diseases are the result of disorders associated with abnormalities in chromosomal composition. The most well-known symptom complexes are:
- Down. Caused by the presence of an extra twenty-first chromosome (trisomy).
- Edwards. An extra eighteenth chromosome is present.
- Patau. Trisomy 13.
- Turner. The X chromosome is missing.
- Klinefelter. Characterized by extra X or Y chromosomes.
Illnesses caused by dysfunction components nuclei are not always associated with chromosomal abnormalities. Mutations that affect individual nuclear proteins cause the following diseases:
- Laminopathy. Manifested by premature aging.
- Autoimmune diseases. Lupus erythematosus is a diffuse lesion of connective tissue textures, multiple sclerosis- destruction of the myelin sheaths of nerves.
Important! Chromosomal abnormalities lead to severe diseases.
Core structure
Biology in pictures: Structure and functions of the nucleus
Conclusion
The cell nucleus is different complex structure and performs vital functions. It is a repository and transmitter of hereditary information, controls the synthesis of proteins and the processes of cell division. Chromosomal abnormalities are the causes of severe diseases.
These days it's minimal acceptable norm more or less serious configuration computer technology It is considered to have a dual-core processor. Moreover, this parameter is relevant even for mobile computer devices, tablet PCs and reputable smartphone communicators. Therefore, we will figure out what kind of kernels these are and why it is important for any user to know about them.
The essence in simple words
The first dual-core chip, intended specifically for mass consumption, appeared in May 2005. The product was called Pentium D (formally belonged to the Pentium 4 series). Previously, similar structural solutions were used on servers and for specific purposes; they were not inserted into personal computers.
In general, the processor itself (microprocessor, CPU, Central Processing Unit, central processing unit, CPU) is a crystal onto which billions of microscopic transistors, resistors and conductors are applied using nanotechnology. Then gold contacts are sprayed, the “pebble” is mounted in the chip body, and then all this is integrated into the chipset.
Now imagine that two such crystals are installed inside the microcircuit. On the same substrate, interconnected and acting as a single device. This is the two-core subject of discussion.
Of course, two “pebbles” are not the limit. At the time of writing, a PC equipped with a chip with four cores is considered powerful, not counting the computing resources of the video card. Well, thanks to the efforts of AMD, servers already use as many as sixteen.
Terminology nuances
Each die typically has its own L1 cache. However, if they have a common second-level one, then it is still one microprocessor, and not two (or more) independent ones.
A core can be called a full-fledged separate processor only if it has its own cache of both levels. But this is only necessary for use on very powerful servers and all kinds of supercomputers (favorite toys of scientists).
However, the “Task Manager” in Windows OS or the “System Monitor” in GNU/Linux can show kernels as CPUs. I mean, CPU 1 (CPU 1), CPU 2 (CPU 2) and so on. Don’t let this mislead you, because the program’s duty is not to understand the engineering and architectural nuances, but only to interactively display the loading of each of the crystals.
This means that we smoothly move on to this very loading and, in general, to questions of the expediency of the phenomenon as such.
Why is this necessary?
A number of cores different from one is intended primarily for parallelizing the tasks being performed.
Let's say you turn on your laptop and are reading sites on the World Wide Web. Scripts with which modern web pages are simply obscenely overloaded (except for mobile versions) will be processed by only one core. One hundred percent of the load will fall on it if something bad drives the browser crazy.
The second crystal will continue to operate in normal mode and will allow you to cope with the situation - at a minimum, open “System Monitor” (or a terminal emulator) and forcefully terminate the crazy program.
By the way, it is in the “System Monitor” that you can see with your own eyes which software has suddenly gone off the rails and which of the “pebbles” is causing the cooler to howl desperately.
Some programs are initially optimized for multi-core processor architecture and immediately send different data streams to different crystals. Well, ordinary applications are processed according to the “one thread - one core” principle.
That is, the performance gain will be noticeable if more than one thread is running at the same time. Well, since almost all operating systems are multitasking, the positive effect of parallelization will appear almost constantly.
How to live with it
Regarding consumer computing technology, single-core chips today are mainly ARM processors in simple phones and miniature media players. Outstanding performance from such devices is not required. The maximum is to launch the Opera Mini browser, an ICQ client, a simple game, and other unpretentious applications in Java.
Everything else, starting even with the cheapest tablets, must have at least two crystals in the chip, as stated in the preamble. Buy these things. Based at least on the considerations that almost all user software is rapidly getting fatter, consuming more and more system resources, so a power reserve will not hurt at all.
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Good day, dear visitor. Today we’ll talk about what processor cores are and what function they perform. We want to say right away that we are not going to go into the jungle, which not every tech geek can handle. Everything will be accessible, understandable and relaxed, so grab your sandwiches.
