§ 28. Positional changes in consonants occur in the following positions: 1) at the end of a word; 2) before deaf / voiced noisy, except [in], [in ']; 3) before soft dental; 4) before soft lips; 5) before [h], [〙']; 6) in front of the palatine slits.
At the end of the word, voiced noisy ones are deafened and deaf noisy ones appear in their place: ra [b] s - ra [p], gra [b ']it - gra [n '], cro [c] a - cro [f], cro [in '] and - cro [f '], ra [d] s - ra [t], gla [d ']it - gla [t '], ro [s] a - ro [s], ma [s '] and - ma [s'], but [g] and - but [w], up to [〇'] and - up to [〙 '], ro [g] a - ro [k].
Sonorants are stunned at the end of a word after deaf noisy ones, or before deaf noisy ones: ost [】], cape [〬 '], drakh [〭], nasmo [】] to, in [〬] to, to [〬 to], four [ 】to].
§ 29. In a position in front of deaf noisy consonants, voiced noisy consonants are stunned, and deaf noisy consonants appear in their place: sko [b] ochka - sko [n] ka, la [v] ochka - la [f] ka, row [d] ok - rya [t] ka, take [s] a - take [s] ka, lo [f] echka - lo [sh] ka.
In a position in front of voiced noisy consonants, except for [c], [c '], deaf noisy ones are voiced, and voiced noisy ones appear in their place: [h] quit, about [d] guess, [h] give (cf. the lack of voicing before deaf consonants in cases [c] push, o [t] fall). In a position in front of voiced noisy voiceless [c], [h] and [x] sound, and voiced [dz], [d ㆀzh '] and [γ] appear in their place. The voicing of the deaf [ts], [h] and [x] occurs mainly at the junction of independent and official word or at the junction of components in complex formations: ot[dㆀzㆃb]s, (to[dㆀzh’ㆃb]s, co[γㆃb]s, tre[γg]roshovy.
Note. Voiced [dㆀz], [dㆀzh’] and [γ] have the same articulatory characteristics, which, respectively, have voiceless [ts], [h] and [x], with the addition of voicedness.
§ 30. In a position in front of soft dental [t '], [d '] consonants [s], [h] are softened: [s't'] eep, [s't'] bend, [s't'] elit , [h'd'] here, [h'd'] eat. Before soft dental [s '], [s '] consonants [s], [s], softening, merge with them into one long soft sound[〒’] or [〈’]: ra[〒’] to eat, ra[〈’] to get. Before soft dental [n '], [l '] consonants [s], [h] in the position inside the root are pronounced softly (which corresponds to the old Moscow pronunciation standards): [s'n'] egir, [s'n'] hedgehog, [dream; [z'l']it, in [z'l']e, however, at present, a solid pronunciation [s], [s] is also acceptable here: [sn '] egir, [sn '] hedgehog, [sn '] to be; [angry ']it, in [evil'] e.
In a position in front of soft dental [t '], [d '] consonants [t], [d] can be pronounced in two ways: with softening or without softening. In combinations [tt], [dd], a long shutter is formed (i.e., a short delay before the explosion), which, when soft pronunciation the preceding consonant can be soft, and with a solid pronunciation, it can be hard: o [d’d ’] elit, o [t’t ’] clarify or o [dd ’] elit, o [tt ’] clarify.
In the position before soft dental [s'], [z'] consonants [t], [d] are pronounced with a slight fricative element, bringing them closer to affricates, which can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with the old Moscow norm) and firmly: o[c's'] to leave, o[c's'] to go, o[dㆀz'z'] to take and o[cs'] to leave, o[cs'] to go, o[dㆀzz'] winter.
In a position in front of soft dental [n '], [l '] consonants [t], [d] are pronounced differently. Before [n '] they are pronounced softly both inside the root and at the junction of the root with a prefix (with a possible solid pronunciation in this position) and a suffix: [d'n'] evnoy, [d'n'] yat and [ day'] yat, o[t'n'] yat and o[tn'] yat, plo[t'n'] her, which corresponds to the old Moscow pronunciation; before [l '] these consonants can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with old Moscow norms) and firmly: ne[t'l']ya and ne[tl']ya, po[d'l']e and po[ dl']e; o[tl '] to shrivel, to [dl '] to eat.
