State language of Uzbekistan
The official language of Uzbekistan is Uzbek. In general, the Uzbek language belongs to the Turkic group, but due to large quantity dialects and dialects, people from different areas may have great difficulty understanding each other. Multidialectality colloquial form Uzbek language is based on a large number ethnic groups who participated in the formation of the Uzbek people.
During the Soviet era, the majority of the population knew Russian, but as a result of gaining independence and the government’s decision to take a course towards de-Russification of society, modern youth know Russian poorly or not at all. As for the situation with the Uzbek language, then general level Youth education is falling catastrophically. In reality the highest educational establishments cannot teach students who come from remote rural areas settlements, since they simply do not know any other language other than their dialect. As a result, in all universities of Uzbekistan, and there are 63 of them, the Russian language is studied in mandatory. Moreover, Russian-speaking groups are organized in all major universities in the capital and regions of the country.
The Uzbek language (O'zbek tili or O"zbekcha - Latin; ЎзБек tili or Ўзбакча - Cyrillic; ?????? ???? - Arabic) is official language Republic of Uzbekistan. More than 26 million people live in Uzbekistan, over 70% of the population consider Uzbek their native language. About 23.5 million people speak the Uzbek language, and this language is widespread not only in the territory of the Republic of Uzbekistan, but also in other Asian countries: in Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Turkey, China People's Republic and in Russia.
Modern Uzbek language is classified as a Turkic language of the Altai language family. However, different linguists classify Turkic languages differently, based on various features, which, at times, are not always obvious. Traditionally, the Uzbek language belongs to the eastern (Karluk) group of Turkic language group. Along with Turkish and Azerbaijani, the Uzbek language is considered one of the most widespread languages in this group.
ON THE. Baskakov identifies the Uzbek language as part of the subgroup of Karluk-Khorezmian languages and emphasizes the following specific features that allow it to be classified in this subgroup: the presence of a labialized “a” in many dialects, six vowel phonemes; lack of vowel harmony in most urban dialects of the Uzbek language.
According to the classification of V. A. Bogoroditsky, the Uzbek language is part of the Central Asian group of Turkic languages along with the Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Karakalpak languages.
According to V.V. Radlova, the Uzbek language (together with Uyghur) belongs to the Central Asian group of Turkic languages.
In its grammatical structure and vocabulary, the Uzbek language is primarily closely related to the Uyghur language, widespread in the Chinese province of Xinjiang, and the Ili-Turkic language, others character traits were borrowed from Persian, Arabic and Russian.
The phonetics, grammar and vocabulary of the Uzbek language show a strong influence of the Persian language; the vocabulary also contains numerous borrowings from Arabic and Russian.
A specific feature of the Uzbek language is the agglutinative structure, which means that word formation in given language carried out by agglutination - attaching affixes to the root or base of a word, each of which is unambiguous and carries its own grammatical meaning. The term "agglutinate" comes from Latin language and has the meaning of “merge”, “stick together”. The central word-forming elements in the Uzbek language are suffixes, which, due to the aforementioned grammatical unambiguity, expand or change the meaning of words. You can add many suffixes to the base of one word, and all suffixes follow one another and have clear boundaries, that is, they do not merge with the root of the word or other suffixes. Thus, the length of Turkic words can increase depending on how much information they carry.
The main phonological feature of the Uzbek language is the absence of synharmonism (vowel harmony), characteristic of Turkic languages. This is explained by the fact that the literary Uzbek language is based on the Fergana dialect, which is characterized by a lack of synharmony. This phenomenon preserved only in individual dialects closest to the Oghuz or Kipchak group of languages. Another phonetic feature that distinguishes the Uzbek language from other Turkic languages is the characteristic “okanye”.
It is assumed that Turkic peoples settled along the Amu Darya, Syr Darya and Zeravshan river basins as early as 600-700 AD. and gradually displaced the tribes that spoke Indo-Iranian languages and previously lived in Sogdiana, Bactria and Khorezm. First ruling dynasty This region was the Karakhanid dynasty, which was one of the Karluk tribes and reigned in the 9th-12th centuries. AD
Scientists consider the Uzbek language as direct descendant or a late form of the Chagatai language - Turkic Central Asian literary language, used during the reign of the Chagatai Khan, Timur (Tamerlane) and the Timurids and separated from other Central Asian Turkic languages at the beginning of the 14th century. In the 15th and 16th centuries. The Uzbek thinker and activist Mir Ali-Sher Navoi came to the defense of the Old Uzbek language, through whose efforts the Old Uzbek language became a unified and developed literary language, the traditions and norms of which were preserved until the end of the 19th century. Based on the Karluk variant of the Turkic languages, the Old Uzbek language contained a large number of words borrowed from Persian and Arabic languages. By the 19th century it began to be used less and less in works of literature.
The term "Uzbek", in relation to the language, in different times meant different concepts. Until 1921, the Uzbek and Sart languages were treated as two different dialects. The Uzbek language was the name given to the Kipchak dialect, characterized by synharmony (harmony of vowel sounds), which was the language of the descendants of the tribes that settled in Transoxania in the 16th century along with Sheibani Khan and lived mainly near Bukhara and Samarkand.
According to one version of scientists, “Uzbeks” were the people who lived in the domains of Sultan Muhamed Uzbek Khan (1313-1341), the ninth khan of the Golden Horde and a descendant of Genghis Khan, after whom the Uzbek language was named.