I would like to start with the fact that the processor is the central module in the computer, which is responsible for all mathematical calculations, logical operations and data processing. In fact, all its power is concentrated, oddly enough, in the core. Their quantity determines the speed, intensity and quality of processing of the received information. Therefore, let’s take a closer look at the component.
Main characteristics of CPU cores
The core is a physical element of the processor (not to be confused with logical cores -), which affects the performance of the system as a whole.
Each product is built on a specific architecture, which indicates a certain set of properties and capabilities inherent in the line of manufactured chips.
Main distinctive feature– , i.e. the size of the transistors used in the production of the chip. The indicator is measured in nanometers. It is transistors that are the basis for the CPU: the more of them are placed on the silicon substrate, the more powerful a particular instance of the chip is.
Let's take for example 2 device models from Intel - Core i7 2600k and Core i7 7700k. Both have 4 cores in the processor, but the process technology is significantly different: 32 nm versus 14 nm, respectively, with the same die area. What does this affect? The latter shows the following indicators:
- base frequency – higher;
- heat release – lower;
- the set of executable instructions is wider;
- maximum memory bandwidth – greater;
- support more functions.
In other words, reduction in technical process = increase in productivity. This is an axiom. 
Kernel functions
The central processor core performs 2 main types of tasks:
- intrasystem;
- custom.
The second includes application support functions by using software environment. Actually, application programming is precisely designed to load the CPU with the tasks that it will perform. The developer's goal is to set the priorities for performing a particular procedure.
Modern operating systems allow you to intelligently use all processor cores, which gives maximum system productivity. From this it is worth noting a banal but logical fact: the more physical cores on the processor, the faster and more stable your PC will work.
How to enable all cores to work
Some users, in pursuit of maximum performance, want to use all the processing power of the CPU. There are several ways to do this, which can be used individually or combined several points:
- unlocking hidden and unused cores (not suitable for all processors - you need to study the instructions in detail on the Internet and check your model);
- activation of the mode to increase the frequency for a short period;
- manual overclocking of the processor.
The simplest method to start all active kernels at once is as follows:
- open the Start menu with the corresponding button;
- enter the command “msconfig.exe” in the search bar (only without quotes);
- open the “advanced parameters” item and set required values in the “number of processors” column, having previously activated the checkbox opposite the line.
How to enable all cores in Windows 10?
Now, when Windows starts, all computing physical cores will work at once (not to be confused with threads).
For owners of older AMD processors
The following information will be useful to owners of old AMD processors. If you are still using the following chips, you will be pleasantly surprised: 
The technology for unlocking additional cores is called ACC (Advanced Clock Calibration). It is supported on the following chipsets: 
The utility that allows you to open additional kernels is called differently for each manufacturer: 
In this simple way you can turn a 2-core system into a 4-core one. Most of you didn't even know about this, right? Let's hope I helped you achieve productivity improvements for free.
In this article, I tried to explain to you in as much detail as possible what a core is, what it consists of, what functions it performs and what potential it has.
In the following educational programs, many more interesting things await you, and therefore not material. Bye bye.
In every living cell there are many biochemical reactions and processes. To control them, as well as regulate many vital important factors, a special structure is required. What is a nucleus in biology? What makes it effective at accomplishing its task?
What is a nucleus in biology. Definition
The nucleus is an essential structure of any cell in the body. What is the core? In biology, it is the most important component of every organism. The nucleus can be found in both unicellular protozoa and highly organized representatives of the eukaryotic world. Main function This structure is the storage and transmission of genetic information, which is also contained here.
After fertilization of the egg by the sperm, the fusion of two haploid nuclei occurs. After the fusion of germ cells, a zygote is formed, the nucleus of which already carries a diploid set of chromosomes. This means that the karyotype (genetic information of the nucleus) already contains copies of genes from both the mother and father.
Kernel composition
What is the characteristic of the kernel? Biology carefully studies the composition of the nuclear apparatus, since this can give impetus to the development of genetics, selection and molecular biology.
The nucleus is a double membrane structure. Membranes are an extension of what is necessary for the transport of formed substances from the cell. The contents of the nucleus are called nucleoplasm.
Chromatin is the main substance of the nucleoplasm. The composition of chromatin is diverse: it contains primarily nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), as well as proteins and many metal ions. DNA in the nucleoplasm is arranged in an orderly manner in the form of chromosomes. It is the chromosomes that double during division, after which each set of them passes into daughter cells.
RNA in the nucleoplasm is most often found in two types: mRNA and rRNA. is formed during the process of transcription - reading information from DNA. The molecule is like this ribonucleic acid later leaves the nucleus and subsequently serves as a template for the formation of new proteins.
