Segmentation (from Latin Segmentum - segment) is the division of the speech stream into segments (slices, elements, segments of various lengths), which are isolated from a linear sequence of statements.
There are two types of segmentation - at the level of significant units (based on the plan of content) and at the sound, phonetic level (based on the plan of expression).
At the level of significant units, a sentence is distinguished - a syntagma (phrase) - a word - a morpheme - a phoneme. Segmentation here covers the units of all tiers of the language, so it can be called segmentation of the intertier type.
At the phonetic level, such units are distinguished as a phrase - a speech tact ( phonetic word) - syllable - sound. Segmentation is limited here to only one level (phonetic), so it can be called intratier segmentation.
As different segments of the speech chain, sound, syllable, measure, phrase belong to the segmental level. In relation to sign units, they are their realization, although there is no one-to-one correspondence between them. Suffice it to say that a phrase does not necessarily coincide with a sentence: it can also combine several sentences; the boundaries of a phonetic word (speech beat) most often do not coincide with the boundaries of a word as a lexical unit, etc.
There are both quantitative and qualitative differences between sound units.
Quantitative: a phrase can consist of several measures, a measure can consist of several syllables, a syllable can consist of several sounds. But the reverse is not true.
Qualitative: the unity of the phrase is created by intonation, the unity of the measure is created by stress, the unity of the syllable is created by a wave of sonority, the unity of sound is created by its relative acoustic and articulatory homogeneity.
The phonological aspect of phonetics involves the study of not only segmental, but also supersegmental units of the sound structure of the language. However, there is no consensus among scientists both about the quantitative composition of those and other units in general, and about their distribution over the two named groups.
Among various solutions the question is the following:
segmental units include only speech sounds, supersegmental units include only stress and intonation
segmental units include sounds, syllables, measures, phrases, supersegmental units include stress and intonation
segmental units include sounds, supersegmental units include syllables, measures, phrases, stress, intonation
Stress is the selection of one of the syllables of a non-single word. With the help of stress, syllables are combined into phonetic words. In Russian, the stressed syllable is distinguished by greater strength, duration and timbre.
stress- this is the allocation in the speech of one or another unit in a sequence of homogeneous units using prosodic means. Depending on which unit it corresponds to, stress is distinguished verbal(highlighting one of the syllables in the word), phrasal or syntagmatic (singling out one - usually the last - word in a phrase or syntagma), logical(semantic selection of one of the words in a phrase or syntagma).
Ways to highlight the stressed syllable in Russian - a clear arti-
culation and longer duration of sounds, strength (loudness) and timbre of the voice. Weak stress differs in strength from normal stress and designation
is expected by the sign ̀: through the window, two hours, his sister, he arrived, he became an engineer, etc.
Side (additional) stress- weak stress, which occurs in polysyllabic words along with the main stress and usually stands closer to the beginning of the word. Side stress highlights parts of complex
(oil and gas, gas pipeline, geological exploration) and complex abbreviated (building materials, gas industry, medical academy) words, as well as some prefixes: anti-corrosion, post-graduate, pro-American, post-industrial -
strial. In commonly used words, side stress is not
is divided: fisherman, St. John's wort, plumbing, old-fashioned. In words with three to four parts, three stresses are possible: the first two are
the last one is the main one: oil producing, aerial photography, dust up to impermeable, gas production oyba nќ.
logical stress- highlighting in speech with a stronger accent of any significant, important in semantic relation the words.
fixed accent- stress, which during the formation of grammatical forms of the word and during word formation remains in the same place: book, books, book, book, about the book, books, books, books, about books, call, call, call, call, call, call; book - book, little book, book; rich - rich man, wealth; provide - provision; intercessor - petition, to intercede. About 96% of Russian words
of the Russian language have a fixed stress either on the basis or on the ending.
Movable stress- stress that passes from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another, both during formation and word formation: letter - letters, fight - fights - struggle, star - stars, ear - ear - ears - ear, water - water. There are very few words with mobile stress, but they are among the most common and are included in the main vocabulary of the Russian language.
16. Emphasis. word stress
Stress - the allocation by any acoustic means of one of the components of speech:
A syllable as part of a phonetic word is word stress,
Words in the syntagma - logical stress,
Syntagms in the composition of the phrase - syntagmatic stress.