The Sart language was the name given to the Karluk dialect, widespread among the ancient settlers of the Fergana Valley, the Kashkadarya region and, partially, the Samarkand region; this dialect was distinguished by the admixture of a large number of Persian and Arabic words and lack of synharmony. The Sarts who lived in Khiva also spoke the Oghuz dialect, which was heavily Iranianized.
After 1921, the Soviet regime abolished the concept of "sart" as derogatory and decreed that from now on the entire Turkic population of Turkestan should be called "Uzbeks", despite the fact that many people did not even have true Uzbek origin. However, despite the fierce protests of the Bolsheviks of Uzbekistan (among whom Fayzulla Khojaev belonged), in 1924, not the pre-revolutionary Uzbek language, but the Sart language, widespread in the Samarkand region, was recognized as the written literary language of the new republic.
The modern Uzbek language, which is widespread in the very middle of the Turkic-speaking area, has a complex structure of dialects. Among the most famous dialects are the Afghan Uzbek language, Ferghana, Khorezm, Turkestan-Chimkent and Surkhandarya dialects.
The dialects of most Uzbek urban centers (Tashkent, Ferghana, Karshi, Samarkand-Bukhara, Turkestan-Chimkent) belong to the southeastern (Karluk) group of Turkic languages, which is why the Uzbek language as a whole is included in this group.
Also, within the Uzbek language there is a group of dialects that belong to the Kipchak group (they are used throughout the territory of the Republic of Uzbekistan and in other republics Central Asia, as well as in Kazakhstan), and the Oghuz group, which includes the Khorezm dialects of the adjacent territories located in the north-west of the Republic, including two dialects in Kazakhstan.
Based on territory, there are four main dialect groups:
- North Uzbek group dialects of southern Kazakhstan
- Southern Uzbek dialects central and eastern Uzbekistan and northern Afghanistan, as well as dialects of large urban centers of Uzbek settlement. This group is represented by fully and partially Iranianized dialects, which include Fergana, Tashkent, Samarkand-Bukhara, Karshi, Turkestan-Chimkent dialects. The long-term influence of Persian dialects (especially the Tajik language) is strongly manifested not only at the level of vocabulary, but also in phonetic characteristics.
- Kipchak dialects Uzbek language, having Western Turkic features and close to the Kazakh language. These dialects are widespread not only in the territory of the Republic of Uzbekistan, but also in other Central Asian republics, including Kazakhstan. This group also includes the Surkhandarya dialect. The dialects of this group historically arose among the nomadic Uzbeks.
- Oguz group, which includes the Khorezm dialect, similar to the Turkmen language, and other dialects of the southern and northwestern parts of Uzbekistan (including two dialects in Kazakhstan). ON THE. Samoilovich describes these dialects as Khiva-Sartov and Khiva-Uzbek dialects and combines them into the Kipchak-Turkmen group.
Scientist A.K. Borovkov also classifies the dialects of the Uzbek language on a phonetic basis and divides them into two groups: “okaya” (dialects of Tashkent, Bukhara, Samarkand and other nearby areas) and “aka” dialects, which, in turn, depending on the use of the initial consonant sound "j" or "i" are divided into two subgroups. The basis of the modern literary Uzbek language is the Tashkent-Fergana group of “okaya” dialects, characterized by the lack of vowel harmony and the presence of six vowel phonemes instead of nine in other dialects.
, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Russia, Turkey, China, etc.
Spread of the Uzbek language. Blue - in to a greater extent, blue - to a lesser extent.
Grammatically and lexically closest modern relatives Literary Uzbek, officially Uyghur and Or-Turkic languages of the Karluk (Chagatai) group. However, in fact, the Uzbek language is the result of an Oghuz-Karluk synthesis with a predominance of Oghuz phrases, which is especially noticeable when compared with Uyghur [ ] .
Modern literary Uzbek, based on the dialects of the Fergana Valley, is characterized by a lack of vowel harmony. In the 20s of the 20th century, attempts were made to artificially consolidate vowel harmony in the literary language, which was preserved only in peripheral dialects (primarily Khorezm). In phonetics, grammar and vocabulary there is a noticeable strong substrate influence of Perso-Tajik, which dominated in Uzbekistan until the 12th-13th centuries, and still has a certain distribution. There is also the influence of another Iranian language, Sogdian, which was dominant before the Islamization of Uzbekistan. Most Arabisms in the Uzbek language were borrowed through Perso-Tajik. Since the mid-19th century, the Uzbek language has been heavily influenced by the Russian language.
Story
The formation of the Uzbek language was complex and multifaceted.
Largely thanks to the efforts of Alisher Navoi, Old Uzbek became a unified and developed literary language, the norms and traditions of which have been preserved until late XIX V. At the beginning of the 20th century. In the Uzbek literary language, a tendency has emerged to democratize its norms, as a result of which it has become simpler and more accessible.
Until the beginning of the 20th century. on the territory of the Bukhara Khanate and the Khorezm (Khiva) state, the literary languages were Persian and Chagatai (Old Uzbek). Since the beginning of the 20th century, mainly through the efforts of supporters of Jadidism (Fitrat, Niyazi, etc.), a modern literary language has been created based on the Fergana dialect.
