Let's consider each of the above types of difficulties in more detail:
1) Difficulties due to the nature of the language material
Difficulties associated with linguistic material can be divided into phonetic, lexical and grammatical. The main difficulties at the initial stage of training are phonetic difficulties. This is due to the fact that students do not yet have experience in the target language. The perception of sounds is at the stage of primary skill, phonemic hearing is not developed. Lexical and grammatical difficulties are less important initially. The lexical and grammatical material studied during this period is simple and unambiguous [Elukhina, 1969: 31].
Phonetic difficulties can be common to all languages and specific to individual languages... A common difficulty is that there are no clear boundaries between sounds in a word, words in a sentence; the presence in a foreign language of such phonemes that are not in the native language; such sound qualities as longitude and brevity, openness and closeness. The rhythmic and intonational formulation of interrogative, negative, affirmative sentences causes great difficulty.
The discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation of words is especially common in the English language. The presence in the student's mind of a graphic image of a word that differs from a sound one often prevents the recognition of this word in sounding speech, due to the great clarity and strength of the former.
In the flow of speech, familiar words change their familiar sound under the influence of progressive or regressive assimilation. Also, great difficulties are caused by the rhythmic-melodic pattern of the English language and the incomplete pronunciation style characteristic of oral speech, in which the same values acquire different words, also causes considerable difficulty in listening to oral speech.
At the initial stage of training, poor development of phonetic and phonemic hearing, lack of pronunciation skills, insufficient formation of acoustic-articulatory images distract the listener's attention to the linguistic form of the message, as a result of which the meanings of words and syntagmas as units of perception are not recognized. In the future, the ability to recognize oppositions of phonemes is developed, to recognize phonetic variants of words by distinctive features, even with some deviation from the norms [Galskova, Gez, 2009: 175].
Intonation, logical stress and tempo come to the fore. Emotional intonation does not present great difficulties, since it has similar features in Russian and the foreign languages studied; more complex is the logical intonation, which divides phrases into complete semantic segments, serves to highlight the main thought (logical subject and predicate) and determines the communicative type of the phrase. For adequate understanding, logical stress is extremely important, since it carries a semantic load, emphasizing and clarifying the speaker's thought [Galskova, Gez, 2009: 176].
Lexical difficulties. Such difficulties include the use of a large amount of unfamiliar vocabulary, idiomatic expressions, colloquial formulas, clichés, idioms, special terms, and abbreviations. The meaning of these expressions is not always determined by the meaning of the words included in them.
It is known that lexical difficulties arise not only in connection with the quantitative increase in vocabulary material and its diversity (characteristic of advanced stages of learning), but also with such moments as the use of words in a figurative meaning, the presence of command words that do not carry a large informative load, the use of amorphous, unmotivated words, vocabulary in a figurative meaning and phraseological turns... Availability ambiguous words, homonyms (hour - our) and homophones, paronyms (economic-economical), words expressing paired concepts (answer - ask, give - take), antonyms and synonyms, words whose meaning does not coincide in the native and foreign languages. Unfamiliar words at the very beginning of the text make it difficult to accentuate, or incorrectly orient the listener in relation to the subsequent content of the text.
Language form long time is an unreliable support for semantic forecasting, because it is on it that the student's attention is concentrated, although he cannot change it. Therefore, it is necessary to develop in him the ability to receive information in the presence of unfamiliar linguistic phenomena, by filtering it, selecting and roughly comprehending it. Students need to be specially trained to understand by ear speech containing unfamiliar vocabulary. The unperceived or incorrectly perceived parts of the speech message (word, phrase, phrase) are restored by the recipient due to the action of probabilistic forecasting, therefore, it is necessary to achieve prediction of the meaning of the statement, when the form and content form a complete unity.
There is also a clear dependence of the understanding of oral messages on the nature of unfamiliar words. Obviously, understanding a text containing unfamiliar words is possible if:
1. Unfamiliar words will not be basic (“semantic milestones” are nouns and verbs that are essential for understanding the content of a word, more often than other parts of speech, which, being unfamiliar to the recipient, can significantly complicate the understanding of the text).
2. Unfamiliar words will act as the least semantically informative elements of the sentence, that is, the dependence of understanding the meaning on the syntactic function of the word, on how the communicative load is distributed between the members of the sentence. So, the subject, the predicate, the addition, being the components of the most informative connections, are well remembered and reproduced.
Grammatical difficulties. The greatest difficulty is caused by the discrepancy in the syntactic pattern of the phrase - the unusual order of words (referring the preposition in the sentence to the very end). Understanding of spoken language is very complicated by the presence of morphological homonymic forms. So, for example, various parts of speech in English language very often coincide in form: to work - work, to answer - answer. Great difficulties in understanding English speech arise due to the fact that in the overwhelming majority of cases, the connection between words is carried out using various official words that do not have an independent lexical meaning... It is not easy to recognize service words by ear, because they are often in an unstressed position, and therefore are reduced and merged with other words. There are also difficulties in listening to the so-called "compound verbs" such as to put on, to put away, to put off, to put up, to put down, etc.
It is also quite difficult to understand from the ear the formative suffixes and inflections of the English language, which are few in number, but differ in homonymy and polysemy (for example, -s can be a suffix, plural of nouns, the possessive case of nouns, and the ending of the 3rd person singular verbs in the present indefinite tense). Finally, one cannot pass over in silence and English syntax... Let us point out at least the fact that participial and infinitive phrases are widely used in English, usually corresponding to subordinate clauses in Russian. In English, it is often observed that conjunctions are skipped before clauses(for example: The book you brought me .., I haven "t the thing you want, etc.), which is not typical for a Russian student. Stylistic features oral speech also complicate the listening experience. These features are reverse order the words "inversion", non-union subordination (he told us he would come), the presence of elliptical sentences, the use of special constructions typical of oral speech.
2) Difficulties associated with the language form of the message arise for two reasons: a) due to the linguistic material contained in the message, b) due to the familiar, but difficult for listening, linguistic material in the message.
Most methodologists believe that at the initial stage, when the basic listening skills are formed, texts should be based on familiar language material. Only at an advanced stage can you include unexplored language material. One should develop the ability to guess the meaning of words, phenomena, as well as to understand the meaning of phrases and the text as a whole, despite the presence of unfamiliar elements in it.
Based on the research of S.D. Krashen and E. Bialistok, in which it was experimentally proved that the speech exposure should always be somewhat higher than the stage of the child's development, A.V. Shchepilova makes the following conclusion: increased capabilities in terms of analysis, phonetic recognition of the presented material, etc., must be supported by an increased level of complexity of speech exposure, which can be provided by authentic materials [A.V. Schepilova 2003: 340].
Perceiving a phrase, the student must break it down into separate elements, establish a connection between them and evaluate their role in the statement. The difficulties of analytic-synthetic activity underlying perception increase in proportion to the length of the speech message. Short-term memory has difficulty retaining words, realities, factual material, logic and sequence of presentation. Some methodologists also attribute the volume of a speech message to the difficulties associated with the linguistic form of a message. It is known that the volume of short-term memory in which a phrase is stored until its end is small. In the event that the length of the sentence exceeds the memory capacity, the listener forgets the beginning of the phrase and therefore cannot synthesize its meaning. As evidenced by the data of experimental studies, the maximum number of words in a phrase, perceived by ear, reaches 13-15.
N.I. Gez proposes to determine the minimum and maximum size of the audio text not by the number of words and sentences, but by the duration of the sound [Galskova, Gez, 2009: 169]. It is generally accepted that the volume of the text should not exceed 3 minutes of sound. However, I.I. Khaleeva refers to the length of the sound as a variable that depends on a number of factors and conditions, one of which is the type of text and the degree of its information density [Khaleeva 1989: 194].
It should also be noted that the depth of the phrase is also important. Easier to remember simple sentences, worse - complex. Among complex sentences, the subordinate clauses are the least remembered. Therefore, at the beginning of schooling, you should use mostly short simple sentences with additional and adverbial clauses. Then you should gradually increase the number of sentences and diversify their types.
3) Difficulties associated with the semantic content of the message, with its composition.
The logic of presentation and the compositional-semantic structure of the text are of great importance for listening.
The structure of the text includes external (headings, figures) and internal (inline) elements. Intra-text includes the introductory part, the main communicative block and the final communicative block [N.D. Galskova, N.I. Geuze, 2009: 176].
Introductory part performs an orienting function. It can include a summary of a topic or provide contextual information to students.
Main communication unit usually consists of several parts, interconnected by meaning and logical-compositional structure. The listener's task is to understand the dominant, each part.
Final communication block may contain a summarizing part, an explanation, an assessment, an indication of a possible continuation of the text or an appeal to the audience. Listening can end with a specific assignment, which suggests a question for discussion.
Difficulties can be caused by: 1) the absence in the text of the introduction, which would present the heroes to the listener or indicate the place and time of the action, 2) the presence of several time perspectives, 3) the presence of several plot lines, 4) lack of conclusion, 5) lack of material integrity.