In Russian beats gl-th differs from unstressed forces-mi, quantity and quality of characteristics
ami. On average, a stressed vowel is 1.5-2 times longer than an unstressed one. The stress can be on any syllable and any part of words (rule, alphabet, bourgeoisie); in different grammatical forms of the same word, the stress can move from one syllable to another (leg - leg, accepted - accepted). Nevertheless, there are certain patterns: for example, in Russian (unlike modern Church Slavonic, which is close to it), the ending “th” / “th” cannot be stressed, Some Difficult words, as well as words with prefixes anti-, inter-, near-, counter-, super-, super-, ex-, etc., can have, in addition to the main one, side (or secondary) stress. The collateral stress is usually the first in order (closer to the beginning of the word), and the main stress is the second (closer to the end of the word): perjury, near-earth, vice president.
17. Phrase, clock, logical stress
French - creates a general rhythmic pattern of the phrase. A syntagma is a group of words representing a single semantic whole for a given context. The background syntagma is framed. For example, A tall, leggy blonde / passed by. 2 syntagmas, basically each has a single meaning. Syntagmatic stress is associated with division into syntagmas. The meaning of the statement depends on this. Recently / a visiting doctor appeared in the press. A recently arrived doctor / spoke in print. Related to the question of the articulation of syntagmas is the question of unuded words (clitics).
Logical ud-nie - a means of semantic allocation of any significant unit of the statement. Superimposed on the obligatory verbal stress, L. u. usually enhances the phonetic characteristics of the word, emphasizing information that is new or controversial for one of the interlocutors. For example, in the phrase "Your sister has come" L. u. can select any of the three words.
A speech beat is a part of a phonetic phrase, limited by a small pause and characterized by intonation incompleteness. Grammatically, the speech tact correlates with the common members of the sentence. If the speech tact consists of several phonetic words, the selection of one of the words (the most important) within the speech tact is called sigmatic stress.
Phrasal stress is the selection in the speech flow of the most important word in the semantic sense, such stress is one of the clock ones.
18. The concept of orthoepy. Russian literal pronunciation in his
East development
Orthoepy is literally the correct pronunciation. 1) R.o. is a section of the science of language, devoted to the norms of literary production and 2) R.o. - cos-st of the rules of normative literary pronunciation. The science that studies the variation of production norms of r.i. and develop pronounce recommendations. Orthoepy: 1. sound design of words. 2. pronunciation of a group of words (leg by foot) 3. pronunciation of separate gram. forms. 4. accentology.
Important language features were formed back in the 1st half of the 17th century as part of spoken language St. Petersburg has been competing with Moscow since the 18th century. This struggle continued into the 19th century. Now the pronunciation of Mi L is almost the same
19. Orthoepic norm. Norm options. Pronunciation styles.
Trends in the development of Russian lit. pronunciation
Orph.norm is understood as the only possible or preferred pronunciation option compared to others that are less consistent with the pronunciation system. normative scale: 1st level - a word without options (guardianship, alcohol). 2nd - equal options ("and") sparkling, flooded, lattice. 3rd - one is the main option, the second is acceptable ('gave - additional gave').
The unifying style is determined by the function of the system of language elements. You can distinguish between pronunciation styles: neutral, high, colloquial.
20. The concept of vocabulary and lexicology. Word. Lex. and gram-e
word meanings
L.-section of linguistics, from the vocabulary of the language, vocabulary. In a broader sense, see L.-the doctrine of words and stable phrases. Vuzkom, L. deals only with words. Allocate description and diahr-th L. + comparison. The word of the main structural-semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their St.S. Word-th Ur-n-roots-base for creating new words. Morph-th Ur-n-words form certain system groups.
According to the method of nomination: 1. independent, 2. service, 3. pronominal, 4. interjection.
According to the phonetic feature: single-beat, unstressed (clitics), multi-beat
By morphic feature: changeable, unchangeable.
S. have lex. and gram. values. L. the meaning of the word reflects one or another phenomenon of reality, character single word and individuate him; D.meaning-character of it as an element of a certain grammatical class.
21. Lex types. values
1) according to the degree of semantic motivation: involuntary / arbitrary
2) according to the method of nomination (direct, figurative) 3) if possible, lexical compatibility or type of relation between words 4) according to the nature of the functions performed.