The term “Uzbek” itself, when applied to the language, had different meanings at different times. Until 1921, “Uzbek” and “Sart” were considered two dialects of the same language. At the beginning of the 20th century, N.F. Sitnyakovsky wrote that the language of the Sarts of Fergana is “purely” Uzbek (Uzbek-tili). According to the Kazakh Turkologist Seraly Lapin, who lived at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, “there is no special Sart people different from the Uzbeks, and there is no special Sart language different from the Uzbek.” Others divided the Sarts and the Uzbeks.
Dialects
The modern Uzbek language has a complex dialect structure and occupies a unique place in the classification of Turkic languages. The dialects of modern spoken Uzbek are genetically heterogeneous (speakers of the Karluk, Kipchak, Oguz dialect groups participated in their formation), conditionally divided on a phonetic basis into 2 groups - “local” (dialects of the cities of Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, etc. and adjacent areas) and “ accusatory” (divided into two subgroups depending on the use of the initial consonant “y” or “j”);
There are four main dialect groups.
- Northern Uzbek dialects of southern Kazakhstan (Ikan-Karabulak, Karamurt, probably belong to the Oghuz group).
- Southern Uzbek dialects of the central and eastern parts of Uzbekistan and northern Afghanistan, as well as the dialects of most large centers of settlement of Uzbeks (Tashkent, Ferghana, Karshi, Samarkand-Bukhara and Turkestan-Chimkent) belong to the Karluk (Chagatai), or southeastern group of Turkic languages ; on this basis, it is customary to include the Uzbek language as a whole, together with Uyghur. Fergana and Turkestan-Chimkent dialects are closest to literary norm. The pronunciation standard was assigned to the Fergana-Tashkent group of dialects (after 1937).
The main feature of these dialects is that they are more or less Iranianized. The long-lasting influence of Iranian dialects (mainly the Tajik language) is strongly noticeable here not only at the lexical, but also at the phonetic levels.
- The Oguz group includes the Khorezm dialect, which is close to the Turkmen language, and other dialects of the south- and north-west of Uzbekistan (as well as two dialects in Kazakhstan) under the general name Oguz dialect. In the classification of A. N. Samoilovich, these dialects are described as Khiva-Uzbek and Khiva-Sartov dialects and are identified in independent group, called Kipchak-Turkmen.
- Kipchak dialects, relatively close to the Kazakh language, are widespread throughout the country, as well as in other Central Asian republics and Kazakhstan. This also includes the Surkhandarya dialect. Historically, these dialects were formed among the nomadic Uzbeks, who by origin were related to the Kazakhs, but were not subjects of the Kazakh Khanate.
Grammar
Unlike most other Turkic languages, Uzbek morphology is characterized by monovariance of affixes (as a result of the absence of synharmonicity).
Doesn't have grammatical category gender: there is no agreement in gender, case and number of the definition and the defined. It is mandatory to agree between the subject and the predicate in person, but not necessarily in number.
There are 6 cases in Uzbek:
- main - zero indicator;
- genitive (attributive) - exponent -ning; draws up the adopted definition;
- dative (directive) - indicator -ga; expresses the direction of action on an object; basically forms an indirect addition;
- accusative - indicator -ni; acts as a direct object;
- local - indicator -da; expresses the place or time of the action, the name acts as a circumstance;
- initial - indicator -dan; basically expresses the object along which (through which, past which, through which) the action is performed.
A noun has a category of belonging (izafet), the forms of which are formed using affixes of belonging, denoting the person of the owner: kitob"book", kitobim"my book", kitobing"your book", kitobi“his (her) book”; uka"Brother", ukam"my brother", ukang"your brother", ukasi his (her) brother; oʻzbek " Uzbek", til"language" - oʻzbek tili"Uzbek language".
Phonetics
Main phonological features: lack of vowel harmony (synharmonism) and okanye.
The law of vowel harmony, characteristic of most Turkic languages, is that a word can contain either only front vowels or only back vowels. In modern Uzbek, common Turkic vowels o And ö correspond to one sound “o”, in spelling - ў (Cyrillic) or oʻ(Latin); u And ü - like Russian "y"; ı And i- like Russian "And". Remnants of vocal synharmonism are preserved only in the Kypchak dialects. “Okanye” consists in the transition in a number of cases of the common Turkic a in or "o", at the same time common Turkic ä more often [
And other countries. It is dialectical, which allows it to be classified into different subgroups. It is the native and main language of most Uzbeks.
Modern literary Uzbek, based on the dialects of the Fergana Valley, is characterized by a lack of vowel harmony. In the 20s of the 20th century, attempts were made to artificially consolidate vowel harmony in the literary language, which was preserved only in peripheral dialects (primarily Khorezm). In phonetics, grammar and vocabulary there is a noticeable strong substrate influence of Perso-Tajik, which dominated in Uzbekistan until the 12th-13th centuries, and still has a certain distribution. There is also the influence of another Iranian language, Sogdian, which was dominant before the Islamization of Uzbekistan. Most Arabisms in the Uzbek language were borrowed through Perso-Tajik. Since the mid-19th century, the Uzbek language has been heavily influenced by the Russian language.
Story
The formation of the Uzbek language was complex and multifaceted.