Ribosomal RNA is produced in special structures called nucleoli. The nucleolus is built from the terminal sections of chromosomes formed by secondary constrictions. This structure can be seen under a light microscope as a compacted speck on the nucleus. Ribosomal RNAs, which are synthesized here, also enter the cytoplasm and then, together with proteins, form ribosomes.
The composition of the core has a direct influence on the functions. Biology as a science studies the properties of chromatin to better understand the processes of transcription and cell division.
Kernel functions. Biology of processes in the nucleus
The first and most important function The nucleus is the storage and transmission of hereditary information. The nucleus is a unique cell structure because it contains most of human genes. The karyotype can be haploid, diploid, triploid, and so on. The ploidy of the venom depends on the function of the cell itself: gametes are haploid, and somatic cells diploid. The endosperm cells of angiosperms are triploid, and, finally, many varieties of crops have a polyploid set of chromosomes.
Transfer to the cytoplasm from the nucleus occurs during the formation of mRNA. During the process of transcription, the necessary genes of the karyotype are read, and ultimately messenger or messenger RNA molecules are synthesized.
Heredity also manifests itself during cell division by mitosis, meiosis or amitosis. In each case, the core performs its specific function. For example, in the prophase of mitosis, the nuclear membrane is destroyed and highly compacted chromosomes enter the cytoplasm. However, in meiosis, chromosome crossing over occurs before the membrane is destroyed in the nucleus. And in amitosis, the nucleus is completely destroyed and makes a small contribution to the division process.
In addition, the nucleus is indirectly involved in the transport of substances from the cell due to the direct connection of the membrane with the EPS. This is what a nucleus is in biology.
Shape of kernels
The nucleus, its structure and functions may depend on the shape of the membrane. The nuclear apparatus can be round, elongated, in the form of blades, etc. Often the shape of the nucleus is specific to individual tissues and cells. Single-celled organisms differ in the type of nutrition they have, life cycle, and at the same time, the shapes of the nuclear membrane also differ.
Diversity in the shape and size of the nucleus can be seen in the example of leukocytes.
- The neutrophil nucleus can be segmented or non-segmented. In the first case, they speak of a horseshoe-shaped nucleus, and this shape is characteristic of young cells. The segmented nucleus is the result of the formation of several partitions in the membrane, resulting in the formation of several parts connected to each other.
- In eosinophils, the nucleus has a characteristic dumbbell shape. In this case, the nuclear apparatus consists of two segments connected by a partition.
- Almost the entire volume of lymphocytes is occupied by a huge nucleus. Only a small part of the cytoplasm remains at the periphery of the cell.
- In glandular cells of insects, the nucleus may have a branched structure.
The number of nuclei in one cell may vary
There is not always only one nucleus present in an organism cell. Sometimes it is necessary to have two or more nuclear devices to perform several functions simultaneously. Conversely, some cells can do without a nucleus altogether. Here are some examples of unusual cells that have more than one nucleus or no nucleus at all.
1. Red blood cells and platelets. These blood cells transport hemoglobin and fibrinogen, respectively. So that one cell can accommodate maximum amount substances, it has lost its core. This feature is not typical for all representatives of the animal world: frogs have huge red blood cells in their blood with a pronounced nucleus. This shows the primitiveness of this class in comparison with more developed taxa.
2. Liver hepatocytes. These cells contain two nuclei. One of them regulates the purification of blood from toxins, and the other is responsible for the formation of heme, which will subsequently become part of the hemoglobin in the blood.
3. Myocytes of striated skeletal tissue. Muscle cells are multinucleated. This is due to the fact that they actively undergo the synthesis and breakdown of ATP, as well as the assembly of proteins.
Features of the nuclear apparatus in protozoa
For example, consider two types of protozoa: ciliates and amoebas.
1. Slipper ciliates. This representative single-celled organisms has two cores: vegetative and generative. Since they differ both in function and size, this feature is called nuclear dualism.
The vegetative nucleus is responsible for the daily functioning of the cell. It regulates its metabolic processes. The generative nucleus is involved in cell division and in conjugation - a sexual process in which genetic information is exchanged with individuals of the same species.
Diseases
Many genetic diseases are associated with abnormalities in the number of chromosomes. Here is a list of the most well-known deviations in the genetic apparatus of the nucleus:
- Down syndrome;
- Patau cider;
- Klinefelter's syndrome;
- Shereshevsky-Turner syndrome.
The list goes on and each disease is different serial number pairs of chromosomes. Also, such diseases often affect the sex X and Y chromosomes.
Conclusion
The core is playing important role c It regulates biochemical processes and is a repository of hereditary information. The transport of substances from the cell and the synthesis of proteins are also associated with the functioning of this central structure of the cell. This is what a nucleus is in biology.