In a position in front of soft dental [t '], [d '], [s '], [h '] consonant [n] is pronounced softly: vi [n't ']ik, ka [n'd'] idat, pe [n's']ia, in [n'z']it. Before the soft [n '] consonant [n], softening, merges with it into one long soft sound [『 ']: weight [『 '] y.
In the position before the dental affricate [ts], the consonant [t] is pronounced together with it as one long sound [〗] or like [ts], i.e. [ts] with a long shutter: o [〗] a or o [ts] a, o[〗]epit or o[tc]epit.
§ 31. In a position in front of soft labials [c '], [f '], [b '], [n '], [m '] dental [t], [d], [s], [h] are pronounced softly inside the root, as well as at the end of prefixes ending in z, s, which corresponds to the old Moscow norms (with the firm pronunciation of dental before soft labials in the indicated positions allowed in the speech of young people): [t'v']er (prop. topon.) and [tv '] er, [d'in'] is and [dv'] is, [s'in'] is not and [svet'] is, [s'in'] is and [sv'] is, [s 'v']er and [sv']er, ra[s'v']e and ra[sv']e, [s'f']era and [sf']era, [s'n']white and [sp'] white, [z'b']it and [zb']it, [s'm']ena and [sm']ena, [s'm']eat and [cm']eat, [s 'm'] her and [zm'] her, ra[z'm'] yat and ra[zm'] yat. In the position at the junction of the root with the prefix, the consonants [t], [d] in the position before the soft labials are pronounced firmly: o[tv '] return, o [db '] s, o [tp '] s, o [tm '] eat , after [dm'] eat. However, according to the old Moscow norm, [t], [d] in a position in front of soft labials were pronounced softly in this position too: o[d'b']it, o[t'p']it, o[t'm']e after [d'm'] eat. Currently, this pronunciation qualifies as colloquial.
In a position in front of soft labial labial consonants [c], [f], [b], [p], [m] can be pronounced both softly (in accordance with the old Moscow norm) and firmly: [f'p'] isat and [fp '] search, [in 'b '] and [vb '] ite, [in 'm '] enit and [in '] enit, [in 'm'] nature and [in '] nature, ri [ f'm']e and ri[fm']e, o[b'm'] to change and o[bm'] to change. In the position before [at '], the consonant [at], softening, merges with it into one long soft sound [〃 ']: [〃 '] to speak, [〃 '] to eat.
§ 32. In the position before [h], the consonant [t] (spelling t and e), softening, merges with the sound [h], forming a long soft shutter (i.e., a delay before the explosion): peak [t'h] ik, le[t'h]ik, uka[t'h]ik, mone[t'h]ik, pass[t'h]ik.
In the position before [h], the consonant [s] (spelling s and z), softening, merges with it into one long soft consonant sound [〙 ']: re [〙 '] ik, but [ 〙 '] ik.
The combination of letters tsh is pronounced in fluent speech as [chsh ']: [chsh ']etno, [chsh ']ately, and in distinct speech - as [t 〙 ']: [t 〙 ']etno, [t 〙 ']ately .
The combination of letters ss at the junction of the prefix and the root is pronounced as [〙 ']. In distinct speech, it is possible to pronounce [sh’sh ’], one part of which belongs to the prefix, and the other part to the root: ra [sh’sh ’] to eat.
In the position before [h], [〙 '] the consonant [n] softens: by [n'h] ik, kame [n '〙 '] ik.
In the position in front of the palatine fricatives [w], [g], the fricative [s], [h] are likened to them in terms of the place where the noise is generated, i.e. they become palatine fricatives, merging with them into one long sound [〙], [ 〇]: [〙] it, and [〇] it (spelling to sew, get rid of).
Issues under consideration:
1. Types of sound alternations.
2. Positional alternations of sounds:
a) positional alternations of vowels;
b) positional alternations of consonants.
3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels and consonants.
Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, position of sound, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, stunning consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations sounds, phonetic transcription.
1. Types of sound alternations
In the process of speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this substitution is constant, regular, due to the same reasons, then we say that there is a process of alternation, and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relations of regular replacement of one sound by another in the same phonetic conditions are called alternation.
The alternations associated with the position of the sound are called position alternations. Alternations due to phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.
