ESSENCE OF LANGUAGE AND ITS BASIC FUNCTIONS

The views of scientists on the essence of language changed depending on the following circumstances:

On the one hand, they changed depending on the strategic directions of the development of science as a whole, on the other hand, depending on the state of linguistics itself as a whole and the factual and theoretical material accumulated in it. Therefore, in the science of language, there are always two opposite and at the same time interrelated tendencies in determining the essence of language.

Some scientists are based on the connection of language with other phenomena of life. They try to determine the nature of language through its relationship to extra-linguistic entities, that is, subjects that are studied by other disciplines, through the relationship to thinking, society, culture, surrounding reality, man, and so on.

Other scientists seek to determine the nature of language from the inside, isolating the language from external factors whenever possible. The ratio of these two trends has a dialectal character and serves as a stimulus for development. scientific research language. In turn, different linguistic directions, adhering to one of these tendencies, are also not homogeneous.

For example, ancient Greek philosophy, in the depths of which European linguistics was born, saw the essence of language in its relation to thinking and external reality. And vice versa, the first grammar of Panini, an ancient Indian scholar, that has come down to us, is devoted to elucidating the inner essence of language and describing the structure of the language from the point of view of phonetics and grammar.

A. Schleicher considered language to be an independent, independent phenomenon that is born, develops and dies as a natural organism, while his compatriot W. Humboldt considered language as the spirit of the people and equated language and human intellectual activity.

F. de Saussure believed that the subject of linguistics is language in itself and for itself.

Baudouin de Courtenay related language to one of the functions human body, thereby emphasizing the impossibility of revealing the nature of language outside of its connection with a person.

Since the middle of the 20th century, language has been considered, on the one hand, as an independent systemic and structural formation, and on the other, as a social phenomenon.

Of course, both tendencies, that is, the definition of the essence of language through its relation to external factors or the consideration of language as a kind of thing in itself in the works of individual linguists and in the teachings of some linguistic directions can be mixed in different proportions, not be in a pure form.

This circumstance, however, does not exclude the existence of these tendencies practically at all stages of the development of the science of language.

In general, the first concept prevails in the theoretical study of a language, while the second dominates in the direct descriptions of a specific language.

In general, we can say that language is considered as the immediate reality of thought, as a phenomenon of sensory nature, an important means of human communication, we can also say that the essence of language is derived from the organic connection of language with inner peace person and from the relationships that exist between people.

Depending on the background of which external factor the nature of the language is considered, the functions performed by the language are distinguished. So, the leading function of language - communicative follows from the social nature of language; cognitive (cognitive) - from the connection of language with thinking, nominative - from the connection of language with the surrounding world.

LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

The concept of the function of language, that is, what we use language for, is very important from a philosophical point of view. The difficulty in discussing the functions of a language is that the ways in which a language is used are so varied that no classification can be considered complete or satisfactory. The individual functions of the language are strictly opposed to each other, while others can be combined, that is, they can be realized in the same speech act.

The problem of language functions has long attracted the attention of scientists. The total number of functions in various works is great. However, it is not always possible to identify two similar functions mentioned in different works and called differently, since the reasons for this or that classification are not always obvious. Therefore, we will touch on the main functions of the language. The main function of the language is communicative, moreover, in many sciences and directions, the language is considered exclusively from this point of view.

The other two functions cognitive(cognitive) and expressive(emotional) are based on understanding the language as an element of self-expression.

In the cognitive function, language expresses mental activity, that is, the activity of consciousness.

In the emotional function, language expresses the feelings and emotions of a person.

We have to admit that these functions are not always easily distinguishable, although both functions are in principle compatible with the communicative one.

According to Humboldt, cognitive function consists in forming thoughts and presenting facts. The expressive function is the expression of emotional urges and feelings. The communicative function is realized in the message, controversy and mutual understanding.

Other scientists put forward large quantity functions: metalanguage, contacting(phatic) and others.

German psychologist Karl Buhler(30th of XX century) identified three functions of the language:

1. expressive(correlates with the speaker),

2. appellate(correlates with the listener),

3. representative(Corresponds to the subject under discussion).

As you know, representatives of the Prague Linguistic Circle (Kartsevsky, Jakobson, Trubetskoy) showed interest in the functions of language.

Roman Jacobson singled out 6 functions of the language.

1.When set to the speaker (sending the message), the emotive function.

2. Attitude to the addressee, the desire to evoke a certain reaction in him - conative.

3.Installation on the message and its form - poetic.

4. Installation on the language system - metalanguage.

5. Reality Attitude - referential(denotative).

6. Establishing contact with the interlocutor - phatic(contact setting).

Yu.S. Stepanov uses other semiotic principles. It distinguishes between 3 language functions:

1. syntactic,

2. nominative,

3. pragmatic.

The given data indicate that, despite the lengthy study of the problem of language functions, it is far from being solved.

In science, there are various points of view on the essence of language.