The effectiveness of teaching listening depends primarily on the students' interest in understanding. Experimental results indicate that students will better understand and remember difficult but meaningful texts than easy but primitive ones. An effective symbol of successful listening is the introduction of elements of humor into the audio text, which contribute to the creation of a relaxed atmosphere. The gradation of difficulties in relation to the semantic content of texts can be expressed in the transition from entertaining (interesting) texts to meaningful (informational) ones. Content includes texts that have an interesting storyline for a given age. These texts can be quite simple and accessible to students. Substantial - those that contain new and useful information for students. A significant difficulty for students can be references to facts related to the history, life, culture of the country of the target language, the so-called realities that may be unknown to students. The understanding of the text is greatly influenced by the presence or absence of a detailed plot, its dynamism. Depending on the presence of these qualities, texts can be divided into descriptive and narrative. The latter, in turn, are divided into texts with an entertaining content and texts that do not contain an entertaining plot. Descriptive texts tend to be less interesting and emotional, which adds to the difficulty. The presence of realities in such texts makes it especially difficult to understand. The fabulous long text attracts attention more easily and makes you want to understand what you hear. In understanding such a text, individual details do not matter as much as when listening to a descriptive text. Here, a certain orientation of perception arises, which allows one to overcome possible difficulties in understanding.
4) Difficulties associated with the condition for the presentation of the message. These include external noises, interference, poor acoustics, sound quality, which is directly related to the quality of the equipment used in the classroom.
The visible presence or absence of the source of speech is also important for understanding speech. Studies have shown that if the source of speech is visible, then the percentage of listening comprehension will be much higher than when it is visually absent. Facial expressions, gestures, lip movements and simple eye contact contribute to a better understanding of speech.
However, even if there is a source of speech, listeners may encounter objective difficulties of a different order. The correct tempo of speech messages determines, as you know, not only the speed and accuracy of their understanding, but also the efficiency of memorization. There is, as NI Gez emphasizes, the maximum speed of presentation of speech messages, an increase or underestimation of which leads to a sharp drop in activity and a noticeable decrease in the level of understanding, fatigue, and a decrease in emotional tone [Galskova, Gez, 2009: 168]. In the case of exceeding the speed, understanding is hampered by the intensification of the reduction of sounds, the reduction of pauses between syntagmas, the lack of time for comprehending the meaning. If the pace is too slow, the phase of perception is stretched, the process of integrating the meanings of individual units becomes more difficult. Some scientists believe that it is advisable to immediately "accustom" the psyche of students to the natural conditions of functioning and already at the beginning of training to present the texts only once. Faced with a misunderstanding of speech by students, the teacher often resorts to multiple repetitions of the message, which does not contribute much to listening.
5) Difficulties associated with sources of information. Audiovisual sources include: films, cartoons, TV shows; pictures, slides, accompanied by the teacher's story. Audible sources include sound recordings and radio broadcasts. It is easier to perceive speech from audiovisual sources than from audible ones.
Film is one of the most difficult audiovisual sources of information. But despite its complexity, it is an extremely important and necessary source of information, since only a movie can recreate a living situation of communication, the reality in which foreign speech is used as a means of natural communication.
It is also worth noting that the use of cartoons is advisable in primary school. They help students overcome the psychological barrier and focus on the content of the cartoon despite language difficulties.
Audible sources of information are more difficult. they lack any visual support, but their role in the learning process is very great. They compensate for the lack of a language environment by providing an opportunity to listen to speech different people, mainly native speakers. Speech in the recording has exemplary and unchanging sound. These qualities of sound recording contribute to the formation of correct acoustic-articulatory images of words, which is extremely important for listening.
Difficulties in understanding radio broadcasts are associated with the rapid rate of speech of speakers with a single presentation of information, with the absence of visual support and feedback, with the richness of transmissions with new and often complex information, with the complexity of the language form and with the presence of radio interference.
So, the use of information sources should be carried out on the basis of a gradation of difficulties, which is expressed in the gradual and sequential inclusion in the process of all sources of information, from easy to difficult.
6) Difficulties due to the individual characteristics of the source of speech. The individual characteristics of the source of speech are also understood as the features of diction, timbre, tempo, pause, as well as possible violations of articulation. All people are individual, it is difficult to assume that all communication partners will sound perfect, which means that you need to learn to fill the gaps in understanding through compensatory skills.
It is known that individual characteristics speech (pronunciation, timbre, peculiarities of diction, articulation disorders, etc.), especially if this speech is being audited for the first time, complicate understanding. Timbre and pitch of voice affect listening in the following way: low male voices of soft timbre are most easily perceived, high voices of sharp timbre are most difficult. It is difficult to understand and adolescents who "swallow" part of the sentences, use youth slang... It is also difficult to listen to elderly people due to the purely age-related characteristics of articulation.
Therefore, it is necessary to teach students to listen to children's speech, the speech of adults and the elderly, as well as male and female voices... If they only listen to their teacher, then there is a danger that they will not be able to understand people of the opposite sex purely psychologically. Therefore, on all modern audio materials, texts are read by both men and women. It is also important that foreign language learners have the opportunity to listen to people of different ages.
In the context of conducting a dialogue of cultures, one must learn to understand different dialects foreign language, and not just a literary version, the so-called received pronunciation (RP). It is characteristic that in modern audio and video courses, the dialectal features of the spoken language are presented quite widely, regardless of whether this course is intended for beginners or for people with sufficient language training.
7) Difficulties associated with the perception of a particular type of speech. Speaking can take place in a dialogical or monologue form, or in a complex interweaving of dialogue and monologue, therefore, when teaching communicative listening, it is necessary to form the skills of listening and understanding monologic statements, dialogue or conversation of several persons (polylogue).
8) Difficulties associated with mastering sociolinguistic and sociocultural competencies. This includes a lack of knowledge of the rules for using the language in accordance with the situation, ignorance of the rules and social norms behavior of native speakers of a language, tradition, history, culture [Filatov, 2004: 241], which also leads to a misunderstanding of information perceived by ear.
Studying in their homeland and not having sufficient contacts with native speakers, the student, as a rule, does not have the necessary background knowledge (knowledge about the world around in relation to the country of the target language), therefore he interprets the speech and non-speech behavior of the speaker-native speaker from the standpoint of his culture and their norms of behavior in certain situations of communication. This can lead to misunderstanding of the perceived information and disruption of contact.
To overcome this difficulty, language, being a phenomenon of a particular civilization, must be studied in the context of that civilization. This provision is reflected in the sociolinguistic and sociocultural components of communicative competence.
Under sociolinguistic competence is understood as knowledge of the norms of language use in different situations and possession of situational options for expressing the same communicative intention, respectively, the listener must know these options and understand the reasons for using one of them in the context of a certain communication situation.
Sociocultural competence implies knowledge of the rules and social norms of behavior of native speakers, traditions, history, culture and social system the country of the target language.
Therefore, the student must have the ability to perceive and understand the oral text from the position intercultural communication, for which he needs background knowledge. Only with this knowledge, the listener can correctly interpret the speech and non-speech behavior of a native speaker.
9) Auditory experience of the listener
It is generally accepted that listening is associated with difficulties of an objective nature that do not depend on the listener himself. One can only partially agree with this statement. Students cannot, as is known, determine either the nature of the speech message or the condition of perception. At the same time, the success of listening depends on the listener's ability to use probabilistic forecasting, to transfer the skills and abilities developed in the native language into a foreign one. Of great importance are such individual characteristics of the student as his resourcefulness and ingenuity, his ability to listen and quickly respond to all kinds of signals of oral communication (pauses, logical stresses, rhetorical questions, phrases of a connecting nature, etc.), the ability to switch from one mental operation to another, quickly enter the subject of the message, correlate it with a larger context, etc.
Skillful combination of individual, frontal and group work, combining different students in pair work, a variety of interesting forms of control, commenting on mistakes with an indication of a noticeable improvement in listening comprehension of individual students, etc. will contribute to enhancing mental activity, increasing interest in work, personal and collective responsibility. Knowledge of the above groups of difficulties allows you to correctly assess the level of listening difficulty, take them into account when organizing educational listening, remove them, and sometimes create artificially, bringing the learning task as close as possible to the situations real communication... Knowledge of the listening mechanisms is necessary for the teacher in order to develop listening skills for those who do not own them, and to identify ways to improve these skills through a system of exercises and assignments.
It seems correct not to eliminate, but to gradually and consistently overcome difficulties in the learning process. As psychologists point out, the most effective is such training, which is carried out in conditions high voltage psyche of the individual, mobilization of his will and attention, the precise functioning of all mechanisms.
1.1.3 Auditory Skills and Skills. In section 1.2.1. and 1.2.2. we examined the mechanisms and difficulties of listening. In this section, we will take a closer look at the skills and abilities that allow students to master listening as a type of speech activity.
Listening includes the following auditory skills [Kolesnikova, Dolgina, 2001: 102]:
auditory-pronunciation skills, that is, the ability brought to automatism to make an error-free, fast, stable simultaneous perception and recognition of the phonetic code;
receptive lexical and grammatical skills.
phonetic listening skills;
grammatical listening skills;
lexical listening skills;
listening skills of monologue speech;
listening skills of dialogical speech;
listening skills in the process of dialogical communication.
Phonetic skills listening is primarily associated with verbal hearing, they are based on the differentiation of words and phrases, the determination of the semantic and emotional load in the sentence, the determination of the number of semantic groups in the sentence, etc.
Grammar skills listening is also based on differentiation, namely the differentiation of grammatical affixes, verb forms, active and passive constructions, determining the type of predicate, type of question, identifying the predicate in a sentence, etc.
Lexical skills are associated not only with the mechanisms of perception and recognition, but also with the mechanisms of anticipation and semantic guesswork. The following lexical listening skills are distinguished - recognition and correlation with meaning individual words, homonyms, prediction of a word in context based on knowledge of it lexical compatibility, highlighting words related to a certain range of concepts, determining the contextual meaning of polysemantic words, guessing the meanings of previously uncommon words by a common root, by derivational affixes, by the logic of events, etc.