The Old Uzbek language was influenced by the literary language of the Karakhanid state (XI-XII centuries; the so-called Karakhanid-Uighur language), the Karluk-Khorezm literary language of the Syr Darya valley (XII-XIV centuries; also known as the Khorezm-Turkic language), Oguz- Kipchak literary language and Persian literature. The flourishing of the old Uzbek literary language is associated with the work of the founder of the Uzbek language classical literature Alisher Navoi (1441-1501), Zahir ad-din Muhammad Babur (1483-1530) and other poets. The language of this period is sometimes also called Central Uzbek.
Largely thanks to the efforts of Alisher Navoi, Old Uzbek became a unified and developed literary language, the norms and traditions of which were preserved until the end of the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century. In the Uzbek literary language, a tendency has emerged to democratize its norms, as a result of which it has become simpler and more accessible.
Until the beginning of the 20th century. on the territory of the Bukhara Khanate and the Khorezm (Khiva) state, the literary languages were Persian and Chagatai (Old Uzbek). Since the beginning of the 20th century, mainly through the efforts of supporters of Jadidism (Fitrat, Niyazi, etc.), a modern literary language has been created based on the Fergana dialect.
Dialects
The modern Uzbek language has a complex dialect structure and occupies a unique place in the classification of Turkic languages. The dialects of modern spoken Uzbek are genetically heterogeneous (speakers of the Karluk, Kipchak, Oguz dialect groups participated in their formation), conditionally divided on a phonetic basis into 2 groups - “local” (dialects of the cities of Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, etc. and adjacent areas) and “ accusatory” (divided into two subgroups depending on the use of the initial consonant “y” or “j”);
There are four main dialect groups.
- Northern Uzbek dialects of southern Kazakhstan (Ikan-Karabulak, Karamurt, probably belong to the Oguz group).
- Southern Uzbek dialects of the central and eastern parts of Uzbekistan and northern Afghanistan, as well as the dialects of most large centers of settlement of Uzbeks (Tashkent, Ferghana, Karshi, Samarkand-Bukhara and Turkestan-Chimkent) belong to the Karluk (Chagatai), or southeastern group of Turkic languages ; on this basis, it is customary to include the Uzbek language as a whole, together with Uyghur. The Fergana and Turkestan-Chimkent dialects are closest to the literary norm. The pronunciation standard was assigned to the Fergana-Tashkent group of dialects (after 1937).
The main feature of these dialects is that they are more or less Iranianized. The long-lasting influence of Iranian dialects (mainly the Tajik language) is strongly noticeable here not only at the lexical, but also at the phonetic levels.
- The Oguz group includes the Khorezm dialect, which is close to the Turkmen language, and other dialects of the south- and north-west of Uzbekistan (as well as two dialects in Kazakhstan) under the general name Oguz dialect. In the classification of A. N. Samoilovich, these dialects are described as Khiva-Uzbek and Khiva-Sartov dialects and are separated into an independent group called Kipchak-Turkmen.
- Kipchak dialects, relatively close to the Kazakh language, are widespread throughout the country, as well as in other Central Asian republics and Kazakhstan. This also includes the Surkhandarya dialect. Historically, these dialects were formed among the nomadic Uzbeks, who by origin were related to the Kazakhs, but were not subjects of the Kazakh Khanate.
Grammar
Unlike most other Turkic languages, Uzbek morphology is characterized by monovariance of affixes (as a result of the absence of synharmonicity).
It does not have a grammatical category of gender: there is no agreement in gender, case and number of the definition and the defined. It is mandatory to agree between the subject and the predicate in person, but not necessarily in number.
There are 6 cases in Uzbek:
- Basic - zero indicator
- genitive (attributive) - exponent -ning; draws up the accepted definition
- dative (directive) - indicator -ga; expresses the direction of action on an object, mainly forms an indirect object
- accusative - indicator -ni; acts as a direct complement
- local - indicator -da; expresses the place or time of the action, the name acts as a circumstance
- initial - indicator -dan; basically expresses the object along which (through which, past which, through which) the action is performed
A noun has a category of belonging (izafet), the forms of which are formed using affixes of belonging, denoting the person of the owner: kitob- book, kitobim- my book, kitobing- your book, kitobi- his (her) book; uka- Brother, ukam- my brother, ukang- your brother, ukasi- his (her) brother; oʻzbek- Uzbek, til- language, oʻzbek tili- Uzbek language.
Phonetics
Main phonological features: lack of vowel harmony (synharmonism) and okanye. The law of vowel harmony, characteristic of most Turkic languages, is that a word can contain either only front vowels or only back vowels. In modern Uzbek, common Turkic vowels o And ö correspond to one sound o, in spelling ‹ў› (Cyrillic) or ‹oʻ› (Latin), u And ü - u(Kyr. ‹у›), and ı And i - i(Kir. ‹и›). Remnants of vocal synharmonism are preserved only in the Kypchak dialects. “Okanye” consists in the transition in a number of cases of the common Turkic a in or ‹о›, at the same time common Turkic ä often implemented as a simple a.
Other features: lack of primary long vowel sounds. Secondary (substitute) longitudes appear as a result of the loss of a consonant sound adjacent to the vowel. Phonetic ultralongitude or emphatic lengthening of individual vowels is observed. There is no division of affixes into front and back.
Vocabulary
The basis of the vocabulary of the modern literary Uzbek language is made up of words of common Turkic origin. However, unlike the neighboring Kipchak languages, the Uzbek vocabulary is rich in Persian (Tajik) and Arabic borrowings. The influence of the Russian language is noticeable in the surviving significant layer of everyday, socio-political and technical vocabulary that came from the conquest of Turkestan by Tsarist Russia (second half of the 19th century) to the present time, especially during the Soviet power(until 1991).