1. The biological concept of language. This concept was spread in the 19th century, influenced by the successes natural sciences... Representatives of this concept considered language as a biological, natural phenomenon, since the material basis of language is nervous system, organs of speech, organs of hearing. However, in history there are cases when small children fell to wild animals, grew up among them (for example, among wolves), but after returning to human society, they could not learn to speak, although their speech organs were quite normal. If a child is brought up without parents in a foreign language environment, he will speak in the language of the surrounding society, and not in the language of his parents. All this led researchers to the conclusion that language is not inherited and does not belong to biological phenomena.

2. The psychological concept of language. According to this concept, language is considered as a special activity of the human psyche. The psychological concept of language, which took shape in the 19th century, had a great influence on the development of linguistics. Nowadays, the study of the connections between language and human mental life is carried out within the framework of psycholinguistics. However, to understand language as a means of communication, the psychological approach is insufficient; an analysis of the relations between language and society is also necessary, that is, it is necessary to consider language as a social phenomenon.

3. Social concept language. According to this concept, language is a social phenomenon, that is, social. Language arises and develops only in society, a person learns the language in the collective in which this person grows and is brought up. Language, in contrast to the sound signals of animals, is not transmitted by genetic inheritance, but is acquired in the process of communication. Language serves society and can neither arise, nor exist, nor develop outside of society.

Many modern linguists come to the conclusion that language is a multi-quality phenomenon, the essence of which is determined by the interaction of biological, psychological and social factors.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "language" and "speech". Language is a system of sound, verbal and grammatical means through which people think and communicate. Language is a social phenomenon, it is common for the people speaking it. Speech - the use of language a specific person v specific situation communication. Individual traits are reflected in speech speaking person, but at the same time, mutual understanding of the participants in communication is ensured by the fact that speech is based on the language system.

The main functions of the language are communicative, thinking and cumulative functions. The communicative function is that language is a means of communication. Along with language, there are other means of communication (gestures, facial expressions, numbers, scientific formulas, traffic signs, etc.), but they are all assigned to a certain area. human activity and transmit a limited range of information. Language is a universal means of communication, it is used by all people in all spheres of activity and is able to express any information accumulated by humanity. As part of the communicative function of the language, a number of varieties can be distinguished:

1. Informative function - transferring information about the surrounding reality to the addressee.

2. Emotive function - with the help of language, a person expresses his assessment of objects and phenomena, his emotional state.

3. Pragmatic function - impact on the behavior of the addressee, expression of an urge to action or prohibition.

4. Phatic (contact-establishing) function - language serves as a means of establishing and maintaining contact between people; This function uses language tools that allow you to start a conversation (greeting, address), check the presence of a contact (for example, the word Hello at telephone conversation), show the completeness of communication (farewell).

5. Aesthetic function - speech can influence the feeling of beauty, please with its beauty, imagery.

The thinking function is expressed in the fact that language serves as a means of forming thought, that is, with the help linguistic means people think, process the information they received, plan their actions. Thinking is inextricably linked with knowledge. There are two different sources of cognition called "signaling systems". The first signaling system is sensations, that is, the result of exposure outside world on the senses. On the basis of sensations, a representation is formed - a visual image of an object in the mind of a person. The first signaling system is characteristic of both humans and animals. The second signaling system is language. With the help of a word, a concept is expressed - a generalizing thought about a whole class of objects that have common features. Therefore, human abstract (generalizing) thinking is closely related to language.

The cumulative function of language is the function of preserving social experience, knowledge, and cultural traditions. The experience accumulated by mankind is preserved in language, in texts.

Question 4. The problem of the origin of language and its development.

Various theories of the origin of the language are known.

1. The theory of onomatopoeia. According to this theory, the first words were onomatopoeic, that is, the sound of these words conveyed the sounds of the objects they designated. This theory goes back to the ancient Stoic philosophers, in modern times it was developed by the German philosopher Leibniz (17th - early 18th century) and other scientists. This theory is based on the fact that in any language there are words based on onomatopoeia, for example, cuckoo, beetle, tambourine, whistle, rustle, thunder.

2. Interjection theory (theory of the emotional origin of language). According to this theory, the language arose on the basis of involuntary exclamations expressing various emotions, the first words of the language were interjections. This theory goes back to the ancient philosophers-Epicureans, in the 18th century it was developed French philosopher Russo.

3. The theory of social (social) contract, according to which language arose through an agreement between people: primitive people, realizing the need to have a means of communication, began to agree on how to name the surrounding objects. This theory arose in the 18th century (for example, the English economist Adam Smith was its supporter). Rousseau combined this theory with the theory of the emotional origin of language: in his opinion, at the first stage, primitive people uttered involuntary emotional exclamations, and at the second stage they began to agree on the meaning of words, assigning certain names to certain objects.

4. Labor theory, according to which language arose in the process of people's labor activity as a means of its coordination. The labor activity of primitive people was of a collective nature and required coordination of actions. Unlike animals, man created tools and mastered new ways of working, which created the need for an exchange of experience. Labor theory was created in the 19th century by the German scientist Ludwig Noiret. Noiret believed that the oldest words there were verbs - names of actions, since the first statements were an incentive to perform one or another action. The labor theory of the origin of language was also developed by Friedrich Engels, who believed that labor activity played a leading role both in the formation of language and in the formation of human consciousness.