22. Single-valued words. The phenomenon of polysemy. Transfer types
word meanings
One-word words - a clearly defined subject correlation (terms, tree names, property names.) Polysemy - the property of words to have several meanings. different items and real phenomena
23. System relations in vocabulary. Synonymy. Blue row.
Synonym types
Between the words that form the vocabulary of the language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express and in their phonetic design, i.e. by the similarity of their sound composition. From this point of view, three types of systemic relations between words are observed in the vocabulary of the Russian language: homonymous (coincidence of the sound of words with different meanings), synonymous (identity or similarity of the meaning of words with a complete difference in their sound), antonymic (opposite meaning of words with a difference in their sound ).S.-type of semantic relations jz \u003d x units, consisting in the complete or partial coincidence of their meanings. Types of synonyms: different sides or different degrees of manifestation (fear-horror); - stylistic; - semantic-stylistic; semantic style
24. System relations in vocabulary. Antonymy. Antonym types
Between the words that form the vocabulary of the language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express and in their phonetic design, i.e. by the similarity of their sound composition. From this point of view, three types of systemic relations between words are observed in the vocabulary of the Russian language: homonymous (coincidence of the sound of words with different meanings), synonymous (identity or similarity of the meaning of words with a complete difference in their sound), antonymic (opposite meaning of words with a difference in their sound ).A.-yaz.phenomenon, reflecting the ratio of yz-x units with the opposite value. 2 types: - counter-A. (words with full opposite meaning) and complementary A. (between lexemes, which occupy an intermediate position)
How stress appears in a speech stream depends to a large extent on the language. In some languages, stressed syllables have a higher or lower tone than unstressed ones - this is the so-called tone, or musical stress. In other languages, they may be pronounced higher or lower than the surrounding syllables (tone deviation), depending on the type of sentence. There is also dynamic (noisy, force) stress, qualitative (qualitative) stress (lack of vowel reduction) and quantitative stress (quantitative - increase in sound length, known in musical theory like agogics). An accent can have several of these characteristics at the same time. In addition, stress can be realized in varying degrees on different words in the same sentence; in some cases, the difference between the acoustic signals of stressed and unstressed syllables may be minimal.
The reverse process is also observed, when some historical changes affect the place of stress. So, for example, in the Russian language over the past hundred years, there has been a process of transferring stress to the root or to the beginning of a word, as its most significant parts that carry the main semantic load. For instance, roll, call, salt and other verbs -it in all forms except the 1st person form singular present and future tense ( roll, rolls, roll, roll; roll, ride etc.). Linguists explain this trend by the fact that over the past hundred years the pace of our lives has accelerated significantly and entailed an acceleration of speech, so such changes in stress allow us to more effectively capture the meaning of what we hear.
stress levels
Some languages distinguish between primary and secondary stress. Traditionally, it is considered that English language has two levels of stress, as, for example, in the words cóunterfòil [ˈkaʊntɚˌfɔɪl] and còunterintélligence [ˌkaʊntɚ.ɪnˈtɛlɪdʒəns], and in some works it has even been said that it has four levels of stress, but these studies often contradict each other.
The evolution of stress rules in Russian
- Each morpheme (prefix, root, suffix, ending) can be self-stressed (or type a), right-impact (or type b) and unstressed (or type c).
- The unit of stress is a word with prepositions, conjunctions, particles. At the same time, auxiliary words before the word are always unstressed, after the word they are always self-stressed.
- Old Russian also had reduced vowels (they are usually denoted by letters b and b). They were strong and weak; the latter is always weak. If there is another reduced before the weak reduced, it will be strong. The weak reduced have now disappeared, the strong have turned into O and e (horse → the end, end → end).
- We find the first shock morpheme. If it is self-stressed, the stress is on it, if it is right-stressed, it is a syllable to the right.
- But if the emphasis falls on a weak reduced one, we shift it to the left.
- If all morphemes are unstressed, the stress is on the first non-weak syllable.
For example, root hand- unstressed, ending -a self-percussion, ending -y and preposition on the unstressed, in and out hand, hand, in hand, on hand.
The modern emphasis is shifting to other, more complicated rules, while some words work according to the old rules, others according to the new ones. Phrases on hand and on the hand mean completely different things. Unconditionally stressed morphemes appeared - for example, the suffix -iv-(th) (happy). Stress has taken over the function of distinguishing cases - wives broke up into wives(r.p. units) and wives(s.p. pl.). In words to -er/-er the accent makes it clear whether it is a mechanism or a person: rope starter, starter with flag.
The beat accent - stronger stress of one word from the entire speech structure.
Phrase stress - a stronger emphasis on one of the measures of a phrase.
Usually occurs on the last word of a speech measure, and phrasal stress highlights the last measure.
Example: Lizaveta Iva[”]novna | sat in her room, | still in his ball gown [”]de, | immersed in deep contemplation.
Bar Accent – [”]
Phrase stress - ["']
Here bar and phrasal stress are not connected with the meaning. A word highlighted by a bar or phrasal stress is not more important in a semantic sense. The function of bar and phrasal stress is to phonetically combine several words into a speech beat and several beats into a phrase.
The bar accent can also move to other words of the bar. This is due to the actual division of the sentence, when the clock stress highlights the rheme, i.e. usually the new one that is reported in the sentence.