All types of sound alternations can be represented in the form of the following table:
Types of sound alternations
|
positional (sound changes related to their position) |
historical (changes in sounds due to phonetic processes that took place in the past) |
|
|
actually positional (sound changes related only to the position of the sounds) |
combinatorial (changes related to the position of sounds and the influence of sounds on each other) |
|
|
vowel reduction; stun at the end of a consonant word |
accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution |
|
Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and hence words, because alternations are related to the relationship of sounds (phonemes) within the system, where the units are related to each other in some way. The language distinguishes two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) - relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) - relations of association of homogeneous units based on associations.
In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and recognition similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of the sound - paradigmatic (for example, when the speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b '], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] are the same type of sound).
2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)
Sounds in the speech stream are pronounced with different strength and clarity depending on sound positions.Sound position - this is its immediate environment, as well as the position at the beginning, at the end of the word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels - the position in relation to stress.
There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.
Positional changes - these are sound changes associated with its position (for example, stunning at the end of a word, weakening unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of positional changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, loss (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.
Combinatorial changes - these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types of positional changes, except for stunning at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with the position in the word, and not with the influence of other sounds.
2 a) Positional vowel alternations
The main type of positional changes in vowels is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. quantitative reduction – decrease in longitude and strength of sound - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). Qualitative reduction– attenuation with some change in sound. For example, for sounds [a], [o], [e] - in an unstressed position. Cf .: the sound of vowels in words hammer and a hammer: [molt], [mult current].
Sounds [a], [o] after solid consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of a word and as a reduced sound [b] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress , for example, milk- [milko], beard- [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] - Rowan[r "and e b" ying], hourly[h "sLvoi].
The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [ and e ], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight- [n "bp" and e l "otʹ].
In foreign words, the qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano- [рLjа́л "], but boa[boa], remark[r "and e mark], but underground[m "etroʹ].
Positional changes in vowels undergoing reduction can be represented in the form of the following table:
|
accent strong position |
Unstressed positions |
|||
|
absolute beginning of a word, the beginning of the word after [j], first prestressed syllable 1 weak position |
other pre-shock and post-shock positions 2 weak position |
|||
|
after tv. |
after soft |
after tv. |
after soft |
|
|
clouds |
five [p'i e t'i] |
field [p'l'i e howl] |
Private [r'dLvoy] |
|
|
wife [zhe na] |
the woods [l and e sa] |
tin [zhus't'i e noi] |
heroism [g'rLizm] |
|
combinatorial changes vowels arise as a result of the adaptation of the articulation of the vowel to the articulation of the preceding and subsequent sound and are called accommodation. Wed pronunciation [o] in words they say[say], a piece of chalk[m’ hol], mole[mo l']. Accommodation can be progressive (®): a piece of chalk[m 'hol] and regressive (¬): mole[mo l'].
Thus, characterizing the changes in vowel sounds in a word, we consider two aspects: 1. Positional - in relation to stress (qualitative reduction, quantitative reduction or vowel without change); 2. Combinatorial - the presence in the neighborhood (right and left) of soft consonants (progressive, regressive, progressive-regressive accommodation or no accommodation). For example, Birch[b'i e r'oz] :
[and e] - positional changes (in relation to stress): qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes (depending on the influence of neighbors): progressive-regressive accommodation.
[·о] – there are no positional changes, because vowel under stress; combinatorial changes - progressive accommodation.
[b] – positional changes: qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes are absent.
2 b) Positional alternations of consonants
As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed sound [t] in words - So and that: [so] - [to from].
Much more often than accommodation, there are other changes in consonant sounds.
Assimilation – similarity in some way. Assimilation happens:
- in the vicinity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
- by the nature of the change by deafness/voicedness and hardness/softness;
- in the direction of impact - progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(impact of sounds from right to left (¬);
- by completeness of assimilation: complete and partial.
The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: story- [kask] - voiced [h] under the influence of the deaf [k] assimilated into the deaf paired sound[With]. This assimilation is contact partial regressive in deafness.
Hissing consonants before hissing as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I drive .
D assimilation - distribution of sounds. In Russian, this process is rare. As a result of the process, the sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft- [m "ahk" y], light- [l "ohk" y]. Dissimilation is subjected to pairs of the same way or place of formation of sound or similar sounds. Dissimilation can be contact and distant,progressive and regressive.