All existing concepts of the origin of the language are hypothetical. V modern science research on this problem continues.

Every living language is in constant development. Historical development language is caused by various factors. There are external (social) and internal (intra-linguistic) factors of linguistic evolution.

External factors include the reflection in the language of the changes taking place in society. External factors affect primarily the development of the vocabulary and phraseological composition of the language. The vocabulary reflects everything new that appears in all spheres of society's life: in social and political life, in science and technology, in everyday life, in art and literature. The emergence of new objects and phenomena, the formation of new concepts lead to the creation of new words (for example, in the Russian language of the 19th century, words steamboat, steam locomotive, Decembrist, Westernizer, Slavophilism, populist, Oblomovism etc.), as well as to the appearance of new meanings in old words (for example, the word train, which previously meant a series of carts driving one after another, in the 19th century received a new one, modern meaning). Reflected in vocabulary and interaction between different nations and their languages, which leads to the borrowing of words from one language to another. For example, in Russian, many religious terms are borrowed from Greek (angel, icon, gospel, bishop, metropolitan, patriarch, monk and others), because Christianity was borrowed by Kievan Rus from Byzantium. Many words related to sea transport are borrowed by Russian from the Dutch language (for example, sailor, steering wheel, flight, raid), since the experience of Holland was widely used in the creation of the Russian fleet in the Petrine era.

Among the internal factors of linguistic evolution are the tendency to save linguistic means, and the tendency to change by analogy.

The trend towards economy of language resources is manifested in the fact that native speakers seek to reduce the time and effort required to convey information. As a result, there is a reduction in the volume of linguistic units, replacing larger units with smaller ones. For example, in the Old Russian language, the infinitive of all verbs ended with a vowel sound and(for example, see, hear), then this sound was preserved in the infinitive only under stress, and was lost in the unstressed position. Nouns female instrumental singular previously had an ending - oh, - oh, then the ending spread - oh, oh, (old version endings are much less common), as a result of which this grammatical form was reduced by one syllable. A combination of words can be shortened, merged into one word: for example, a combination save god turned into a word thanks, combination whether there is a turned into a union if, combination one by ten turned into a numeral eleven.

The tendency towards analogy is manifested in cases where some linguistic units change in the manner of others. For example, the words coat, muffler, pince-nez, dash, mashed potatoes, cafe in French belong to the masculine gender, in the Russian language these words passed into neuter gender by analogy with Russian words ending in -O, -e... V German the numeral zwo (two) took the form zwei under the influence of the word drei (three) following it in the number sequence.

Question 5. Classification of languages ​​of the world. Genealogical classification.

The classification of languages ​​is their distribution according to categories based on certain characteristics. The most famous are the genealogical and morphological classifications of languages.

Genealogical classification is based on language kinship. Languages ​​derived from the same more ancient language are called related. For example, Italian, Spanish, French and some other languages ​​are derived from Latin. English, German, Swedish, Dutch and some other languages ​​are derived from the Proto-Germanic language. Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages come from the Old Russian language, he himself Old Russian language like others Slavic languages(Polish, Bulgarian, etc.) comes from the Proto-Slavic language - the language of the ancient Slavs. In turn, the Proto-Slavic language, as well as the Proto-Germanic language, Latin language and a number of other languages ​​have evolved from Indo-European proto-language, which existed in 5 - 4 millennia BC.

Related languages ​​are grouped into language families. A language family is a collection of languages ​​that go back to the same proto-language (ancestor language). Languages ​​descended from the Indo-European proto-language are combined into the Indo-European family. There are other language families: Turkic, Mongolian, Semitic-Hamitic (Afrasian), Uralic, Sino-Tibetan, etc. The Turkic family includes Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Azerbaijani, Turkish, Tatar and a number of other languages. The Mongolian family includes Mongolian, Kalmyk, Buryat languages. The Semitic-Hamitic (Afrasian) family includes Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic, Hausa and a number of other languages, including the dead (that is, not currently used) Ancient Egyptian, Assyro-Babylonian, Phoenician languages. V Ural family includes Finnish, Estonian, Mordovian and a number of other languages. The Sino-Tibetan family includes Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese and a number of other languages.

Linguistic affinity can be close or distant. Therefore, language groups are divided into language groups. The group includes languages ​​that are closely related. Thus, a number of groups stand out within the Indo-European family.

1. Slavic group... It includes Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian (they make up the East Slavic subgroup), Polish, Czech, Slovak, Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian languages ​​(they make up the West Slavic subgroup), Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian languages(they make up the South Slavic subgroup).

2. Baltic group: Lithuanian and Latvian languages, as well as the dead Prussian language.

3. Germanic group: German, English, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, as well as dead Gothic.

4. Celtic group: Irish, Scottish, Welsh (Welsh), as well as the dead Gaulish language.

5. Romance group: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian, Moldavian, as well as their common ancestor Is a dead Latin language.