Thus, listening skills allow us to perceive and learn phonetic, lexical and grammatical units of the language in speech and are closely related to such listening mechanisms as verbal hearing, memory, anticipation, comprehension, comparison and recognition.
Listening skills differ depending on the text you hear. The ability to listen to monologue texts includes the ability to understand commands, requests, questions, the ability to understand the general content of the text, the ability to predict the continuation of the utterance, the ability to listen, paying attention to the details, the ability to determine the main characteristics of the object of the utterance, the ability to determine the purpose of the utterance, the communicative intention of the author, etc. .d.
When listening to dialogical speech, it is necessary to be able to find signals in the listened dialogue that indicate the beginning or end of the dialogue, signals of desire to continue the dialogue, be able to determine the point of view of each of the interlocutors, their communicative intentions, highlight the sequence of arguments of each of the interlocutors, restore the missing link of the dialogue, etc. etc.
Perhaps the most difficult, but also the most necessary kind listening is listening in the process of dialogical communication. The following skills are distinguished - the ability to determine the goal of the interlocutor and choose the appropriate response, the ability to predict the development of the response of the interlocutor, the ability to restore the missing part of the response, the ability to highlight the interlocutor's point of view, follow his logical argumentation, the ability to turn the conversation into another channel, etc. [Kolker Ya.M., Ustinova E.S. 2002: pp. 7-10].
Essay Topics 17.2
Why can't Lopakhin become a true savior of the cherry orchard? (Based on the play by A.P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard")
What gave the basis for L.N. Tolstoy to name A.P. Chekhov's "artist of life"? (Based on the play "The Cherry Orchard")
How can one explain the absence of characters in the play by A.P. Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard" of the "ideal" hero?
What explains the abundance of "random" characters in the play by A.P. Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard"?
What place do Anya and Petya Trofimov occupy in the system of images of Chekhov's play? (Based on the play by A.P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard")
As in the play by A.P. Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard" reveals the theme of time?
Lyubov Andreevna. Who bought it?
Lopakhin. I bought.
Lyubov Andreevna is depressed; she would have fallen if she had not been standing by the chair and table. Varya takes the keys from her belt, throws them on the floor, in the middle of the living room, and leaves.
I bought! Wait, gentlemen, please, my head is clouded, I can't speak ... (Laughs.) We came to the auction, Deriganov is already there. Leonid Andreevich had only fifteen thousand, and Deriganov, in excess of the debt, immediately gave thirty. I see this is the case, I grappled with him, slapped forty. He's forty-five. I'm fifty-five. It means he adds five at a time, I add ten at a time ... Well, it's over. On top of the debt, I gave ninety, it was left for me. The cherry orchard is mine now! My! (Laughs.) My God, Lord, my cherry orchard! Tell me that I am drunk, out of my mind, that all this seems to me ... (Stamps his feet.) Don't laugh at me! If my father and grandfather stood up from the coffins and looked at the whole incident, like their Yermolai, the beaten, illiterate Yermolai, who ran barefoot in winter, like this same Yermolai bought an estate, which is the most beautiful in the world. I bought an estate where my grandfather and father were slaves, where they were not even allowed into the kitchen. I am asleep, it only seems to me, it only seems ... This is a figment of your imagination, covered in the darkness of the unknown ... (Raises the keys, smiling affectionately.) She threw the keys, wants to show that she is no longer the mistress here ... (Ringing keys.) Well, it doesn't matter.
The orchestra is heard tuning.
Hey, musicians, play, I wish to listen to you! Come all to watch how Yermolai Lopakhin has enough ax in the cherry orchard, how the trees will fall to the ground! We will set up summer cottages, and our grandchildren and great-grandchildren will see a new life here ... Music, play!
Music is playing. Lyubov Andreyevna sank into a chair and cries bitterly.
(Reproachfully.) Why, why didn't you listen to me? My poor, good one, you cannot return it now. (With tears.) Oh, it would sooner all be over, our awkward, unhappy life would sooner change somehow.
A.P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard"
Lopakhin's answer to Ranevskaya's remark is a complete, detailed statement. What is the name of this type of utterance in a dramatic work?
Lopakhin's speech begins with a victorious remark "My God, Lord, my cherry orchard!" How is the irreconcilable contradiction between the characters or in the character's mind called in the work?
Lopakhin's speech and action in this scene are accompanied by the comments “Laughs”, “Laughs”, “Stamps his feet,” etc. How do such author's comments are called in drama?
Name the object detail mentioned several times in the remarks, which symbolizes the change of the owners of the estate as a change of the owners of life.
9. Which of the Russian writers portrayed the hero-entrepreneurs?
Trofimov enters, then LOPAKHIN.
Trofimov... Well, gentlemen, it's time to go!
Lopakhin... Epikhodov, my coat!
Lyubov Andreevna... I'll sit one more minute. Precisely before I had never seen what walls in this house, what ceilings, and now I look at them greedily, with such tender love…
Gaev... I remember when I was six years old, on Trinity Day, I sat at this window and watched my father go to church….
Lyubov Andreevna... Have you taken all your belongings?
Lopakhin... Everything seems to be. ( Epikhodov, putting on a coat.) You Epikhodov, make sure everything is in order.
Epikhodov... Now he drank water, swallowed something.
Yasha (with contempt). Ignorance…
Lyubov Andreevna... We leave - and not a soul will be left here ...
Lopakhin... Until the very spring.
Varya(pulling the umbrella out of the knot, it looks like she swung; Lopakhin pretends to be scared). What are you, what are you ... I never thought.
Trofimov... Gentlemen, let's go get into the carriages ... It's time! The train will come now!
Varya. Petya, here they are, your galoshes, near the suitcase. ( With tears.) And how dirty, old they are ...
Trofimov (putting on galoshes). Come on, gentlemen! ..
Gaev (very embarrassed, afraid to cry). Train ... station ... Croise in the middle, white doublet to the corner ...
Lyubov Andreevna... Let's go!
Lopakhin... All here? Is there no one there? ( locks the side door to the left.) Here things are folded, they must be locked. Let's go! ..
Anya... Goodbye home! Goodbye old life!
Trofimov... Hello, new life! .. ( Leaves with Anya.)
Varya looks around the room and leaves slowly. Yasha and Charlotte leave with the dog.
Lopakhin... That means until spring. Come out, gentlemen ... Goodbye! .. ( Is leaving.)
Lyubov Andreevna and Gaev were left alone. They were exactly expecting this, throw themselves on each other's necks and sob with restraint, quietly, fearing that they would not be heard.
Gaev (in desperation). My sister, my sister ...
Lyubov Andreevna... Oh my dear, my tender, beautiful garden! .. My life, my youth, my happiness, goodbye! .. Goodbye! ..
Lyubov Andreevna... For the last time to look at the walls, at the windows ... The deceased mother loved to walk around this room ...
Gaev... My sister, my sister! ..
Lyubov Andreevna... We go!..
Leave.
The stage is empty. You can hear how all the doors are locked with a key, how then the carriages drive off. It's getting quiet. In the midst of the silence, there is a dull thump of an ax on a tree, sounding lonely and sad. Footsteps are heard. Firs appears from the door to the right. He is dressed, as always, in a jacket and a white waistcoat, shoes on his feet. He is sick.
Firs (goes to the door, touches the handle). Locked. We left ... ( Sits on the sofa.) They forgot about me ... Nothing ... I'll sit here ... But Leonid Andreich probably didn't put on a fur coat, he went in a coat ... ( Sighs in concern.) I didn't look ... Young green! ( Mumbles something that cannot be understood.) Life has passed, as if it did not live. ( Lays down.) I'll lie down ... You don't have Silushka, nothing is left, nothing ... Oh, you ... a fool! .. ( Lies motionless.)
A distant sound is heard, as if from the sky, the sound of a broken string, fading, sad. Silence sets in, and you can only hear how far away in the garden they are knocking on a tree with an ax.
A curtain.
(A.P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard")
Name the city to which Ranevskaya is going, leaving the family estate.
What is the name of the author's attitude to the actors, their relationships, plot situations, which is characteristic of Chekhov's plays, which is not expressed directly in the text, hidden and, as it were, arising from individual remarks and details?
Indicate the term that denotes the main contradiction underlying the development of the dramatic action (for example, the divergence in views on life, on the one hand, Ranevskaya and Gaev, and on the other, Petya Trofimova and Ani).
What is the name of the colloquial expressions conditioned by the character of the character and giving his statement the appearance of appropriate rudeness ("So, until spring. Come out, gentlemen ... Goodbye! ...")?
Indicate the term used in a dramatic work to refer to the author's brief remarks concerning the place and time of the action, the tone and intonation spoken by the heroes of the lines, individual mise-en-scenes ("puts on galoshes", "speaks in a husky voice", "Leaves with Anya", "with contempt" , "Locks the side door to the left.").
This fragment is based on a conversation between the characters in the play. Indicate the term for a conversation between two or more persons in a literary work.
What stage in the development of the play is reflected in the presented fragment?
8. What does the knocking of the ax, mentioned twice at the end of the fragment, symbolize?
8. How does the given fragment resonate thematically with the beginning of the play?
9. In what works of Russian classics is the drama of a serf shown, and in what way do you see the similarities between Firs and the heroes of these works?