Distant progressive dissimilation has occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, in vernacular corridor from the corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is a distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with the pronunciation norm: thu, th like [sh] - what[what] and - wow, his like [ova], [yva]: blue- [with "in" bb]! These alternations are carried out regularly, in the same positions without exception, and have the character of a law.)
contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [grutskaya ® grtskaya], [ts] ® [c].
With the contraction of groups of consonants, sound loss can be observed: sun- [sun]. Usually these are combinations [vst], [ntsk], [stl], etc.
Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:
Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)- (from the Greek diaresis - gap) - the omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant- [g'igansky].
Haplology- (from the Greek gaplos - simple + logos - concept) the omission of one or two identical adjacent syllables, due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralogy, standard-bearer, instead of standard-bearer.
Metathesis- (from the Greek metathesis - permutation) permutation of sounds or syllables in the composition of a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from talerka.
Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, indrav instead of temper, scorpionjon instead of scorpion in colloquial speech, sound [th] in a word coffee(from coffee), the sound [in] in the word singer(from sang) in literary speech.
substitution- (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, more often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic for the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[v] instead of [w].
3. Historical alternations of sounds
Regular changes in sounds, not related to the position in the word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:
vowel alternation:
[ e] - [ and] - [ o] - [ a] - [Ø] // sound zero: died - to die; pestilence - to die - I will die; I take - collect - collect - collect;
[e] - [Ø] zero sound: stump - stump; true - true; wind - winds;
[o] - [Ø] - zero sound: forehead - forehead; bottomless - the bottom; lie - lie;
[ s] - [ Ø] - zero sound: send -ambassador - send.
Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:
[and] - [th] - [she] - [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;
[s] - [oh] - [ov] - [av]: dig - swarm - ditch; swim - swimmer - swim; cover - cut - cover;
[y] - [ov] - [ev]: kuyu - to forge; draw - draw; peck - peck;
[a] - [im] - [m]: reap - shake - shake;
[a] - [in] - [n]: reap - reap - reap.
consonant alternation:
[g] - [g] - [s]: friend - make friends - friends; run - run; moisture - wet;
[k] - [h]: shout - shout; hand - manual; peku - bakes;
[x] - [w]: quiet - silence; dry - land; stuffy - stuffy;
[s] - [s "] - [g]: thunderstorm - to threaten - to threaten; to carry - I drive; smear - I smear; climb - get along;
[s] - [s"] - [w]: bringing - to wear - a burden; scythe - mow - koshu; ask - demand - petition; high - height - higher;
[t] - [t "] - [h] - [w "]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return - return - return;
[d] - [f] - [f]: gardens - soot - planting;
[n] - [n "]: change - change; torn - tear;
[l] - [l "]: business - efficient; prick - prickly;
[p] - [p "]: hit - hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;
[b] - [b "] - [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;
[n] - [n "] - [pl"]: pour - rash - pour;
[in] - [in "] - [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;
[f] - [f"] - [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;
[sk] - [st] - [s"t"] - [w":]: shine - shine - shine - shine; start - let - omit;
[sk] - [w":]: crack - crack;
[st] - [w "]: whistle - whistle
4. Phonetic transcription
Phonetic transcription is a recording of sounding speech with special signs. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the shades of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, yo, yu, i. Letters b, b are used in a different sense. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È …. Z. The main signs adopted in phonetic transcription:
– square brackets to highlight transcribed sounding units;
/ - a sign above the letter to indicate stress;
’ - a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;
L- a sign for designating sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after solid consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [sLdy],;
b- a sign for denoting unstressed sounds [a], [o] after solid consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of a word: gardener- [sedLvo΄t], young- [mlLdo΄y], as well as an unstressed sound [e] after unmitigated [g], [w], [c] in all unstressed positions, except for the first one before the stress: cement- [ts'm'i en nt'i΄rv't'].
b- a sign for vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly- [h’ sLvo΄y], arborist- [l'sLvo΄t];
and e- a sign for vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest- [l'i e sleepy]; nickel- [p'i e so].
s e – a sign for sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants w, w, c: regret- [zhy e l’et’], price- [tsy e na΄],
γ – letter to represent a fricative consonant denoted by a letter G in words: yeah, sir;
È - the bow under the line between the words indicates the continuous pronunciation of the service and independent words: in rows- [p È r 'and e da΄m];
j- a letter for the sound [th] at the beginning of words on e,yo,yu, i, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , climb- [pLdjo΄m], his- [svj and e v΄];
Ç - the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].