6. Greek group: modern Greek language and dead ancient Greek language.

7. Albanian language (allocated to a special group).

8. Armenian language (allocated to a special group).

9. Iranian group: Persian, Afghani, Tajik, Ossetian, Kurdish and a number of other languages, as well as some dead languages, for example, Scythian.

10. Indian group: Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Gypsy and a number of other languages, as well as a dead language - Sanskrit ( literary language Ancient India).

11. Anatolian group. It includes dead languages, known from ancient written monuments found in Asia Minor: Hittite, Lydian and some others.

12. Tokhar group. It includes two dead languages, which are known from ancient written monuments found on the territory Central Asia... They are called "Tocharian A" and "Tocharian B".

The question of the essence of language is one of the most difficult in linguistics. It is no coincidence that it has several mutually exclusive solutions:

Language is a biological, natural phenomenon, independent of man (Schleicher)

Language is a mental phenomenon arising from the action of the individual spirit - human or divine (Humboldt)

Language is a psychosocial phenomenon that has a "collective-individual" or "collective-psychic" existence, in which the individual is at the same time common, universal (Baudouin de Courtenay)

Language is a social phenomenon that arises and develops only in a team (F. de Sussure)

There is no doubt that language is a social phenomenon: it arises and develops only in a team due to the need for people to communicate with each other.

Different understanding of the essence of language gave rise to different approaches to its definition: language is thinking, expressed by sounds(Schleicher); language is a system of signs, in which the only essential is the combination of meaning and acoustic image (F. de Saussure); language is practical, existing for other people and only thereby existing for myself, real consciousness (K. Marx, F. Engels); language is essential tool human communication (V.I. Lenin); language is spontaneously arising in human society and developing system articulate sound signs, serving for communication purposes and capable of expressing the entire body of human knowledge and ideas about the world (ND Arutyunova).

Question 2: Language as a Social Phenomenon

Language is always the property of the collective. In the vast majority of cases, the collective of people speaking the same language is an ethnic collective. The languages ​​of some ethnic groups are also used as a means of interethnic communication. So, the Russian language is national language Russian and at the same time the language of interethnic communication of a number of other nations and nationalities. Russian is also one of the world's languages. The language of an ethnic community, as a rule, is not absolutely uniform throughout the territory of its distribution and in all spheres of its use. The language of an ethnic community, as a rule, is not absolutely uniform throughout the territory of its distribution and in all spheres of its use. It reveals certain internal differences: a more or less uniform literary language usually opposes markedly different local dialects, as well as professional and other varieties of language, reflecting the internal division of a given linguistic community.

Question 3. Basic theories of the origin of language. Since antiquity, there have been many theories of the origin of I. 1) The theory of onomatopoeia - received support in the 19th century. The essence of the theory is that people tried to imitate the sounds of nature with their speech apparatus. Contradicts practice. There are few sounding words, one can only sound onomatopoeic, as then to call the voiceless. The sound-podr of words is more in the developed I than in the primitive, because in order to imitate you need to master the speech device perfectly, which a primitive person with an undeveloped larynx could not do. 2) The theory of interjections - XVIII century. I came from interjections - modif animal screams, accompanied by emotions. 3) The theory of labor cries - XIX century. I arose from shouts, resistance to collective labor, however, these shouts are a means of rhythmizing labor, they are external to those medium during work. They are not communicative, not nominative, not expressive. 4) The theory of social contract (Ser XVIII) And Smith proclaimed it as the first possible arr. Ya. I arr in rez-those agreements on certain words. This theory does not give anything to explain the primitive I, because in order to come to an agreement one more I is needed. The reason for the inferiority of all the above theories is that what? about the origin of I are conducted in isolation from the origin of man and the formation of primary people of collectives. 5) The theory of gestures is also untenable, since gestures are always secondary for people having the sound I. Among gestures there are no words and gestures are not connected with concepts. Everything is similar to the theory of ignoring the I as a society. Of Engels' main propositions about the origin of the self: the origin of the self cannot be scientifically proven, one can only construct hypotheses, only linguistic data are not enough to solve this issue.

Question 4 Language as a system of signs.

Language is viewed as a system of signs. Sign - can be defined as a kind of material unit that creates language as a phenomenon. With regard to language, the term sign can be defined by the following points:

1. The sign must be material, that is, it must be accessible to sensory perception, like any thing.

2. The sign does not matter, but is aimed at meaning, for this it exists.

Question 5: Language, its main functions . Relationship between language and thinking. Language and speech. Language is the most important means of human communication (a naturally occurring and naturally developing system of objectively existing and socially fixed linguistic signs, correlating conceptual content and typical sound). Functions of language: 1) Communicative - the main social function of language. Communication is the transmission from one person to another of a message for one purpose or another. Communication occurs as a result communication activities two or more persons in a certain situation and in the presence of common facility 2) Phase of storing information: language acts as a form of reflection and storage of knowledge about reality 3) Expressive - language acts as a medium for expressing feelings and emotions. 4) Meta-linguistic language acts simultaneously as a medium and as an object research. 5) Cognitive - (cognitive) language acts as an element of thinking, with the help of which thought is formed. 6) Aesthetic - language acts as a medium for the expression of a person's creative potential, correlated with aesthetic categories ..