Lopakhin. I would like to tell you something very pleasant and funny. (Glancing at his watch.) I’ll leave now, there’s no time to talk ... well, yes, I’m in two or three words. You already know that your cherry orchard is being sold for debts, the auction is scheduled for the twenty-second of August, but don't worry, my dear, sleep well, there is a way out ... Here is my project. Attention please! Your estate is located only twenty versts from the city, there is a railway near by, and if the cherry orchard and the land along the river are divided into summer cottages and then leased out for summer cottages, then you will have at least twenty-five thousand a year of income.
Gaev. Sorry, what nonsense!
Lyubov Andreevna. I don't quite understand you, Yermolai Alekseich.
Lopakhin. You will take the summer residents at least twenty-five rubles a year for a tithe, and if you announce it now, then, I can guarantee you anything, you will not have a single piece of free space until the fall, they will take everything apart. In short, congratulations, you are saved. The location is wonderful, the river is deep. Only, of course, you need to tidy up, clean ... for example, let's say, demolish all the old buildings, this house, which is no longer good for anything, cut down the old cherry orchard ...
Lyubov Andreevna. Cut it out? My dear, forgive me, you do not understand anything. If there is anything interesting, even wonderful, in the whole province, it is only our cherry orchard.
Lopakhin. The only wonderful thing about this garden is that it is very large. Cherries will be born every two years, and there is nowhere to go, no one buys.
Gaev. And in " Encyclopedic Dictionary»This garden is mentioned.
Lopakhin(glancing at the clock)... If we don't think of anything and come to nothing, then on August 22, both the cherry orchard and the entire estate will be auctioned off. Make up your mind! There is no other way out, I swear to you. No
and no.
Firs. In the old days, forty or fifty years ago, cherries were dried, soaked, pickled, jam was cooked, and it used to be ...
Gaev. Shut up, Fiers.
Firs. And it used to be that dried cherries were sent by carts to Moscow
and to Kharkov. There was money! And then dried cherries were soft, juicy, sweet, fragrant ... Then they knew the method ...
Lyubov Andreevna. Where is this method now?
Firs. Forgot. Nobody remembers.
Pischik(Lyubov Andreevna)... What's in Paris? How? Did you eat frogs?
Lyubov Andreevna. I ate crocodiles.
Pischik. Think ...
Lopakhin. Until now, there were only gentlemen and men in the village,
and now there are more summer residents. All cities, even the smallest, are now surrounded by dachas. And we can say that the summer resident in twenty years will multiply to extraordinary. Now he only drinks tea on the balcony, but it may happen that on his one tithe he will take care of the household, and then your cherry orchard will become happy, rich, luxurious ...
Gaev(indignant)... What nonsense!
(A.P. Chekhov, "The Cherry Orchard")
In this scene, the characters exchange lines. What is the name of this form of communication between characters in a work of art?
The heroes have different visions of the future fate of the cherry orchard. Indicate the term for the sharp clash of views and life principles of the characters, characteristic of a dramatic work.
Establish a correspondence between the characters present in this fragment and the facts of their further destiny: For each position of the first column, match the corresponding position from the second column.
CHARACTERS
A) Lyubov Andreevna
B) Lopakhin
FACTS OF THEIR FURTHER FATE
1) stay in an abandoned house
2) will go to Paris
3) buy an estate
4) will enter the service of the Ragulin
What is the name of a significant detail that is a means of characterizing a character ("looking at the clock")?
Lyubov Andreevna's phrase "I ate the crocodiles" contains a subtle hidden mockery in response to Pischik's question. What is the name of such a means of the comic in a literary work?
8. Why is Lopakhin's proposal rejected by the owners of the cherry orchard?
9. In which works of Russian literature is shown the opposition between the heroes - carriers of opposite positions, and in what way can these positions be compared with the views of the heroes of The Cherry Orchard?
At the very edge of the village of Mironositskoye, in the barn of the elder Prokofy, the belated hunters settled down for the night. There were only two of them: the veterinarian Ivan Ivanovich and the gymnasium teacher Burkin. Ivan Ivanitch had a rather strange double surname- Chimsha-Himalayan, which did not suit him at all, and he was called in the whole province simply by name and patronymic; he lived near the city in a stud farm and has now come hunting in order to breathe clean air. The teacher of the gymnasium, Burkin, visited Counts P. every summer and had long been his own man in this area.
We didn’t sleep. Ivan Ivanitch, a tall, thin old man with a long mustache, was sitting outside at the entrance, smoking a pipe; it was lit by the moon. Burkin lay inside in the hay, and he was not visible in the dark.
Told different stories... Among other things, they said that the headman's wife, Mavra, a healthy and intelligent woman, in her entire life had never been farther than her native village, had never seen either the city or the railway, and in the last ten years she had been sitting at the stove and nothing more. she went out at night.
- What's so surprising! - said Burkin. - There are many people in this world who are lonely by nature, who, like a hermit crab or a snail, try to go into their shells. Perhaps there is a phenomenon of atavism, a return to the time when the human ancestor was not yet a social animal and lived alone in his den, or maybe this is just one of the varieties of human character - who knows? I am not a natural scientist and it is not my business to touch upon such questions; I just want to say that people like Mavra are not uncommon. Why, it's not far to search, two months ago a certain Belikov, a teacher of the Greek language, my friend, died in our town. You've heard of him, of course. He was remarkable in that he always, even in very good weather, went out in galoshes and with an umbrella, and certainly in a warm coat with cotton wool. He had an umbrella in a case, and a watch in a case made of gray suede, and when he took out a penknife to sharpen a pencil, he also had a knife in a case; and the face, too, seemed to be in a case, as he hid it all the time in a raised collar. He wore dark glasses, a sweatshirt, covered his ears with cotton wool, and when he got on a cab, he ordered to lift the top. In a word, this person had a constant and irresistible desire to surround himself with a shell, to create for himself, so to speak, a case that would isolate him, protect him from external influences. Reality irritated him, frightened him, kept him in constant anxiety, and, perhaps, in order to justify this timidity of his, his aversion to the present, he always praised the past and what never happened; and the ancient languages that he taught were for him, in essence, the same galoshes and an umbrella where he hid from real life.
(A.P. Chekhov, "Man in a Case")
Establish a correspondence between the characters of A.P. Chekhov, somewhat similar to Belikov, and the names of the works in which they appear: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
CHARACTERS
A) Worms
B) Ochumelov
C) Startsev
NAMES OF WORKS
1) "Ionych"
2) "Student"
3) "Death of an official"
4) "Chameleon"
We learn about the events of Belikov's life from the words of the teacher Burkin. What is the name of the character on whose behalf the story is being told?
What is the name of the characterization tool based on the description of his appearance ("Ivan Ivanovich, a tall, thin old man with a long mustache ...")?
Indicate the technique used in the following phrase of Burkina: "There are many people in this world who are lonely by nature, who, like a hermit crab or a snail, try to go into their shells."
What term denotes a small expressive detail that serves as a means of characterizing a character ("And he had an umbrella in a case, and a watch in a gray suede case ...")?
Indicate the literary direction, the principles of which are embodied in Chekhov's works.
Name the genre to which the work of A.P. Chekhov's "Man in a Case".
8. How appearance and Belikov's way of life correlate with his favorite phrase: "How would something happen?"
9. The heroes of what works of Russian classics lead a "case" way of life and in what way are they different or similar to Chekhov's Belikov?
1. What are the values for the character? Money, friendship, power, faith, something else? How important are they to him?
2. What is outwardly beautiful for a character and what is ugly? "Outwardly" means all five senses, some music may be beautiful for him, and some smell - disgusting. A certain style in general can be beautiful - for example, some are crazy about Gothic.
A) Does the character have an ideal of beauty, someone or something that seems to him to be perfect, absolutely beautiful?
B) Is there something that disgusts him?
Q) How important is beauty to a character?
3. Does the character have strict moral principles?
A) How strict are they?
B) Can he sacrifice them? If so, under what circumstances?
C) Is there a concept of taboo for the character, Sin, that is, it is impossible simply because it is impossible?
TEST 1: How would a character answer the question "What would you not do for anything?"
TEST 2: How does the character feel about the expression "If you can't, but you really want to, then you can"?
4. Is the character honest?
A) Under what circumstances is a character able to lie? Is it easy for him, or will he be honest to the last?
B) How does the character feel about lying?
5. Does the character profess any religion / philosophy?
A) Why does he profess this particular religion / philosophy?
B) Has he previously professed any other religion / philosophy? If so, why did he change it?
Q) How seriously does he take his religion / philosophy?
6. What does the character want from life - fame, prosperity, love? How does he want to live - quiet and full, wandering in search of adventure, luxurious and rich, alone in the wilderness?
7. Is there something the character lives for?
A) Does he think that he has a goal in his life that he must achieve or a mission that he must fulfill?
B) What is the meaning of his life, something without which he cannot imagine himself? In free wanderings, communication with friends, battles?
Q) Does the character have a secret dream, the most important desire?
TEST: How would the character himself answer the question "What do you live for"?
8. How does your character feel about death?
A) What, according to the character, is death? Does the "official" opinion of the religion / philosophy he professes coincide with his own?
B) Is he afraid of dying?
Q) What feelings does the sight of a dead body evoke in him?
9. Is it easy to scare a character? What is he afraid of? Does he have irrational fears, phobias, nightmares?
10. Under what circumstances will a character run to save his life?
11. Is the character romantic or rather cynical?
A) Does the character tend to embellish the situation, "look at the world through rose-colored glasses"?