/ - a sign of a bar pause during the transcription of a sounding speech: [s’i e rg’e΄y / my friend//]
// - a sign of a phrasal pause in the transcription of sounding speech:
[home / and È s’t’e΄ny pmLga΄jut //] .
Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the features of the pronunciation of a word of a particular locality are recorded, in the study of children's speech, as well as in mastering the correct literary pronunciation of words.
The literary pronunciation of the words of the Russian language implies the observance of certain norms, which are reflected in the transcription rules.
5. Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels and consonants
Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels:
1. The vowels O, A, E (in the spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.
2. In all unstressed positions after solid consonants, except for the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika- [b llla΄yk]; garden .
The vowels I, S, Y do not change during pronunciation.
3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription it is conveyed by the sign - [vLdaʹ]. This type of pronunciation is called akanem. Norm literary language- haunting pronunciation.
4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If the word is with a preposition, it is one phonetic word in the speech stream and is transcribed in accordance with general rule: to the garden[in glro΄t];
5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Y) is pronounced like AND and transcribed using the icon [and e]: watch[ch'i e sy].
6. The vowel E (in the spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced like AND and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l'i e sno΄y]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced indistinctly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the [b] sign: arborist- [l'sLvo΄t], copse- [p'yr 'and e l'e΄sk].
7. The letters E, Yo, Yu, I are not used in transcription, in their place are written the corresponding pronunciation (audible) sounds: ball[m'ach'], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], Apple , climb[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prLside jb].
8. After the solid consonants Zh, Sh, Ts in the first pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letter E, the sign [s e] is written in the transcription: want- [zhy e lat '], price- [tsy e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is transmitted with the sign [b]: yellowish[yellow].
9. After Zh, Sh, Ts in a stressed position, instead of the spelling rule And, the pronunciation [s] is written in the transcription: number- [cy΄fr], lived- [life], sewed- [shyl].
Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonants:
In the flow of speech, consonants undergo mutual influence as a result of which the processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are stunned. The processes of accommodation of consonant sounds (for example, the roundness of the sound [to] in the word here) are usually not reflected in the transcription used by us.
Positional alternations of consonants are associated with the position of the sound in the word, as well as with the influence of sounds on each other. As with vowels, there are strong and weak positions for consonants too. However, consonants can coincide or differ in sound in two ways: by sonority-deafness and by hardness-softness. The position in which paired consonants differ is called strong.
Usually, strong positions in terms of voiced-deafness and hardness-softness do not coincide, however, in the position before a vowel, consonants differ in both ways. This position is called absolutely strong . The following consonants can be distinguished in it: [d] - [house] (house), [d`] - [id`om] (let's go), [t] - [current] (current), [t`] - [t`ok] (tech), [h] - [umbrella] (umbrella), [з`] - [з`ornъ] (grains), [s] – [som] (som), [s`] - [s`ol] (villages), [b] - [cheerful] (cheerfully), [b`] - [b`odr] (hips), [p] - [sweat] (sweat), [n`] - [n`otr] (Peter), [in] - [ox] (ox), [v`] - [v`ol] (led), [f] - [background] (background), [f`] - [f`odr] (Fyodor), [g] - [goal] (Goal), [g`] - [g`en`y`] (genius), [k] - [cat] (cat), [k`] - [tk`ot] (weaves), [m] - [mol] (Youth), [m`] - [m`ol] (a piece of chalk), [n] - [nose] (nose), [n`]- [n`os] (carried), [r] - [rof] (ditch), [r`] - [r`of] (roar), [l] – [lot] (lot), [l`] - [l`ot] (ice), [x] - [hot] (move), [х`] - [х`andry`] (cunning), [f] - [zhok] (burned), [w`:] - [w`: from] (burns), [w] - [shock] (shock), [w`:] - [w`: ok`i] (cheeks), [h`] - [h`olk] (bang), [c] - [tsokat] (clatter), [th`] - [th`ok] (yogi).