Writing
Until 1928, the Uzbek language used the Arabic alphabet. From until the 1940s, the USSR used a writing system based on the Latin alphabet. From 1992 to 1992, the USSR used the Cyrillic alphabet. In 1992, the Uzbek language in Uzbekistan was again translated into the Latin alphabet (despite the reform to translate the Uzbek language into the Latin script, in fact, the parallel use of the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet continues at present), which, however, differs significantly from both the 1928 alphabet and and from modern Turkic Latin scripts (Turkish, Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Turkmen, etc.). In particular, in the modern Uzbek alphabet used in Uzbekistan, in order to unify it with the main Latin alphabet there are no characters with diacritics, while the 1928 alphabet used not only characters with diacritics, but also unique symbols invented by Soviet linguists specifically for the languages of the small peoples of the USSR. For example, the sounds [w] and [h] are now designated in the same way as in English language. In Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, the Uzbek language uses an alphabet based on the Cyrillic alphabet, and in Afghanistan, an alphabet based on the Arabic script.
Features of transliteration of Uzbek proper names
The transliteration of Uzbek personal names traditionally accepted in Russian and geographical names there are two features. The first is the non-reflection of Western dialects in Uzbek writing that has survived since pre-revolutionary times. For example, Uzbek names and titles, in the Russian tradition transmitted as Bekabad, Andijan, written in Uzbek Bekobod, Andijon. These words contain a sound that is more closed than [a], but more open than [o].
The second feature is the tradition that appeared under the influence of the Uzbek Cyrillic alphabet to convey the sound [o] in many words, which was designated in Cyrillic by the letter ў , through at due to the similarity of the corresponding letters: Uzbekistan - Uzbekistan(Oʻzbekiston). In fact, these words contain a sound that is more closed than [o], but more open than [u].
Geographical distribution
see also
- Chagatai language (Old Uzbek)
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Notes
Literature
- Baskakov N. A. Historical and typological phonology of Turkic languages / Rep. ed. corresponding member USSR Academy of Sciences E. R. Tenishev. - M.: Nauka, 1988. - 208 p. - ISBN 5-02-010887-1.
- Ismatullaev Kh. Kh. Self-teacher of the Uzbek language. - Tashkent: Okituvchi, 1991. - 145 p.
- Kononov A. N. Grammar of the modern Uzbek literary language. - M., L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1960.
- Khodzhiev A.P. Uzbek language // Languages of the world: Turkic languages. - M.: Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1996. - P. 426-437. - (Languages of Eurasia). - ISBN 5-655-01214-6.
- Boeschoten, Hendrik. Uzbek // The Turkic Languages / Edited by Lars Johanson and Éva Á. Csató. - Routledge, 1998. - pp. 357-378.
- Johanson, Lars. Uzbek // / Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie. - Elsevier, 2009. - pp. 1145-1148. - ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7.
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An excerpt characterizing the Uzbek language
Having caught up with the guards infantry, he noticed that cannonballs were flying through and around them, not so much because he heard the sound of cannonballs, but because he saw concern on the faces of the soldiers and unnatural, warlike solemnity on the faces of the officers.Driving behind one of the lines of infantry guard regiments, he heard a voice calling him by name.
- Rostov!
- What? – he responded, not recognizing Boris.
- What is it like? hit the first line! Our regiment went on the attack! - said Boris, smiling that happy smile that happens to young people who have been on fire for the first time.
Rostov stopped.
- That's how it is! - he said. - Well?
- They recaptured! - Boris said animatedly, having become talkative. - You can imagine?
And Boris began to tell how the guard, having taken their place and seeing the troops in front of them, mistook them for Austrians and suddenly learned from the cannonballs fired from these troops that they were in the first line, and unexpectedly had to take action. Rostov, without listening to Boris, touched his horse.
- Where are you going? – asked Boris.
- To His Majesty with an errand.
- Here he is! - said Boris, who heard that Rostov needed His Highness, instead of His Majesty.
And he pointed him to the Grand Duke, who, a hundred paces away from them, in a helmet and a cavalry guard's tunic, with his raised shoulders and frowning eyebrows, was shouting something to the white and pale Austrian officer.
- Yes, this is Grand Duke“And I should go to the commander-in-chief or to the sovereign,” Rostov said and started to move his horse.
- Count, count! - shouted Berg, as animated as Boris, running up from the other side, - Count, I’m in right hand wounded (he said, showing his hand, bloody and tied with a handkerchief) and remained at the front. Count, holding a sword in my left hand: in our race, the von Bergs, Count, were all knights.
Berg said something else, but Rostov, without listening to him, had already moved on.
Having passed the guards and an empty gap, Rostov, in order not to fall into the first line again, as he came under attack by the cavalry guards, rode along the line of reserves, going far around the place where the hottest shooting and cannonade was heard. Suddenly, in front of him and behind our troops, in a place where he could not possibly suspect the enemy, he heard close rifle fire.
"What could it be? - thought Rostov. - Is the enemy behind our troops? It can’t be, Rostov thought, and a horror of fear for himself and for the outcome of the entire battle suddenly came over him. “Whatever it is, however,” he thought, “there’s nothing to go around now.” I must look for the commander-in-chief here, and if everything is lost, then it’s my job to perish along with everyone else.”