B) If not, is the character inclined to "rip off the rose-colored glasses" from others, to deromantize the situation?
12. Is the character optimistic, realistic, or pessimistic?
A) Is he prone to whining?
B) Does he tend to encourage others?
TEST 1: Fast! Is the character glass half full or half empty? Cognac smells like bedbugs, or brandy bedbugs? Does he have a lower salary, or does his neighbor have more?
TEST 2: The party is in a cave filled with stones. The blockage is serious, it is hardly realistic to cope with it on your own. They do not know if anyone knows where they are or what is wrong with them. They are equally likely to be saved in an hour or never. How will the character behave in such a situation?
RELATIONSHIP OF THE CHARACTER TO OTHERS
1. Is the opinion of others about him important for the character? A) Is the character inclined to show off, "playing for the audience"?
B) Does the character seek to please others?
C) What would he like to be thought of him? What does he want to look like in the eyes of others?
2. Is the character sociable?
A) Is it easy for him to meet new acquaintances?
B) Does he like to be in the company, or does he prefer solitude?
TEST 1: Does your character enjoy parties?
TEST 2: How would your character feel about spending two days at home all alone?
3. Is the character tolerant of others?
A) Can he tolerate when others behave, in his opinion, wrong?
B) Is he inclined to moralizing?
4. Does the character divide people into "us" and "strangers"?
A) How strictly is the line drawn between "we" and "they" for the character?
B) How does his behavior differ with "friends" and "strangers"?
Q) Under what circumstances will a "stranger" become a "friend" for a character? Is it easy?
D) How does the character relate to strangers and strangers?
E) Is there such a thing for a character as "enemies"?
5. Is the character prone to any kind of chauvinism?
A) How does it affect the character's attitude to another character:
a. Floor?
b. Age?
c. Race?
d. Appearance?
e. Clothing?
f. Social status?
B) Does the character have any special relationship with members of his race?
Q) How does the character relate to representatives of non-humanoid (Greenskins, Martians, centaurs, etc.) races?
D) How does the character relate to manifestations of someone else's chauvinism?
TEST: Tavern. A drunken company sits at a table next to the character and tells jokes about his race ("Do you know how many hobbits it takes to change a light bulb? ..."). His reaction?
6. Is the character inclined to forgive, or is he more vindictive? Are there things he doesn't forgive?
7. Is the character vengeful?
A) What is the character inclined to revenge for?
B) How important is revenge to him?
Q) If the character takes revenge, then on the "eye for an eye" principle or on the principle "will be rewarded a hundredfold"?
D) How far can a character go in their revenge?
E) What is he willing to go for revenge?
F) If it turns out that revenge requires too much time, effort and money, will the character give up or go to the end?
8. Is the character inclined to self-sacrifice?
A) Under what circumstances can he risk his health or life?
B) Under what circumstances will he go to IMMEDIATELY death?
C) Under what circumstances is the character willing to donate ...
1) Soul?
2) Reason?
3) Freedom?
4) Wealth?
5) The main force(For a magician, this is an opportunity to conjure, for a priest - God's blessing, for a cyberpunk hacker - a neuroshunt)?
6) Close?
D) Is there something that the character does not donate under any circumstances?
TEST: Compare the two situations.
First: Fight. The character sees that his comrade is being targeted with a crossbow. He can have time to cover it with his body, but there is no time for anything else.
Second: The character's comrades are going to be hanged. There is no chance to free him, but there is an opportunity to switch places with him. There is time to think it over.
Will the character behave differently in these situations?
9. How freedom-loving is the character?
A) Is he inclined to obey, or, on the contrary, the fact that he is ordered makes him want to do the opposite? If the latter is more likely, then is there someone to whom he is still ready to obey ("Besides the Lord, I did not know kings ...")?
B) How does he relate to elders and government officials?
Q) How does he feel about the rule of law over himself?
D) Is he inclined to punctually execute the instructions given to him, or rather, he will do it first, and then he will understand?
E) Can a character come to terms with slavery?
F) Can the character endure slavery for a while?
G) Could the character serve (for example, at the table)?
H) Would the character easily submit to the force, or would he stand to the last?
I) Is there something that would make the character humiliate?
K) Is there for him the concepts of "Duty of Service", "Duty of Honor", etc.?
L) Is there a difference for a character between submitting to someone who has legal authority over him and submitting to someone who is simply stronger?
10. How powerful is the character?
A) Does the character like ordering others?
B) How does he relate to the junior in rank?
Q) How does the character behave with subordinates?
D) Could the character become a slave owner?
E) Could the character become the boss?
F) How does the character relate to people with a slave mentality who are ready to obey?
G) How does he relate to the disobedient, who do not recognize power over themselves?
11. Is the character cruel?
A) How does he relate to other people's death and suffering? Are they terrible for him, does he look at them coolly, or is he happy about them?
B) Can he kill? If so, under what circumstances? How will he feel at the same time? Will it be a shock for him, a pleasure, or will he react to it with indifference?
Q) Has he killed before? If so, under what circumstances? How did this affect him?
D) Is the character capable of torture? How cruel? If so, how will he feel?
E) In combat, does the character only try to defend, disarm, immobilize, maim or kill opponents?
TEST 1: A stranger, armed with a sword, runs at the character. In the hands of the character is a loaded pistol. He is guaranteed to hit any point on the body of a runner, shoot in the air or run away. His actions? And in a situation where there is no way to escape?
TEST 2: In front of the character's eyes, a person familiar to the character (for example, a member of his team) is going to finish off a defeated enemy who is not able to resist. His reaction?
TEST 3: A familiar character is about to torture a prisoner. The character's reaction? Will he try to stop him, turn away, participate, observe, or remain indifferent?
TEST 4: A familiar character did torture. Will this change your character's attitude towards him? How?
THE ATTITUDE OF A CHARACTER TO ITSELF
1. How does the character feel about himself? A) Does he treat himself pathetically or with a share of self-irony?
B) How much does he love himself?
Q) Does it happen that a character hates or despises himself?
D) How does the character feel about being insulted?
E) How does the character feel about laughing at himself?
F) Does the character tend to feel sorry for himself?
TEST: In a conversation with friends, the character accidentally makes a funny and stupid slip of the tongue. Friends laugh happily. His reaction? Will he be offended, angry, laugh with them? How will his reaction change if those with whom he speaks are not friends, but unfamiliar people?
2. How satisfied is the character with himself? Is there anything in his character that he would like to change?
3. How confident is the character? Does he believe that he will succeed?
TEST: The character is standing on the edge of a wide and wide gorge, across which a ghostly bridge is thrown. He knows that "The bridge will only withstand those who believe in themselves." His actions?
4. Is it easy to influence, convince him of something? How does he react to attempts to influence him?
TEST: The preacher on the street stops the character and begins to expound his faith to him, urging him to join it. His reaction?
5. How much is the character in control of himself?
A) Is it easy to provoke a character into an action?
B) Is it easy to bring him into a state of passion?
C) Is it easy for a character, being in a state of passion, to pull himself together?
D) Does the character have a pet peeve, anything that makes him lose his temper easily?
E) Does it happen that in a state of passion he performs actions that he later regrets?
F) Is there something that is an overwhelming temptation for the character?
6. How does the character have fun and relieve stress?
A) Does the character have hobbies, hobbies?
B) What does he like to do?
Q) What does he not like to do?
D) Does he have bad (or harmless) habits? How much does he depend on them?
E) What is more important for the character - "I have to" or "I want"?
F) Can he satisfy his desires at the expense of duties?
G) Can he suppress desires for the sake of responsibilities?