Question 6 Language sign properties

1. Arbitrariness: the connection through which the signifier is connected with the signified is arbitrary, that is, it is in no way conditioned by anything. Thus, the concept of "sister" is not related to the sequence of sounds soeur or sister, it could be expressed by any other sound shell. Arbitrary - that is, unmotivated, there is no logical connection. There are words associated with the concept (onomatopoeic factor). There are languages ​​with more or less motivation.

2. The linear character of the signifier: the signifier is perceived by ear, therefore it has an extension, one-dimensionality, that is, it is linear. "This is a very significant sign, and the consequences are incalculable." Auditory signs are very different from visual signs, which can have multiple dimensions.

3. Variability / immutability of the sign. Speakers cannot make changes to the language. The sign resists change, since its character is determined by tradition. In particular, due to:

* arbitrariness of the sign - protection from attempts to change it;

* plurality of signs;

* complex nature of the system;

* resistance to collective inertia to innovation.

The language provides few opportunities for initiative, revolutionary changes in the language are impossible, since at any given moment the language is the business of each and every one.

However, time has an impact on the language, so from this point of view, the language sign is changeable.

Changes in the signifier often lead to changes in the signified.

Question No. 7 F. de Saussure's concept of a linguistic sign (signified and signifier)

Language is a system of interrelated and interdependent signs.

A language for most people is essentially a nomenclature - a list of names, each of which for most people corresponds to one specific thing. For example: "tree" - arbor, "horse" - equos (lat.)

Saussure: “This opinion is erroneous, since it presupposes the presence of ready-made concepts preceding words. Such an idea does not say anything about the nature of the name (sound or psychic), and allows one to think that the connection connecting names and things is something simple, and this is very far from the truth. Nevertheless, this point of view brings you closer to the truth, as it points to the duality of language, to the fact that it is formed by the union of two components. "

“A linguistic sign connects not a thing and its name, but a concept and an acoustic image. At the same time, the acoustic image is not a material sound, a purely physical thing, but a psychic imprint of sound, an idea obtained about it through our senses. "

Language is a system of signs in which the only essential is the combination of meaning and an acoustic image, both of these elements being psychic in equal measure.

In the nomenclature, the thing and the name are directly related, in the language they exist intermediate links: a sign is associated with a thing through a concept and with a material shell through an acoustic image. In this case, the acoustic image is the signifier, and the concept is the signified.

Question 8. The structure and system of the language

Question 9: Language levels and units

Units of language are elements that are uniform and indecomposable from the point of view of a certain level of articulation of the text (phonological, morphological, etc.) and opposed to each other in a system corresponding to a given level. Under the indecomposability of E. i. it should be understood that it is inseparable into smaller units of the same kind; this does not exclude the possibility that at another level it may correspond to a combination of units of the “lowest rank”. So, a word (in the terminology of some linguists - a lexeme), considered as a "naming unit" (for example, "hand"), cannot be decomposed into smaller units that have an independent nominative function, although the specific word forms by which it is represented in the sentence ("hand" , "Hands", "hand", etc.), can, from another point of view, be considered as a combination of lesser significant elements ("hands-a", "hands-and", "hands-oh", etc.). ). The number, types (and, accordingly, names) of E. i., Distinguished by different linguistic concepts, are different. The reference to E. I is widespread. the basic unit of the plan of expression (phoneme) and the simplest sign unit (morpheme or moneme). More varied is the terminology related to Containment Plan units (see Containment Plan) (cf. Sememe, Plereme, Morpheme, Grammeme,

Elements of the language system that have different functions and meanings. Aggregates of basic E. i. in the narrow sense of this term form a definition. "Levels" language system e.g. phonemes - phonemic level, morphemes - morphemic level, etc. (see. Language levels). The term "E. i.> in broad sense denote a wide range of heterogeneous phenomena that are the object of the study of linguistics. Allocate material units with a constant sound shell, for example. phoneme, morpheme, word, sentence, etc., "relatively-material" units with a variable sound shell, for example. models of the structure of words, phrases, sentences, and units of meaning (for example, semes, etc.) that make up the semantic (ideal) side of material or relatively material units and do not exist outside these units

Question №10 Functions of units of language.

Language as the most important means of communication and generalization fulfills its social purpose due to the flexibility of its units, the multidimensionality and dynamism of the language system and its categories.

Different units of the language participate in different ways in the performance of the functions of the language, in the expression and transmission of a message. Directly in the act of speech of the message, nominative and predicative units of the language are used

Words and sentences. Nominative units are not only separate significant words (house, walk, five, good, fast, etc.), but also compound names and phraseological units ( Railway, from the heart). Various kinds of sentences are predicative units.