The bad feeling that suddenly came over Rostov was confirmed more and more the further he drove into the space occupied by crowds of heterogeneous troops, located beyond the village of Prats.
- What's happened? What's happened? Who are they shooting at? Who's shooting? - Rostov asked, matching the Russian and Austrian soldiers running in mixed crowds across his road.
- The devil knows them? Beat everyone! Get lost! - the crowds of people running and not understanding, just like him, what was happening here, answered him in Russian, German and Czech.
- Beat the Germans! - one shouted.
- Damn them - traitors.
“Zum Henker diese Ruesen... [To hell with these Russians...],” the German grumbled something.
Several wounded were walking along the road. Curses, screams, moans merged into one common roar. The shooting died down and, as Rostov later learned, Russian and Austrian soldiers were shooting at each other.
"My God! what is this? - thought Rostov. - And here, where the sovereign can see them at any moment... But no, these are probably just a few scoundrels. This will pass, this is not it, this cannot be, he thought. “Just hurry up, pass them quickly!”
The thought of defeat and flight could not enter Rostov’s head. Although he saw French guns and troops precisely on Pratsenskaya Mountain, on the very one where he was ordered to look for the commander-in-chief, he could not and did not want to believe it.
Near the village of Praca, Rostov was ordered to look for Kutuzov and the sovereign. But here not only were they not there, but there was not a single commander, but there were heterogeneous crowds of frustrated troops.
He urged his already tired horse to get through these crowds as quickly as possible, but the further he moved, the more upset the crowds became. By high road The area where he drove out was crowded with carriages, carriages of all kinds, Russian and Austrian soldiers, of all branches of the military, wounded and unwounded. All this hummed and swarmed in a mixed manner to the gloomy sound of flying cannonballs from the French batteries placed on the Pratsen Heights.
- Where is the sovereign? where is Kutuzov? - Rostov asked everyone he could stop, and could not get an answer from anyone.
Finally, grabbing the soldier by the collar, he forced him to answer himself.
- Eh! Brother! Everyone has been there for a long time, they have fled ahead! - the soldier said to Rostov, laughing at something and breaking free.
Leaving this soldier, who was obviously drunk, Rostov stopped the horse of the orderly or the guard of an important person and began to question him. The orderly announced to Rostov that an hour ago the sovereign had been driven at full speed in a carriage along this very road, and that the sovereign was dangerously wounded.
“It can’t be,” said Rostov, “that’s right, someone else.”
“I saw it myself,” said the orderly with a self-confident grin. “It’s time for me to know the sovereign: it seems like how many times I’ve seen something like this in St. Petersburg.” A pale, very pale man sits in a carriage. As soon as the four blacks let loose, my fathers, he thundered past us: it’s time, it seems, to know both the royal horses and Ilya Ivanovich; It seems that the coachman does not ride with anyone else like the Tsar.
Rostov let his horse go and wanted to ride on. A wounded officer walking past turned to him.
-Who do you want? – asked the officer. - Commander-in-Chief? So he was killed by a cannonball, killed in the chest by our regiment.
“Not killed, wounded,” another officer corrected.
- Who? Kutuzov? - asked Rostov.
- Not Kutuzov, but whatever you call him - well, it’s all the same, there aren’t many alive left. Go over there, to that village, all the authorities have gathered there,” said this officer, pointing to the village of Gostieradek, and walked past.
Rostov rode at a pace, not knowing why or to whom he would go now. The Emperor is wounded, the battle is lost. It was impossible not to believe it now. Rostov drove in the direction that was shown to him and in which a tower and a church could be seen in the distance. What was his hurry? What could he now say to the sovereign or Kutuzov, even if they were alive and not wounded?
“Go this way, your honor, and here they will kill you,” the soldier shouted to him. - They'll kill you here!
- ABOUT! what are you saying? said another. -Where will he go? It's closer here.
Rostov thought about it and drove exactly in the direction where he was told that he would be killed.
“Now it doesn’t matter: if the sovereign is wounded, should I really take care of myself?” he thought. He entered the space where most of the people fleeing from Pratsen died. The French had not yet occupied this place, and the Russians, those who were alive or wounded, had long abandoned it. On the field, like heaps of good arable land, lay ten people, fifteen killed and wounded on every tithe of space. The wounded crawled down in twos and threes together, and one could hear their unpleasant, sometimes feigned, as it seemed to Rostov, screams and moans. Rostov started to trot his horse so as not to see all these suffering people, and he became scared. He feared not for his life, but for the courage that he needed and which, he knew, would not withstand the sight of these unfortunates.
The French, who stopped shooting at this field strewn with the dead and wounded, because there was no one alive on it, saw the adjutant riding along it, aimed a gun at him and threw several cannonballs. The feeling of these whistling, terrible sounds and the surrounding dead people merged for Rostov into one impression of horror and self-pity. He remembered last letter mother. “What would she feel,” he thought, “if she saw me now here, on this field and with guns pointed at me.”