Example: the rooks have flown away - a new message may be that the rooks have flown away, and then the clock stress will highlight this word.
logical stress - highlighting in a speech tact with a stronger stress of a word to emphasize it special significance. It is stronger than the clock and can fall on any word of the speech tact. The logical emphasis is related to the explicit or implied opposition: I[’] will go to the cinema, not you. I will go[’] to the cinema (although I am very busy). I will go to the cinema[’] (not anywhere else).
16. Russian intonation.
In a broad sense, intonation is a change in voice in pitch, in volume, in tempo, in timbre (additional voice coloring, which is metaphorically defined as a gloomy voice, cheerful, gentle, etc.)
All components are interconnected, exist in unity, but are still studied separately. Intonation in the narrow sense is a change in voice in pitch, i.e. melody of speech.
In every language, there are general and objective patterns in the methodical design of speech, which makes intonation the most characteristic feature of a particular language.
For the Russian language, regularities were described in the middle of the 20th century. Elena Andreevna Bryzgunova was able to bring together all the melodic diversity of Russian speech. She noticed that the beginning of any phrase is pronounced on the middle tone (individual for each person), then on any syllable the tone breaks up or down, the rest of the phrase is pronounced above or below the middle tone.
Structure:
The center is the syllable where the tone break occurs.
The pre-center part is that to the center.
Post-center part - after the center.
In some cases, the center Or postcenter. Part may be missing.
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Description | ||
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In the narrative Suggestion Decrease - phrasal stress She is at e(1) challah. |
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In the center, an even or downward movement of the post-center tone. part is below average |
Co. where(2) She is gone? Logic Narrative stress, interrogative. It's about pa sleepy! Don't ho di there! |
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For the design of incompleteness, no end bars |
She is gone? She is at e(3) challah | yesterday ve(1) black// |
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The downward movement of tone, the tone of the post-center part is below average in incomplete interrogative sentences, especially pronounced |
Your name? Surname? Your documents? |
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It has 2 centers: on the sounds of the first center, an upward movement of the tone, on the sounds of the second center, or on the next. Behind him the syllable is descending. |
The tone between the centers is above the average; the tone of the post-center part is below the average. |
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On the sounds of the center, there is an upward movement of tone, the tone of the post-center part is above average. |
how she dance at no! How many waters s got enough! |
(The highlighted letters are the letters that are stressed. I just don't know how the stress is placed in the Word.)
word stress is called the selection during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Word stress is endowed with an organizing function. A group of syllables connected by a common stress forms a special phonetic unit. It's called a phonetic word, for example: [gl ^ vá] head, [ná (glvu] on the head. Within the framework of a phonetic word, the stressed syllable is the reference point, in relation to which the nature of the pronunciation of other syllables is determined. Unstressed words can behave differently. Some of them, they obey the usual rules for pronunciation of sounds: [da_sád] to the garden (cf.: [d^sád] annoyance); [l 'e´j_kj] lei-ka (cf.: [l 'e´jkj] watering can). Others , despite being unstressed, retain some phonetic signs of an independent word... They may, for example, contain vowels that are uncharacteristic of unstressed syllables: [shto(nám] what to us (cf.: [pants] pantsam); [t'e(l' isá] - those forests (cf.: [t'l'isá] telesa).Verbal stress is one of the main external signs independent word. Service words and particles usually do not have an accent and are adjacent to independent words, making up one phonetic word with them: [under-mountain], [on-side], [that's it]. The Russian language is characterized by power (dynamic) stress, in which the stressed syllable stands out in comparison with non-stressed syllables with greater intensity of articulation, especially the vowel sound. A stressed vowel is always longer than its corresponding unstressed sound. In Russian, the stress is different - it is not assigned to a syllable defined in a row: light (the emphasis falls on the first syllable), brighten (the emphasis falls on the second syllable), firefly (the emphasis falls on the last syllable). In this way, Russian accent can fall on any syllable (exit, exit, exit). The diversity of stress is used in Russian to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms (organ - organ) and individual forms of various words (my - mine), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of the word (chaos - chaos) or gives the word stylistic coloring(well done - well done). Stress norms for most words in Russian are contained in spelling dictionary. The mobility and immobility of the stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: the stress either remains in the same place of the word (garden, -a, -y, -om, -e, -s, -ov, etc. .), or moves from one part of the word to another (city, -a, -y, -om, -e; -a, -ov, etc.). The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms (buy - buy, legs - legs, etc.). V individual cases the difference in the place of verbal stress loses all meaning: cf .: cottage cheese and cottage cheese, differently and differently, butt and butt, etc. Words can be unstressed or weakly stressed. Usually unaccented official words and particles, however, they sometimes take on the stress, so that the preposition with the independent word following it has one stress: [in winter], [out of town], [under-evening]. Weakly stressed can be disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, connectives to be and become, some of introductory words. Some categories of words have, in addition to the main one, an additional, secondary stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one is in the second, for example: Old Russian. These words include words: 1) polysyllabic, as well as complex in composition (aircraft building), 2) complex abbreviated (gostelecenter), 3) words with prefixes after-, super-, archi-, trans-, anti-, etc. (transatlantic , post-October), 4) some foreign words (postscript, post factum).