In addition to an absolutely strong position, there are strong positions for different groups paired consonants. So, for noisy consonants, paired in sonority-deafness, the following positions are also strong:
Before a sonorant consonant: [s`l`it`] - [z`l`it`] (drain - piss off), [ask`it] - [throw`it] (asks - quits), [cm`i e y`as`] - [zm`i e y`as`] (laughing - laughing), [whip] - [bend] (whip - bend);
Before [in], [in`]: [dvLr`etz] - [tvLr`etz] (palace - creator), [sv`er`] - [sv`er`] (beast - check).
There are certain difficulties in highlighting strong positions for consonants, paired by hardness-softness, associated, firstly, with a change in pronunciation norms (compare the outdated (sip) and normative), and secondly, with the possibility of pronunciation options (compare [s`m`eh] and [sm`eh] (laugh), [d`v`er`] and [dv`er`] (Door) etc.). In the scientific literature, sometimes there are conflicting information regarding strong positions in hardness-softness, so we will limit ourselves to listing those positions that a teacher needs to rely on. primary school:
At the end of the word: [kon] (kon)- [con`] (horse), [m`el] (a piece of chalk)- [m`el`] (stranded), [throne] (throne)– [throne`] (touch);
Before a hard consonant: [l'ink] (Linka)- [l`in`k] (molting), [bridge] (bridge), [proz`b] (request). For dental consonants - also in front of soft labials, which is associated with the allowable orthoepic norms variability: [s`m`at`] - [sm`at`] (crumple), [t`v`ordy`] - [tv`ordy`] (solid);
For [l] and [l`] - all positions are strong: [mal`v] (mallow)- [mlva] (rumor), [please] (crawling)- [n`i e l`z`a] (it is forbidden).
Positional changes of consonants in weak positions include stunning and assimilation.
Stun due to the fact that in Russian a voiced consonant cannot be pronounced at the end of a word: [gr`ip] (flu or mushroom), [l`es] ( forest or climbed), [stock] ( stock or stack), [wear] ( knife or burden– R.p. plural), [p`at`] ( five or span) etc. When changing a word, when the corresponding consonant falls into a strong position, it becomes clear whether there is a positional alternation in given word: [group] - [group] (mushroom - mushrooms)- [n] // [b], [l`es] - [l`ezu] (climb - climb)- [s] // [s], [stock] - [stLga] (stack - stacks)- [k] // [g], etc.
Assimilation - this is the likening of sounds to each other within the same phonetic word. Assimilation occurs as a result of the fact that the articulation of one of the adjacent consonants extends to the other. The interaction of sounds, as a result of which they become the same, is called complete assimilation ([zh:at`] - squeeze, [b`i e s: on] - without sleep, [uch`its: b] - to study). Usually, as a result of such assimilation, so-called long sounds are formed.
The interaction of sounds, as a result of which they become similar only according to some one articulatory feature, is called incomplete (or partial) assimilation : [loshk] (a spoon)- assimilation by deafness, [kos`t`] (bone)- softness assimilation.
There are the following types of assimilation:
- by loudness-deafness (by voice). In Russian, voiced and voiceless or voiceless and voiced consonants cannot be pronounced side by side. The first of these sounds is assimilated, i.e. similar to the second. Thus, either two deaf (stunning) or two voiced (voicing) consonants are nearby: [hear] (aloud), [potp`is`] (signature), [sounds] (from cloud)- stunning; (beat off), [proz`b] (request), [where'edu] (to grandfather)- voicing;
- hardness-softness . In some cases, the subsequent soft consonant affects the previous one, softening it: [end`ch`ik] (tip), [рLс`t`í] (grow). Such assimilation occurs inconsistently in the Russian language (recall the variants of normative pronunciation mentioned above). In addition, assimilation by hardness-softness in primary school is not specially studied, therefore, we note only those most consistent cases that are important for teaching spelling to younger students:
a) assimilation by softness [h], [s], [n] before [d`], [t`], [n`]: [tail`t`ik] (tail), [pl`ez`n`y`y] (more useful), [in`d`i`y] (India), [kan`t`ik] (edging);
b) assimilation by softness [n] before [h`], [w`:]: [n`an`ch`it`] (to babysit), [gon`sh`:ik] (racer);
c) assimilation by hardness: [y`i e nvarsk`y`] (January)(cf. [y`i e nvar`] (January)), [s`t`i e pnoy`] (steppe)(cf. [s`t`ep`] (steppe)).
In general, in case of difficulties associated with the presence or absence of assimilation by hardness-softness, it is best to refer to the relevant reference literature, for example, Orthoepic Dictionary Russian language.