In the village of Gostieradeke there were, although confused, but in greater order, Russian troops marching away from the battlefield. The French cannonballs could no longer reach here, and the sounds of firing seemed distant. Here everyone already saw clearly and said that the battle was lost. Whoever Rostov turned to, no one could tell him where the sovereign was, or where Kutuzov was. Some said that the rumor about the sovereign’s wound was true, others said that it was not, and explained this false rumor that had spread by the fact that, indeed, the pale and frightened Chief Marshal Count Tolstoy galloped back from the battlefield in the sovereign’s carriage, who rode out with others in the emperor’s retinue on the battlefield. One officer told Rostov that beyond the village, to the left, he saw someone from the higher authorities, and Rostov went there, no longer hoping to find anyone, but only to clear his conscience before himself. Having traveled about three miles and having passed the last Russian troops, near a vegetable garden dug in by a ditch, Rostov saw two horsemen standing opposite the ditch. One, with a white plume on his hat, seemed familiar to Rostov for some reason; another, unfamiliar rider, on a beautiful red horse (this horse seemed familiar to Rostov) rode up to the ditch, pushed the horse with his spurs and, releasing the reins, easily jumped over the ditch in the garden. Only the earth crumbled from the embankment from the horse’s hind hooves. Turning his horse sharply, he again jumped back over the ditch and respectfully addressed the rider with the white plume, apparently inviting him to do the same. The horseman, whose figure seemed familiar to Rostov and for some reason involuntarily attracted his attention, made a negative gesture with his head and hand, and by this gesture Rostov instantly recognized his lamented, adored sovereign.
“But it couldn’t be him, alone in the middle of this empty field,” thought Rostov. At this time, Alexander turned his head, and Rostov saw his favorite features so vividly etched in his memory. The Emperor was pale, his cheeks were sunken and his eyes sunken; but there was even more charm and meekness in his features. Rostov was happy, convinced that the rumor about the sovereign’s wound was unfair. He was happy that he saw him. He knew that he could, even had to, directly turn to him and convey what he was ordered to convey from Dolgorukov.
But just as a young man in love trembles and faints, not daring to say what he dreams of at night, and looks around in fear, looking for help or the possibility of delay and escape, when the desired moment has come and he stands alone with her, so Rostov now, having achieved that , what he wanted more than anything in the world, did not know how to approach the sovereign, and he was presented with thousands of reasons why it was inconvenient, indecent and impossible.
"How! I seem to be glad to take advantage of the fact that he is alone and despondent. An unknown face may seem unpleasant and difficult to him at this moment of sadness; Then what can I tell him now, when just looking at him my heart skips a beat and my mouth goes dry?” Not one of those countless speeches that he, addressing the sovereign, composed in his imagination, came to his mind now. Those speeches for the most part were kept under completely different conditions, they were said mostly at the moment of victories and triumphs and mainly on his deathbed from the wounds received, while the sovereign thanked him for his heroic deeds, and he, dying, expressed to him his love confirmed in practice.
“Then why should I ask the sovereign about his orders to the right flank, when it is already 4 o’clock in the evening and the battle is lost? No, I definitely shouldn’t approach him. Shouldn't disturb his reverie. It’s better to die a thousand times than to receive a bad look from him, a bad opinion,” Rostov decided and with sadness and despair in his heart he drove away, constantly looking back at the sovereign, who was still standing in the same position of indecisiveness.
While Rostov was making these considerations and sadly driving away from the sovereign, Captain von Toll accidentally drove into the same place and, seeing the sovereign, drove straight up to him, offered him his services and helped him cross the ditch on foot. The Emperor, wanting to rest and feeling unwell, sat down under an apple tree, and Tol stopped next to him. From afar, Rostov saw with envy and remorse how von Tol spoke for a long time and passionately to the sovereign, and how the sovereign, apparently crying, closed his eyes with his hand and shook hands with Tol.
“And I could be in his place?” Rostov thought to himself and, barely holding back tears of regret for the fate of the sovereign, in complete despair he drove on, not knowing where and why he was going now.
His despair was all the greater because he felt that his own weakness was the cause of his grief.
He could... not only could, but he had to drive up to the sovereign. And this was the only opportunity to show the sovereign his devotion. And he didn’t use it... “What have I done?” he thought. And he turned his horse and galloped back to the place where he had seen the emperor; but there was no one behind the ditch anymore. Only carts and carriages were driving. From one furman, Rostov learned that the Kutuzov headquarters was located nearby in the village where the convoys were going. Rostov went after them.
The guard Kutuzov walked ahead of him, leading horses in blankets. Behind the bereytor there was a cart, and behind the cart walked an old servant, in a cap, a sheepskin coat and with bowed legs.
- Titus, oh Titus! - said the bereitor.
- What? - the old man answered absentmindedly.
- Titus! Go threshing.
- Eh, fool, ugh! – the old man said, spitting angrily. Some time passed in silent movement, and the same joke was repeated again.
At five o'clock in the evening the battle was lost at all points. More than a hundred guns were already in the hands of the French.
Przhebyshevsky and his corps laid down their weapons. Other columns, having lost about half of the people, retreated in frustrated, mixed crowds.
The remnants of the troops of Lanzheron and Dokhturov, mingled, crowded around the ponds on the dams and banks near the village of Augesta.
At 6 o'clock only at the Augesta dam the hot cannonade of the French alone could still be heard, who had built numerous batteries on the descent of the Pratsen Heights and were hitting our retreating troops.