Phrase, clock and logical stress. Clitics.
Phrase stress - highlighting one of the words in a phrase by strengthening the word stress that combines different words in one sentence. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel last word in the final speech tact (syntagma): There is in the initial autumn / short, / but marvelous time / /.
Bar Accent- highlighting one of the words in the speech tact (syntagma) by strengthening the word stress, which combines different words into one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the speech tact: There is an initial / short / but marvelous time in autumn / /. The speech tact usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech uttered by one pressure of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of the speech tact as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonational design. On the stressed syllable of the word as part of the speech tact, the intonation center is concentrated - the tact stress: On dry aspen / gray crow / ... Each speech tact is formed by one of the intonational structures. The speech beat is sometimes called a syntagma. The main means of dividing into syntagmas is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by drastic changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last one) is characterized by the strongest stress (In logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma). The phrase usually stands out, contains several speech measures, but the boundaries of the phrase and measure may coincide: Night. // The street. // Lamp. // Pharmacy // (Block). The selection of speech measures can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine and Field/behind the ravine.
word stress- a type of stress defined within a word and consisting in the selection of one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (clock), syllabic stress. S. at. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish. Within the beat (less often - phrases) there are two types of clock (phrasal) stress, depending on the functions - logical and emphatic. logical stress- an accent that allows any word in a phrase to be made a semantic center. emphatic stress- To characterize the emotional expressiveness of the word, Shcherba introduced the term "emphatic stress". This stress "puts forward" and enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the affective state of the speaker in connection with a particular word. Briefly, the difference between logical and emphatic stress can be formulated as follows: logical stress draws attention to given word, and the emphatic makes it emotionally rich. In the first case, the intention of the speaker is manifested, and in the second, an immediate feeling is expressed.
In Russian, emphatic stress consists in a greater or lesser lengthening of the stressed vowel: the most beautiful worker, a wonderful work of art.
clitic- a word (for example, a pronoun or a particle), grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent. By definition, clitics are, in particular, all words that do not make up a syllable (for example, the prepositions в, к, с). Clitics can join the stressed word form of any one part of speech (for example, Romance pronominal forms in indirect cases- only to the verb) or to word forms of any part of speech (such are Russian particles, are they); the latter are called transcategorical.
16. The concept of Russian intonation, its means, types, functions.
Intonation- this is a set of rhythmic-melodic components of speech: melody, intensity, duration, tempo of speech and timbre.
Elements of intonation:
1) melodic speech - the main component of intonation, raising - lowering the voice in a phrase (cf., the pronunciation of interrogative and declarative sentences);
2) rhythm speech - regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables. The rhythm of speech serves to organize poetic and prose texts;
3) volume speech - the strength or weakness of pronouncing an utterance (cf. the different intensity of speech at a rally and in a room);
4) pace speech - the speed of pronunciation (sounds, syllables, words), the speed of the flow of speech, the duration of the sound of speech in time (for example, by the end of the utterance, the pace of speech slows down,
segments containing secondary information are pronounced quickly, informatively significant segments are pronounced in slow motion);
5) timbre speech - the sound coloring of speech, conveying its emotionally expressive shades (for example, intonation of distrust, playful intonation, etc.).
intonation functions.
1) A means of formalizing an utterance, revealing its meaning. With the help of intonation, the speech flow is divided into semantic segments (cf. intonation of completeness and incompleteness of a sentence).
2) Distinguishes types of statements according to purposefulness (cf. intonation of motivation, question, narration, etc.).
3) Conveys syntactic relations between parts of a sentence or sentences (cf. intonation of enumeration, explanation, comparison).
4) Expresses emotional coloring (cf. exclamatory intonation, non-exclamatory).
5) Reveals the subtext of the statement (a special meaning that does not follow from the meanings of words).
6) Characterizes the speaker and the communication situation as a whole (emotionally neutral, elevated tone, mystery, secrecy, importance, intimacy).