One cannot but agree with this. The death of Katerina is a deliberate protest against the Kalinovsky peace, and not a gesture of despair. Throwing herself off the cliff into the Volga, she forever made her feel her power over them. The very recognition of Katerina on her knees before her husband and all the people is already a kind of protest, a challenge to her oppressors. The author himself admires his heroine, who is able to resist the whole world, just not to get bogged down in cruel and inhuman laws. For Katerina, sincerity, love, and justice have always remained the vital values. Her monologues are imbued with a special drama, opening the door for a "ray of light" to this " dark kingdom"Tyrants". Katerina deliberately went against the Kalinov world, she had a presentiment of the outcome of her protest and was not afraid to go forward. A fragile young girl stands alone to resolve the conflict. To do this, she has to sacrifice herself, but her death was inevitable. And maybe for someone Katerina's act is just weakness, but for me it is a courageous and resolute protest against the oppressors of human life. " 12% of the examinees who completed this task, according to the 1st criterion, received 0 points, 32% and 33% of the examinees received 1 point and 2 points, 23% - 3 points. The situation is worse with the appeal of graduates to theoretical and literary knowledge in the process of creating a work (the second criterion): almost half (47%) score 0 points on it, 1 point is received by 29% of students, 19% - 2 points and only 4% - 3 points. To a greater or lesser extent, students are attracted to the text of a work of art. The validity of its use in answering the question to the Turgenev novel was assessed as follows: 36% of students receive 1 point, 32% - 2 points, 16% - 3 points, and 15% of graduates do not refer to the text of the work. Results close to those indicated were demonstrated by the criteria of consistency and consistency in the presentation of the material and adherence to the norms of speech. In one of the variants, the students were asked the question: “What is, according to L.N. Tolstoy, "real life" and which of the heroes of the novel "War and Peace" lives such a life? " The percentage of completion of this task is 36% of maximum score... When performing a similar task in 2007, from 5 to 12% of graduates approached the maximum score, 25% of students wrote the work at an extremely superficial level, 11% did not start writing the work, up to 20% of graduates received 0 points. According to the results of the USE in 2008, when answering this question on the first criterion, 35% of students were assessed with 1 point, 18% - 2 points, 16% - 3 points, and 31% of students received 0 points. 37% of graduates did not use literary terms and concepts, only 4% used theoretical and literary knowledge. Sufficient reasoning of the answer was demonstrated by 16% of the graduates who wrote this option (according to the 4th criterion, they received 3 points). According to the same criterion, 32% of the examinees received 2 points for an essay on this topic, 36% - 1 point and 15% received 0 points. 35% of the examinees made a large number of speech errors, which made it possible to evaluate their work according to the 5th criterion, 0 points. The foregoing allows us to conclude that training the literature is not systematic and deep enough. Here is a fragment of the work, assessed by 3 points according to the first, fourth and fifth criteria, however, according to the second and third, the student was awarded only one and two points, respectively. “Real life,” according to Tolstoy, is life for the family, the people, and the Motherland. Only favorite Tolstoy characters are capable of living like this - Natasha Rostova, Pierre Bezukhov, Andrei Bolkonsky, Marya Bolkonskaya. The writer deliberately 351 did not endow them with natural beauty. He believes that it contains lies and falsity. Let us recall the description of Helen Kuragina: the author compares her with antique sculptures, emphasizes the beauty of her face, but does not describe her eyes. Tolstoy's eyes are the key to the souls of the heroes. For Natasha they are "black, lively", for Marya they are "radiant", for Pierre they are simply kind. The characters capable of "real life" go through spiritual development throughout the novel. Andrei Bolkonsky sharply changes his opinion about life after the "Austerlitz sky", the most important event in the life of Pierre - a meeting in captivity with Platon Karataev. Marya Bolkonskaya is a symbol of self-sacrifice, kindness and sincerity. Natasha, at the end of her spiritual quest, comes to the true destiny of a woman - to motherhood. " The graduates coped worse than others with the answer to the question to the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov", who is studying the survey: "Why was Andrei Shtolts unable to help his friend Ilya Oblomov return to an active life?" (average percentage of completion is 30% of the maximum score). In 2007 assignments high level for this work has not been offered. Let us note some positive changes in the answers to problematic questions on the poem by N.A. Nekrasov "For whom it is good to live in Russia." The average percentage of these assignments completed in 2008 is higher than last year. It amounted to 36% (from 32 to 40%). In the best work, students are close to the anticipated milestone of 40% of the maximum score. At the same time, assignments on the works of poets of the nineteenth century are still difficult for students. In the second part of the work, the students were offered for analysis a poem by F.I. Tyutchev, the average percentage of completion of basic tasks was 45%. However, when graduates are asked to express their understanding of the meaning of poetic images in free expression of a limited scope, their achievements turned out to be insignificant. The results of the tasks of the third part on the lyrics of F.I. Tyutchev - 34% and N.A. Nekrasov - only 22% of the maximum score. Content block "From the literature of the late 19th - early 20th century" in open variants of the exam 2008 is presented by tasks of basic and increased levels of complexity to a fragment of the play by A.P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard", poems by M. Tsvetaeva "Poems to Blok" and AABlok "Stranger". The average percentage of completing the tasks of the basic part to the play by A.P. Chekhov is 40%. 47% of the examinees could not answer the question about the stage in the development of the plot of the play, reflected in the presented fragment (correct answer: the denouement of the action). 85% found it difficult to answer the question: "What is the name of the author's attitude to the actors, their relationships, plot situations, which is characteristic of Chekhov's plays, which is not expressed directly in the text, hidden and, as it were, arising from individual remarks and details?" (Answer: subtext or undercurrent). 71% could not give the name of the colloquial expressions conditioned by the character of the character and giving his statement a kind of appropriate rudeness ("So, until spring. Come out, gentlemen ... Goodbye! ...") (Answer: vernacular). The average percentage of completing tasks with a limited detailed answer to the play by A.P. Chekhov is 24% of the maximum score. The students answered the questions: "How does the given fragment thematically echo with the beginning of the play?" (C1); "What does the knock of the ax, mentioned twice at the end of the fragment, symbolize?" (C2) and "What works of Russian classics show the drama of a serf, and in what way do you see the similarities between Firs and the heroes of these works?" (C3). In the works of a strong group of students who received the maximum 3 points in the answer to question C1, 352 it was said that “the beginning of the play is opposed to the ending: at the beginning Ranevskaya returns to her native estate, at the end she leaves it, apparently forever. In the first scene, cherry blossoms are in bloom and waiting for a miracle that can save the garden. In the end, the cherries die, the house, and the devoted footman Firs, one of the symbols of the past. Expectation and hope give way to dead silence. " Answering the second question, a strong group of students noted that "the knocking of the ax symbolizes not only the destruction of the garden of Ranevskaya and Gaev, but also the destruction of the old noble world: the age-old foundations of the noble society are" cut down ", they are being replaced by the merchants - profit, commerce." At the same time, in some works, it was said about the haste of Lopakhin, cutting down the cherry orchard before Ranevskaya's departure, i.e. "The knock of the ax speaks of the rapidity of changes in the life of society." Discussing the fate of Firs, the graduates recalled the peasants from the poem by N.A. Nekrasov "Who Lives Well in Russia" (chapter "The Last One"): as well as Oblomov's servant Zakhara (novel by I. A. Goncharov "Oblomov"). The average percentage of completing basic level assignments based on A. Blok's poem "Stranger" is 38% (from 34 to 41%), while in the exam in 2007 it was 47% (from 24 to 65%). 39% of the examinees could not answer the question about the modernist movement in poetry of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, a prominent representative of which is A.A. Block (symbolism). 66% found it difficult to name an artistic technique based on the opposition of objects and phenomena (contrast). From 46 to 75% of graduates experience difficulties in defining the pictorial and expressive means used by the poet in the poem (metaphor, epithet, etc.). For completing the task C4 "What truth does the lyrical hero discover for himself in the finale of the poem (final stanza)?" 30.6% of examinees received 0 points (30.6% - 1 point, 11% - 2 points and only 3.4% - maximum 3 points). The emotional state of the lyric hero of the poem "Stranger" (C5) could not be explained by 26% of those who answered the question. 38.9% of the examinees who completed this task scored 1 point and 7.3% - 3 points. 19.3% of the examinees who answered the question: "In which works of Russian lyric poetry the idea of the sublime and the beautiful is associated with the female image and how are they similar and different from the poem" Stranger? " 1 point, respectively, 2 and 3 points were scored by 13.5 and 5.6% of students. Here are examples of works by students who answered questions to the poem by A.A. Blok: 1) In one of the works, an empty conclusion was formulated that distorts the meaning of the poem: “all troubles come from wine” (the answer was correctly assessed by experts at 0 points). 2) Students of the strong group discovered the ability to accurately and succinctly express their understanding of the meaning of the poem. These works, rated 3 points, speak of the opposition “ scary world"Reality filled with a" pernicious spirit "," drunken shouts "and" dust ", and the world of a stranger - beautiful and charming"; the examinee notes that “looking at the Beautiful Lady, the lyric hero realizes that the stranger is the treasure of his soul; this is the truth that he reveals. " Considering the poem in a literary context, most of the students rightfully named the lyric works of A.S. Pushkin (“I remember a wonderful moment ...”, “Madonna”, etc.), in the center of which is a beautiful and pure female image. 353 It is obvious that different results according to the work of one poet can be explained by the difference in the understanding of the meaning of the poem by students. In one of the variants of the KIM, the poem by M. Tsvetaeva "Poems to Blok" was proposed for analysis. The average percentage of completing tasks for the basic part is 41%, for the increased part - 36% of the maximum score. Only 31% of the examinees who performed this option were able to name the traditional lyric genre with which the poem of M.I. Tsvetaeva "Poems to Blok" message. 