Language, as one of the most mysterious world mysteries, has been the subject of scientific comprehension for more than one thousand. The main milestones on this arduous path can serve as the following brightest stages in the history of the science of language:

Vedic teachings that developed in Ancient India as early as the 4th century. BC.

the ancient theory of naming, reflecting the controversy over how things get their name, and containing the grammatical art of Greece and Ancient rome, Kita, Arabian East (V-III centuries BC ..- IV century AD)

universal universal grammars of the 18th century, the authors of which sought to find commonality in the grammar of different languages

comparative linguistics, which laid the foundation on the basis of descriptive and comparative research general linguistics(XIX)

systemic and structural linguistics of the XX century, which set itself the task of explaining internal organization language.

At each stage of the development of linguistic thought, original theories were created that brought closer in the struggle of opinions the modern understanding of the nature and essence of language. All their diversity is usually reduced to three paradigms, which respectively interpret the essence of language as a biological or mental or social phenomenon. Each of these approaches suffered from isolation, a one-sided interpretation of the essence of language and intolerance towards other teachings. This could not but cause a critical attitude towards them in subsequent generations of linguists. However, both theories themselves and their criticism contain a lot of valuable for modern understanding of the essence of language and therefore deserve both attention and study.

Biological theory of language.

Language is understood as an innate, hereditary phenomenon. This topic was discussed especially vigorously in the 17th - 18th centuries. under the influence of the so-called philosophical naturalism, which affirmed the concept of "natural society", "natural morality", etc. Nature acted as the only and universal principle of explaining everything that exists. The idea of ​​language as a "natural organism" is being formed. This term is widely used in the writings of such linguists as August and Friedrich Schlegel, Wilhelm Humboldt, Rasmus Rask, Franz Bopp, Jacob Grimm, I.I. Sreznevsky. The most recognized theorist of the biological concept of language, the head of a whole direction in linguistics of the XIX century. traditionally considered an outstanding German linguist August Schleicher, known in the history of the science of language as a major representative of comparative historical linguistics.

In the work of August Schleicher "Yahyki of Europe in a systematic light" language is likened to a natural organism. In German, the author acknowledges this statement.

The assimilation of language to a living organism is a tribute to the linguistic tradition of resorting to analogies using metaphorical expressions. This is the style of the century. Humboldt called language a natural organism, for R. Rask, language is a natural phenomenon, for I.I. Sreznevsky is a natural work, a work of nature.

This theory implies the natural origin of language, and the action in the language of certain laws, similar to those that exist in nature, and the understanding of language as a holistic formation, in which, like an organism, all elements are in regular connections and relationships, and the ability of the language to self-development. With this approach, the naturalistic theory of language does not contradict those specific studies and discoveries that were left by its creators to linguists of the 20th century.

The naturalistic understanding of language is strengthened in the writings of Max Müller, in particular in the book "The Science of Language". In the XX century. The theory of the American scientist Noam Chomsky about the biological innateness of language gained immense popularity: in the organization of speech utterance, two levels should be distinguished - deep grammatical structures and superficial grammatical structures of the language. The scientist considers deep grammatical structures to be innate and therefore universal. They are the essence of human competence, i.e. his linguistic ability, like others - the ability to understand, the ability to think, the ability to occupy, etc. Grammatical structures are a set of few rules for constructing a speech utterance, an intermediate link from thought to speech (in speech production) and vice versa, from speech to thought (for the process of understanding the utterance). The biological theory of innate linguistic ability has generated enormous controversy and has been subject to severe criticism. However, many of her progressive ideas and in our time are fruitfully used in psycholinguistics, in the theory of speech generation and in neurolinguistics.

Psychological approaches to the essence of language.

Consideration of language as a psychological phenomenon. Formed in the XIX - XX centuries. and predetermined the emergence of several areas of linguistic psychologism - socio-psychological, individual psychological and psycholinguistic. The first two developed within the framework of historical linguistics, and the third owes its origin to synchronous linguistics.

Supporters of the socio-psychological direction tried to explain the essence of language, proceeding from the social nature of human psychology. The basis of this approach is the thesis of the theoretician of linguistic psychology Wilhelm von Humboldt that language is the expression of the people, the originality of national consciousness. Language is a product of the instinct of reason, an involuntary emanation of the spirit, its main product. The language is influenced by the spirit of the people from several sides. First of all, he is constantly fueled by spiritual energy, on the strength and power of which his wealth and flexibility depend. Secondly, the nature of the language depends on the spiritual aspirations of the people, that is, on its closed or open orientation for external activity. Finally, he is influenced by the degree of the spirit's predisposition to linguistic creation. This predisposition causes a vivid reflection in the language of a living and creative imagination, the harmony of the word.

Humboldt's ideas found original development in the works of such linguists of the second half of the 19th century as Geiman Steinthal, A.A. Potebnya, Wilhelm Wundt. The essence of language, in their opinion, is hidden in the psychology of the people. Language is such a product of the human spirit, which differs both from logic and from psychological categories, a specific product of the history of spiritual life, self-awareness, worldview and logic of the spirit of the people. But the true guardian of the spirit of the people, according to Steinthal, is the language in its original form.