- by place and method of education . With such assimilation, the articulation of the previous consonant adjusts to the articulation of the next one: [sh: yt`] (sew), [h:ad`i] (behind), [ryts:b] (rummage)- complete assimilation; [h`sh`:etn] (in vain), [best`] (best)- partial assimilation.
Note that only consonants that are paired according to these signs can be subjected to assimilation by sonority-deafness and hardness-softness.
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Position trading is trading with the trend on long time frames. Positional trading, as a rule, is based on. This method of trading is used in almost all exchanges. Traders using this style of trading keep long time open both deals for sale and deals for purchase.
Sell transactions bring profit during asset price declines, which usually occur at times of economic/financial turmoil. This way of earning brought many speculators a considerable profit in 2008, when many markets experienced a sharp drop in quotes.
Features of position trading
The essence of positional trading is to open trades in order to get the maximum income from the trend. Position traders do not pay attention to minor price jumps and market noise. They try to find the main trend, the duration of which can exceed several months. This way of doing business has its advantages. The main one is that in order to trade in this way, a trader does not need to constantly stay in front of a computer monitor. It is enough for a trader to correctly analyze, make a forecast for the future and open deals. Further, the trader simply observes the transactions and corrects them if necessary. At the same time, the trader does not pay attention to market noise and minor pullbacks, so there is no need to constantly monitor orders.
Position trading is the exact opposite, where the trader needs to take an active part in the conduct of the trade. There is also another style of trading - swing trading, it involves opening orders once a week or month. Position traders create a couple of orders per year. Swing traders create up to 100 trades a year. As for day traders, they create about 1000 trades a year.
How market entry points are identified
Revealing suitable places to enter the market position trading carried out by several methods. Some speculators are looking for assets with good trending potential, but which are still fluctuating in a certain corridor. Sometimes you can open deals on assets that have already started a trend. The second case is more convenient for traders, since the trend has already appeared and its direction is known. All that is required of a trader is to simply open an order in the direction of the trend. In this case, you do not need to spend much time and effort on analysis and forecasting. the main objective position trader - to identify an emerging trend and open an order in accordance with its direction.
Position trading risks
Position trading, like any other type of trading in the foreign exchange market, is subject to certain risks. Among the main risks associated with this trading technique, it is worth noting the danger of a change in trend before the closing of the created orders. Under unfavorable circumstances, even weak corrections can cause a trend reversal.
Also, position trading has some limitations caused by the fact that traders invest the available capital for a rather long time period. For this reason, before creating an order, a trader should plan his investment in such a way as to avoid exiting a position due to a drawdown in the deposit.
Advantages of position trading
Among the many advantages of position trading special attention deserve the following:
- This method of trading allows you to determine the true situation that has developed in the market, which, in turn, helps to identify the true direction of the price level. Due to the fact that the trader is not distracted by small price fluctuations, he makes significantly fewer mistakes.
- Ability to apply fundamental analysis. Having familiarized himself with the situation in the economy of a particular state, he will be able to fairly accurately predict the change in the national currency quotes.
- Position trading involves a more measured and calm trading, as there is no need to make quick decisions. After opening orders, a trader only needs to monitor the situation on the market from time to time.
Is position trading worth it?
In order to get a good income when conducting positional trading, you need to have a certain amount of money. With a small initial capital, a trader cannot count on a serious income. Yes, and the recommendations of money management here are somewhat different. Stop-loss, in connection with the work on older time periods, is set a little further. Therefore, if a trader violates money management recommendations and invests most initial capital into the position, then Stop-Loss will not save him from losses if the price level starts moving in a direction unfavorable for the trader. And this can happen at any moment. The size of a correction or sideways movement can be as high as 500 pips on high volatility pairs. Initially, it is recommended to start with a small deposit so that the trader can understand whether he can trade in such conditions. Not every trader will be able to keep an open order for several months, not to mention years. During testing, you can continue to trade intraday and occasionally check your trades in position trading. This method will help the trader understand for himself whether positional trading is right for him.
If you cannot boast of having a large amount of free Money, then positional trading is most likely not suitable for you, since it is impossible to quickly disperse a small deposit with its help.
Position trading is the best choice for patient traders who do not chase short-term income and can afford to invest capital in trading for a relatively long time.