67% of the examinees did not cope with the task: “Indicate a technique based on assimilating some phenomena to others and forming a figurative-associative series in the poem by M.I. Tsvetaeva "(answer: comparison). Half of the respondents did not name the stylistic device used by M.I. Tsvetaeva in the line "In the gentle cold of motionless ages"? (Answer: sound writing; alliteration). With questions increased complexity, proposed for the poem, did not cope with an average of 18% of graduates. At the same time, from 11% to 13% scored the maximum 3 points. Question C4 ("What is the inner appearance of the poet, to whom the poem" Poems to Blok "is addressed?) Turned out to be difficult for 19% of the examinees who received 0 points, the rest coped with the task: 45% of the graduates got 1 point, 25% - 2 points and 3 points - 11%. With question C5 (“What feelings prevail in the lyrical expression of the heroine of MI Tsvetaeva's poem“ Poems to Blok ”?) 17% of graduates failed, 43% got 1 point, 29% - 2 points, 12% - 3 points. Question C6 (“Which of the Russian poets, like MI Tsvetaeva, addressed friends or fellow writers in their lyrics and what unites works of this kind?”) Caused difficulty for 17% of the respondents, at the same time, they answered with varying completeness on it 40% of examinees (1 point), 32% (2 points), 11% (3 points). Here are examples of works evaluated by experts with 3 points. " Inner world A. Blok was "interested" in more than one M. Tsvetaeva. A. Akhmatova in the poem "I came to visit the poet ..." also expressed her attitude to the poet. Blok was highly regarded by poetesses. M. Tsvetaeva admires him, she is ready to lift his name to heaven. She compares his name "with a bird in his hand," with "a piece of ice on the tongue," and so on. All these are examples of sincere admiration for the poet, whose “big name” is “thundering”. " Speaking about the feelings prevailing in the lyrical expression, the graduates called the feeling of admiration: “The poet pronounces the name of the poet with trepidation, caution”; "One gets the impression that Tsvetaeva values this person very much." Answering question C6, the examinees of the strong group named various poems by A.S. Pushkin, S.A. Yesenin, A.A. Akhmatova and others, indicating that they were written in the genre of views, feelings, questions and admiration. " The problematic tasks of the third part were presented by questions based on the play by M. Gorky "At the Bottom". In answer to the question: "Is Bubnov's" truth "triumphant in the finale of M. Gorky's play" At the Bottom "? Justify your opinion ”according to the first criterion (depth and independence of understanding the problem proposed in the question) 0 points were received by 29% of respondents, experts rated 10% of graduates with 3 points. 26% of the examinees who answered the question “Why is the dream of the night lodgers to rise“ from the bottom ”for most of them is unrealizable?" The percentage of completion of these tasks is from 35 to 41% of the maximum score (the average percentage of completion is 38%), which is almost 10% lower than last year. Insufficient knowledge of theoretical and literary concepts was demonstrated, respectively, by 47 and 44% of graduates, inability to refer to the text of a work during analysis - 33% and 38% of 354 graduates, 31% of examinees received 0 points on the fifth criterion - adherence to speech norms. In one of the options, part 3 was asked to answer the question: “Why is the love that I.A. Bunin considered "great happiness", ends tragically in many of the writer's works? " (literature material of the students' choice). The average percentage of completion of this task was 33% of the maximum score, which is 10% lower than the results of 2007. At the same time, such questions are traditional for school essay and their unsatisfactory performance demonstrates the problems of teaching. Mastering the creativity of V.V. Mayakovsky was tested only by problematic issues. Results of fulfilling the answer to the question: "How do you understand the meaning of the title of the poem" A Cloud in Pants "? »Are not high: 26% of the maximum score. Note that the analysis of a poetic text and writing an essay based on poetic creativity traditionally cause difficulties for the examinees. In this regard, it is necessary in the process of studying the literature to pay special attention to the formation of these skills. The informative block "From the literature of the twentieth century" in open versions of the USE 2008 is presented by tasks of the basic and advanced level to the poems of S.A. Yesenin "Letter to Mother" and A.A. Akhmatova "Primorsky Sonnet", as well as a problematic question on the lyrics of A. A.Akhmatova. The average percentage of completing the tasks of the basic part on the poem by S.A. Yesenin is 39% (from 35% to 44%) and tasks with a limited detailed answer - 35% (from 33% to 37%), which is lower than the results of 2007. Almost half of the examinees did not cope with the question: "What are the names of such words as" sadanul "," helluva lot "," returned ", which create a sincere, confidential tone of the lyric hero's appeal to his mother?" (answer: " common words"). The same number of graduates do not know the concepts of "anaphora" and "artistic detail", 48% of the examinees do not know such a means artistic expression as an inversion, although the question stated that it “is to violate direct order words in a sentence ". At the same time, most of the graduates successfully cope with tasks C4-C6. So, with task C4 (“In what images of the poem“ Letter to the Mother ”is embodied the idea of the lyrical hero about the“ small homeland ”?”) 82% of the respondents coped with it. Question C5 (“What feelings does the lyrical hero feel about his mother and home?”) Caused difficulties only for 8% of the respondents. However, the questions related to the inclusion of the work in the literary context are still difficult for students (“What poems of Russian poets are addressed to to a loved one and what motives bring them closer to the poem "Letter to Mother"? "). One fourth of the respondents could not answer this question, and only 9% of the examinees received the maximum score. Let's comment on the answers to the last question: most of the graduates were able to recall only the works of A.S. Pushkin dedicated to the nanny - “ Winter evening"And" Nurse ", and only a few works of a strong group of students named poems from the cycle" In Memory of Mother "by AT Tvardovsky, in which" motives home, memory, bitterness from the loss of loved ones ”. Pupils demonstrated quite solid knowledge by completing assignments to the poem by A.A. Akhmatova "Primorsky Sonnet". The tasks of the basic part are completed by 52% (from 51% to 54%). Graduates possess such literary concepts as metaphor and epithet, know the literary direction, which is based on an objective reflection of reality and to which the later work of A.A. Akhmatova (realism). However, more than half of the respondents (52%) found it difficult to indicate the 355th size, which the poem was written with, as in previous years. The average percentage of completing tasks with a limited detailed answer is 34% of the maximum score (from 32% to 36%). The result of answering question C4 (“What is the result of the thoughts of the lyric heroine of the poem“ Primorsky Sonnet ”?”) Was as follows: 14% of the examinees received 0 points, 14% - 1 point, 27% and 45% - 2 and 3 points, respectively. The question about the emotional tone of the poem (C5) was not answered by 18% of the respondents, 1, 2 and 3 points were scored respectively by 36%, 28% and 17% of the examinees. Answering question C6 (“In the works of which Russian poets of the 19th - 20th centuries does the“ voice of eternity ”sound and which of them is close to AA Akhmatova in the embodiment of this theme?”) 86% were able to score 1 point (41%), 2 points (34%), 3 points (10%) of students, the remaining 14% could not include the poem in the literary context. In this regard, let us emphasize once again the relevance of the problem of using intra-subject connections in teaching literature. Answering the question of a problematic task on the lyrics of A.A. Akhmatova (“Why, in one of her poems, reflecting on poetry, AA Akhmatova said:“ If you knew what kind of rubbish poetry grows out of without knowing shame… ”?) points. According to the main first criterion (the depth and independence of understanding the problem proposed in the question), 46% of the examinees received 0 points and only 8% of the respondents received the maximum 3 points. According to other criteria (the level of theoretical and literary knowledge; the validity of attracting the text of the work, the consistency and consistency of presentation, adherence to the norms of speech) 0 points were received from 46% to 51% of examinees and only from 3% to 5% of graduates were given 3 points. 10.5. Analysis of the results of performing work on literature by graduates with different levels of training Analysis of the results of execution examination work students from different-level groups was carried out on the material of statistical data collected on 10 versions of the KIM 2008. Each of the options was carried out by a group of test takers of at least 713 people (in some versions, the maximum number was 820 people). Each of the two parts of the work was built on the principle of increasing the complexity of the tasks (from tasks with a short answer to a task with a short coherent answer), the third part (a detailed answer to a problematic question in the form of an essay) was the most difficult part of the exam. Tasks of these types differ in complexity and can be used as the basis for differentiating the examinees by their level of training. It should be noted that, in general, USE results In 2008, the material of the course of the senior classes was mastered only satisfactorily. The graduates experienced the least difficulty when performing tests with a short answer (B), gaining the main number of points for completing the tasks of this part (4-12 points were enough to get the mark "3"). Figure 10.2 below shows the performance of short answer tasks (type B) by students from different groups. 356 100.0% 90.0% 80.0% 70.0% 2 60.0% 3 50.0% 4 40.0% 5 30.0% 50% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0 % B10 B11 B12 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 Job number Fig. 10.2. The results of the tasks with short answer (B) The percentage of completion of tasks of this type by students who received a grade "2" reaches only 10%. At the same time, the most difficult for them are the tasks on the epic (or drama) B3 and on the lyrics: B9 and B12. The percentage of completion of tasks with a short answer by those who received a grade "3" ranges from 25% to 40%. This group of examinees coped worst of all with tasks B2, B3, B8, B9 and B12 (for example: "Indicate the term that the author's brief remarks are called in a dramatic work concerning the place and time of action, tone and intonation pronounced by the characters" // answer: remark; "What are the names of the names that reflect the characteristics of the characters and the worldview of the characters (Prostakova, Skotinin, etc.)