W. Wundt in "The Psychology of Nations" states:

spirit (the psychology of the people is most clearly manifested in the language of folklore, mythology and the most ancient forms of religion

folk customs are reflected in proverbs, sayings, historical monuments, manuscripts.

This direction in linguistics is valuable because the essence of language in it was considered from the point of view of its sociality, more precisely - social psychology, social consciousness. In the last third of the XIX century. psychological linguistics is undergoing a reorientation.

The individual psychological direction was called young grammatism. Its theorists were the scientists of the Leipzig school of linguistics Karl Brugman, August Leskin, Hermann Osthof, Hermann Paul, Berthold Delbrück, etc., who believed that language exists only in the minds of individuals, each speaking individual. The language of the people in general as a manifestation of their spirit is a myth. At the same time, they did not deny a common language as something average, total from individual languages ​​(usus). As a psychophysiological phenomenon, language obeys the psychic laws of association and analogy in the process of change and evolution.

Both directions of psychologism in linguistics influenced the formation of modern psycholinguistics, which took shape in the middle of the 20th century. This became possible due to the stable orientation of the domestic science of language, primarily in the person of F.F. Fortunatova, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and L.V. Shcherby, on the “speaking person factor”. The main subject of psycholinguistics is speech activity, and its ultimate goal is to describe the psychophysiological mechanisms of speech generation.

Language as a social phenomenon.

The proposition that language is inherently social has become a linguistic axiom. It is social in origin, since it arose due to a social need for a means of communication, Language serves society and can neither arise, nor exist, nor develop outside of it, Language that is not used by society as a means of communication dies. Outside of human society, the child is not able to master the language.

The question of the extent to which language is a social phenomenon did not exist. According to the creator of the "new doctrine of language" N. Ya. Marr and his followers, language is an exclusively social phenomenon. Hence the following postulate: all linguistic tiers are socially conditioned, reflect the life of society and are entirely dependent on the processes taking place in it.

In itself, the correct understanding of language as a social phenomenon acquired a one-sided interpretation, which distorted the true nature of language.

The multi-quality nature of language.

The essence of language can be revealed only in the process of cognition of human speech ontogenesis, using data from genetics, psychophysiology, neuropsychology, etc. A discussion between N. Chomsky, J. Piaget and F. Jacob can give an idea of ​​the scope and acuteness of the debate about this approach. The theoretical basis of this approach is the research of domestic neurolinguists under the guidance of A.R. Luria.

At the center of the discussion is N. Chomsky's hypothesis about the innateness of a deep grammatical structure as a specific device of the human mind, which serves as a mechanism for mastering a specific language. He compares the innate language ability with the innateness of the visual system. The biological basis for this understanding is found in the anatomy and functioning of the human brain (E. Lenneberg). In this case, language appears as a means of expressing the cognitive functions of the brain, such as categorization (generalizing the unification of homogeneous phenomena into large classes and sections) and processing information (information) coming from outside.

Information from the outside comes through millions of receptors in the human body, constantly monitoring changes in the external and internal environment. Perceived irritations are transmitted to the cells of our body. From receptors to neurons, from neuron to neuron.

In the process of studying the pathology of speech, two main speech zones were discovered. P. Brock's zone is responsible for the production of speech (speaking), K. Wernicke's zone - for the perception and understanding of someone else's speech. In the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere, in front of Broca's zone, there are several speech centers that control the mechanisms of coupling of speech units - they realize the ability of sounds to combine into syllables, morphemes - into words, words - into sentences, sentences - into a coherent text. In the back of the left hemisphere, behind the Wernicke zone, there are mechanisms for combining homogeneous units into classes, categories, categories based on some common feature... The right hemisphere is responsible for visual perception of the external world. The left and right hemispheres work as a single system, and therefore there are biological (neurophysiological) bases: the cerebral hemispheres are connected by connecting nerve threads. Through them there is an exchange of information, thanks to which the language becomes an intermediary between a person and the environment in which he lives. This is the biological and psychological prerequisites for understanding the essence of language.

Social factors are included when the child begins to respond to an affectionate voice, a melody, that is, when communication begins. From that moment on, there comes learning, imitation of the sound speech of adults, pronouncing syllables and no longer for oneself, but for communicating with others. Feedback is generated.

From the second half of the year, the foundations of speech activity are laid: inner speech is formed and the basis for sign communication is created.

At the last stage of verbal communication, internal speech is translated into external. Its task is to express a thought verbally, to make it the property of others. In this sense, verbal communication is social. All this convinces us that the essence of language in terms of its origin and in terms of functioning is determined by the close interweaving of biological, psychological and social factors.

1. The nature of language.

a) Naturalistic (biological) approach to language

b) Psychic approach to language

c) Language is a social phenomenon

d) Language as a system of signs

Language functions.

Language and speech

Language and thinking.