In the rearguard, Dokhturov and others, gathering battalions, fired back at the French cavalry that was pursuing ours. It was starting to get dark. On the narrow dam of Augest, on which for so many years the old miller sat peacefully in a cap with fishing rods, while his grandson, rolling up his shirt sleeves, was sorting out silver quivering fish in a watering can; on this dam, along which for so many years the Moravians drove peacefully on their twin carts loaded with wheat, in shaggy hats and blue jackets and, dusted with flour, with white carts leaving along the same dam - on this narrow dam now between wagons and cannons, under the horses and between the wheels crowded people disfigured by the fear of death, crushing each other, dying, walking over the dying and killing each other only so that, after walking a few steps, to be sure. also killed.
Every ten seconds, pumping up the air, a cannonball splashed or a grenade exploded in the middle of this dense crowd, killing and sprinkling blood on those who stood close. Dolokhov, wounded in the arm, on foot with a dozen soldiers of his company (he was already an officer) and his regimental commander, on horseback, represented the remnants of the entire regiment. Drawn by the crowd, they pressed into the entrance to the dam and, pressed on all sides, stopped because a horse in front fell under a cannon, and the crowd was pulling it out. One cannonball killed someone behind them, the other hit in front and splashed Dolokhov’s blood. The crowd moved desperately, shrank, moved a few steps and stopped again.
Walk these hundred steps, and you will probably be saved; stand for another two minutes, and everyone probably thought he was dead. Dolokhov, standing in the middle of the crowd, rushed to the edge of the dam, knocking down two soldiers, and fled onto the slippery ice that covered the pond.
“Turn,” he shouted, jumping on the ice that was cracking under him, “turn!” - he shouted at the gun. - Holds!...
The ice held it, but it bent and cracked, and it was obvious that not only under a gun or a crowd of people, but under him alone it would collapse. They looked at him and huddled close to the shore, not daring to step on the ice yet. The regiment commander, standing on horseback at the entrance, raised his hand and opened his mouth, addressing Dolokhov. Suddenly one of the cannonballs whistled so low over the crowd that everyone bent down. Something splashed into the wet water, and the general and his horse fell into a pool of blood. No one looked at the general, no one thought to raise him.
- Let's go on the ice! walked on the ice! Let's go! gate! can't you hear! Let's go! - suddenly, after the cannonball hit the general, countless voices were heard, not knowing what or why they were shouting.
One of the rear guns, which was entering the dam, turned onto the ice. Crowds of soldiers from the dam began to run to the frozen pond. The ice cracked under one of the leading soldiers and one foot went into the water; he wanted to recover and fell waist-deep.
(official language countries), partly in other Central Asian states former USSR, in Afghanistan and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. In the USSR, according to the 1989 census, there were about 16.7 million Uzbeks (the third largest ethnic group after Russians and Ukrainians), of which about 16.4 million called Uzbek their native language; there are about 1.2 million Uzbeks in Afghanistan; taking into account rapid growth Uzbek population modern figures higher; Uzbek is one of the largest Turkic languages along with Turkish and Azerbaijani.
Distributed in the very heart of the Turkic-speaking area, the modern Uzbek language has a complex dialect structure and occupies a unique place in the classification of Turkic languages. The dialects of most large centers of settlement of Uzbeks (Tashkent, Fergana, Karshi, Samarkand-Bukhara and Turkestan-Chimkent) belong to the Karluk, or southeastern group of Turkic languages; on this basis, it is customary to include the Uzbek language as a whole, together with Uyghur. However, modern Uzbek also includes a group of dialects belonging to the Kipchak group (they are widespread throughout the country, as well as in other republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan); the dialects of Khorezm and a number of adjacent territories in the north-west of the country (and two dialects in Kazakhstan) belong to the Oghuz group.
The Uzbek language, unlike related Turkic languages, is characterized by the absence of synharmonism (similarity of vowels in a word), which is preserved only in Kipchak dialects. In phonetics, grammar and vocabulary, a strong influence of the Persian language is noticeable; The vocabulary also contains numerous Arabic and Russian borrowings.
The Uzbek language has a centuries-old written tradition in the form of the Central Asian Turkic language (Chagatai, or Old Uzbek), which developed in the 15th–16th centuries. based on the Karluk-Uyghur dialects of Transoxiana and which became the official language in Timur’s power. The Old Uzbek language was influenced by the literary language of the Karakhanid state (11th–12th centuries; the so-called Karakhanid-Uyghur language), the Karluk-Khorezmian literary language of the Syr Darya valley (12th–14th centuries; also known as the Khorezm-Turkic language) and Persian literature . The heyday of Turkic-language literature in Central Asia dates back to the 15th–16th centuries; the pinnacle of poetry in the Old Uzbek language is the work of Alisher Navoi (1441–1501; sometimes the language of this period is called Central Uzbek).
The modern literary Uzbek language was formed on the basis of the Fergana-Tashkent group of dialects. Writing in the Uzbek language existed in Arabic until 1930, in 1930–1939 on a Latin basis, and from 1939 on the basis of Russian graphics with some additional letters. A variety of original literature has been created in the Uzbek language. In Uzbek schools, all general education disciplines are taught in it; its use is expanding in higher school; In Russian schools, the Uzbek language is studied as a subject.
The scientific study of the Uzbek language was started by M.A. Terentyev, who published in 1875 in St. Petersburg Turkish, Persian, Kyrgyz and Uzbek grammar. Subsequently, the works of E.D. Polivanov, A.N. Kononov, V.V. Reshetov and other researchers made an important contribution to the study of the Uzbek language.