?" // answer: speaking). These students cannot name the type " little man"(The hero of the story" The Overcoat "by NV Gogol), find it difficult to define metaphors, epithets based on works of poetic lyrics. Some of the graduates could not remember the titles of the chapters of the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov's "A Hero of Our Time", experienced difficulty in naming characters in her works. In particular, the surname of one of the heroines of the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov": instead of pointing to Pshenitsyna in the examination papers, one could find, for example, "Hostess". One of the tasks based on the play by D.I. Fonvizin's "The Minor" demanded from the examinees to enumerate the positive characters of the comedy. Some of the students, along with Milon, Pravdin and Starodum, called Skotinin, Prostakov, Vralman. A significant part of the graduates could not remember the names of Gogol's Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin, which, as indicated, is explained by the lack of time for repetition (the novella "The Overcoat" is studied in the programs of different authors in the 7th, 8th and 9th grades). It should be noted and insufficient knowledge of the examinees who received on the exam "2" and "3", fundamental theoretical and literary concepts, the number of which in school course literature does not go beyond three dozen. Some students, for example, did not recognize the concept of realism as a literary trend, did not know how to highlight an image-symbol, artistic detail and a metaphor. At the same time, the questions of the assignments were formulated quite informatively: they included the definition of a concept, an example was given ("What artistic device, 357 type of path, based on the transfer of properties of one phenomenon to another according to their similarity, is used by A.A. Blok in the poem" Stranger "( "And bottomless blue eyes // Blossom on the distant shore")? "). Thus, the reasons for the low results of the tasks of the basic level of complexity by students who received the exam "2" and "3" must be recognized as insufficient knowledge of the text of works (primarily at the level of its plot-compositional parts and the system of images), as well as the lack of mastery of theoretical - literary concepts. If we take into account that the approximate interval for completing tasks of the basic level is 60% -90%, then it is reached only by students who received a grade "4" (from 55% to 70%) and a grade "5" (from 76% to 90%) on the exam. ... WITH varying degrees the success of the examinees coped with the tasks that required writing a coherent answer (C). This type of assignment is presented in the examination paper at two levels. In both cases, the tasks are based on the traditions of studying a course in literature and writing essays on a literary theme. It should be noted that these tasks are not designed only for a “strong” graduate; less than 40%). As can be seen from Figure 10.3 below, the percentage of completion of tasks with a limited expanded answer (C1-C6) by a group of students who received a grade "2" on the exam is from 0% to 5%. These students do not start answering the problematic question (C7.1-C7.3). 100.0% 90.0% 80.0% 70.0% 2 60.0% 3 50.0% 4 40.0% 5 30.0% 50% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0% C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7.1.1 C7.1.2 C7.1.3 C7.1.4 C7.1.5 C7.2.1 C7.2.2 C7.2.3 C7.2.4 C7.2.5 C7.3.1 C7.3.2 C7.3.3 C7.3.4 C7. 3.5 Job number Fig. 10.3. Results of completing tasks with a detailed answer The percentage of tasks C1-C6 completed by students who received a grade of "3" - from 9% to 24%. Worst of all, these students perform task C3 (the inclusion of an epic (or dramatic) work in the historical and literary context). When completing the tasks of the third part, they also gain the minimum number of points for all criteria. Students who received a grade "4" are approaching the planned result, but this group serious problems causes task C6 (inclusion of 358 poetic works in the historical and literary context), the percentage of completion of which is less than 30%. In this regard, it must be stated that teachers are not yet sufficiently aware of the fact that the curriculum for grades 10 and 11 involves the study of the subject on a historical and literary basis. A characteristic drawback performing tasks requiring the involvement of a literary context is the construction of unsuccessful or false comparisons. So, in one of the variants of the examination work, the question was asked: “What poems of Russian poets have the character of a lyrical confession and what motives bring them closer to the poem of S.А. Yesenin's "Letter to Mother"? " Some students followed the path of enumerating poets for good luck, of course, not forgetting Pushkin (counting on his "all-embracing"), but the poet did not touch on the "mother" theme (it is known that he wrote with tenderness not about his mother, but about his nanny). Analysis of the fulfillment of tasks in part 3 by a group of students who received "4" shows that they receive the lowest number of points according to the second and third criteria: graduates do not show a sufficient level of theoretical and literary knowledge, make mistakes in the use of terms when analyzing literary material or not use literary terms, do not draw on the text well enough artwork, which is reflected in the retelling and the lack of the necessary comments. When performing tasks involving the inclusion of a work in the historical and literary context (C3 and C6), this group of students experiences the same difficulties as the previous groups, reaching 38% and 30%, respectively, which is below the expected level. The quality of this type of work requires from the examinees, first of all, a good knowledge of the text of the works. Ignorance of the works entailed factual errors such as the following: in one of the works it was argued that the happiness of Katerina and Boris (the play by AN Ostrovsky "The Thunderstorm") was prevented by Boris's parents. There are many examples of this kind in the works of graduates. As noted, high results are achieved only by the group of students who have received a grade "5" (the percentage of tasks C1 - C6 is from 70% to 85%). These students also successfully cope with the tasks of Part 3, the percentage of completion of which is higher than expected by the CMM developers (from 70% to 84%). The exam results also indicate that the failures of the examinees in writing an essay (part 3) and answers in the amount of 5-10 sentences (C1-C6) are associated with an insufficient formation of the skills to analyze and interpret a work of art as a whole; compare literary works, phenomena and facts, relying on general idea about the historical and cultural context, to comprehend their place and role in the historical and literary process; build written monologue on a literary theme. In general, the examinees coped with the examination test, showing results comparable to the results of the last year's exam. At the same time, there is still a sharp differentiation in the strong and weak groups of graduates who took part in the exam. 359 Table 10.7 Characteristics of the preparation of the exam participants Characteristic Description of the level of training of graduates of graduates Mark "2". The knowledge of students in this group is haphazard in nature, the level of primary score - 0-3 mastering general educational and special skills is extremely low. Students test score - 0-22 do not begin tasks that require the ability to analyze the text and create the number of examinees their own answer to the questions. Average percentage of completion - 4701 people (25.5%) tasks with a short answer (B) by different options ranged from 4.3% to 9.2%, the percentage of tasks that require writing a coherent answer (C) - from 0.5% to 1.4%. For comparison: in 2007, mark “2” was given to 20.5% of the examinees (1831 people) for a primary score of 0-11, a test score of 0-36. In 2008, with a significant increase in the number of examinees (2.6 times), the percentage of those who received the grade "2" increased by 4.2%. Mark "3". The knowledge of students in this group is more systematic, which is demonstrated by the Primary score - 4-12 level of tasks with a short answer (B) - determining the features; test score - 23-41 of the artistic world of individual writers (A.N. Ostrovsky, L.N. Tolstoy, The number of examiners F.M. Dostoevsky) and poets (A.S. Pushkin, S.A. Yesenin, A.A. Blok). Average - 6757 people (36.6%), the percentage of these assignments for various options ranges from 28.5% to 43.7%. However, the average percentage of completing tasks requiring a coherent answer (C) is still low: from 4.2% to 6.2%. Comparison shows that with an increase in the number of students who received the mark "3", as well as the overall number of those who took the USE, in 2008 the percentage of those who received the mark "3" decreased slightly - by 3%. However, in 2007, mark “3” was given to 39.7% of the examinees (3549 people) for a primary score of 12-26 (test score 37-55). Mark "4". Graduates of this group successfully cope with tasks with a Primary score of –13-30 short answer (B). They have an idea of literary trends, the test score is 42-60 genre specificity of literary works, pictorial- The number of examined expressive means of the language of works; they know how to determine the chronology and - 5273 people (28.6%) the scene of the events reflected in the work, are guided in the system of images and the problems of the works, they are able to identify the plot and compositional features of the works, to interpret the problems taking into account the author's intention. The average percentage of completion of tasks with a short answer (B) by graduates of this group by different options from 57.7% to 69.8%. This group of examinees begins to perform tasks that require writing a coherent answer (C), however, their results are lower than expected (average percentage of completion from 19.4% to 22.7%). With a significant increase in the number of graduates, the percentage of those who received the grade "4" not only did not decrease, but increased by 4%. (For comparison, the results of 2007: primary score 27-35, test score 56-66. The number of examinees - 2216 people - 24.8%). Mark "5". The examinees of this group demonstrate knowledge of the peculiarities Primary score - 31-45 literary directions, creative methods of writers, genre test score - 61-100 variety of Russian literature, possess knowledge of problems, systems Number of tested images of works included in the mandatory minimum education; - 1726 people (9.4%) know how to determine the chronology of the writer's work and events reflected in 360
At the very edge of the village of Mironositskoye, in the barn of the elder Prokofy, the belated hunters settled down for the night. There were only two of them: the veterinarian Ivan Ivanovich and the gymnasium teacher Burkin. Ivan Ivanitch had a rather strange, double surname– Chimsha-Himalayan, which did not suit him at all, and he was called in the whole province simply by name and patronymic; he lived near the city in a stud farm and has now come hunting in order to breathe clean air. The teacher of the gymnasium, Burkin, visited Counts P. every summer and had long been his own man in this area.
We didn't sleep. Ivan Ivanitch, a tall, thin old man with a long mustache, was sitting outside at the entrance, smoking a pipe; it was lit by the moon. Burkin lay inside in the hay, and he was not visible in the dark.
They told different stories. Among other things, they said that the headman's wife, Mavra, a healthy and intelligent woman, in all her life had never been farther than her native village, had never seen either the city or the railway, and in the last ten years she had been sitting at the stove and nothing more. she went out at night.
– What's so surprising about that!- said Burkin. - There are many people in this world who are lonely by nature, who, like a hermit crab or a snail, try to go into their shells. Perhaps there is a phenomenon of atavism, a return to the time when the human ancestor was not yet a social animal and lived alone in his den, or maybe this is just one of the varieties of human character– who knows? I am not a natural scientist and it is not my business to touch upon such questions; I just want to say that people like Mavra are not uncommon. Why, it's not far to search, two months ago a certain Belikov, a teacher of the Greek language, my friend, died in our town. You've heard of him, of course. He was remarkable in that he always, even in very good weather, went out in galoshes and with an umbrella, and certainly in a warm coat with cotton wool. He had an umbrella in a case, and a watch in a case made of gray suede, and when he took out a penknife to sharpen a pencil, he also had a knife in a case; and the face, too, seemed to be in a case, as he hid it all the time in a raised collar. He wore dark glasses, a sweatshirt, covered his ears with cotton wool, and when he got on a cab, he ordered to lift the top. In a word, this person had a constant and irresistible desire to surround himself with a shell, to create for himself, so to speak, a case that would isolate him, protect him from external influences. Reality irritated him, frightened him, kept him in constant anxiety, and, perhaps, in order to justify this timidity of his, his aversion to the present, he always praised the past and what had never happened; and the ancient languages that he taught were for him, in essence, the same galoshes and an umbrella where he hid from real life.