1. The nature of language.

Revealing the nature of language is one of the problems of linguistics. To reveal the nature of language means to determine what phenomena it refers to: biological, mental, social (social). There are many answers to this question.

a) Naturalistic (biological) approach to language

Some scientists considered language to be a biological phenomenon, that is, they put it on a par with such phenomena of human life as the ability to eat, drink, walk, etc. This point of view arose in the middle of the 19th century under the influence of the development of natural sciences, it turned out that language is supposedly embedded in the very biological being of man and can be inherited.

The development of a naturalistic approach to language is associated with the name of the outstanding German researcher August Schleicher (1821-1868). Schleicher's naturalistic philosophy of language is most clearly stated in such works as "Darwin's theory and the science of language" 1863, "The meaning of language for the natural history of man" 1865. In his work "Darwin's theory and the science of language" Schleicher directly pointed out that "the laws established Darwin for plant and animal species are applicable at least, in its main features and to the organisms of languages. ” In his opinion, those languages ​​that, according to botanists and zoologists, would be species of the same genus, in linguistics are recognized as children of one common basic language, from which they evolved by way of gradual changes.

Schleicher also sees the proximity of language to natural organisms in the ability of language to evolve. In this regard, Schleicher declares: "The life of the language does not differ significantly from the life of all other living organisms - plants and animals." Like these latter, it has a period of growth from the simplest structures to more complex forms and a period of aging, in which languages ​​are increasingly moving away from the attained highest stage of development and their forms are damaged.

For all its shortcomings, the naturalistic direction in linguistics should be regarded as a stage in the progressive movement of the science of language. The desire of representatives of this direction, in particular Schleicher, to apply the exact methods of the natural sciences to the study of language should be considered valuable. The mistake in the concept of Schleicher and his followers was the too straightforward translation into the language of the laws inherent in biological organisms, which really grow, develop, and then grow decrepit and die. Languages, of course, also arise, develop and sometimes die. But this death is not biological, but socio-historical in nature. A language dies only with the disappearance of a society speaking it, a collective of people.

Also erroneous is the assertion of the supporters of this theory that the language can be inherited. For example, if a newborn baby is placed on desert island and if he survives there, he will run and climb beautifully, but he will not speak. After all, the child begins to speak not in the language of his parents, but in the language of the people around him.

However, despite the erroneous nature of the naturalistic concept in linguistics, one should always take into account the fact that the comparison of language with a living organism contributed to the establishment of a systemic view of language as an object with its own structure.

b) Psychic approach to language

Another well-known point of view on the nature and essence of language is that language is a phenomenon. mental... One of the most prominent representatives who represented a psychological point of view on language was Gaiman Steinthal (1823-1899). The most clear and consistent psychological concept of Steinthal is presented in his work "Grammar, Logic and Psychology, Their Principles and Relationships". Steinthal considered language to be a mental phenomenon that develops on the basis of the laws of psychology. He denied the role of thinking in the formation of language, attaching importance to the psyche. Schleicher completely ruled out logic, arguing that "the categories of language and logic are not compatible, they can also be little correlated with each other as the concept of a circle and red." Thus, he categorically denied the participation of thinking in the development of language. Steinthal focused all his attention on the individual act of speech, considering language as a phenomenon of a mental order.

Linguists who support this theory argued that language arises as a result of the human psyche. But in this case, the language should be individual for each person, as well as the individual psyche of each person. However, this never happens. The language of an individual person arises and develops only in a collective under the influence of the collective speech.

c) Language is a social phenomenon

Finally, there is a point of view that language is a social phenomenon.

F. Engels: "Language is as ancient as consciousness ... Like consciousness, language arises from a need, from an urgent need to communicate with other people."

The language of an individual is dependent on the environment and is influenced by the speech of the collective. If small children find themselves in the living conditions of animals, then they acquire the skills of animal life and irrevocably lose everything human.

Language is the most important means of human communication. It is by this function that it differs from other social phenomena, such as, for example, production, technology, science, thinking, etc.

The Dane Elmslev in his book "Prolegomena to the theory of language" gives an exhaustive description of language as a phenomenon: "The language of human speech is an inexhaustible supply of various treasures. Language is inseparable from a person and follows him in all his actions. Language is a tool through which a person forms thought and feelings, moods, desires, will and activity.Language is a tool through which a person influences people, and others influence him.Language is the primary and most necessary basis of human society. But it is also the ultimate necessary support human personality, the refuge of a person in the hours of loneliness, when the mind enters into a struggle with life and the conflict is generated by the monologue of a poet or thinker. But language is not an external phenomenon that only accompanies a person. It is deeply associated with the human mind. It is a wealth of memory inherited by an individual and a tribe. Language is so deeply rooted in personality, family, nation, humanity and life itself that sometimes we cannot refrain from asking if language is not just a reflection of phenomena, but their embodiment, the seed from which they grew. For these reasons, language has always attracted the attention of a person, they were surprised at it, they described it in poetry and science. "

d) Language as a system of signs

Language is viewed as a system of signs. Sign - can be defined as a kind of material unit that creates language as a phenomenon.

With regard to language, the term sign can be defined by the following points:

1. The sign must be material, that is, it must be accessible to sensory perception, like any thing.

2. The sign does not matter, but is aimed at meaning, for this it exists.