Correct understanding positional trading will allow you to add a powerful strategy to your arsenal for working in any financial markets.
The content of the article:
Before you start trading, you should understand the main key concepts: what is positional trading, how it differs from swing trading and what is its strategy.
What is positional trading in simple words and with examples
Positional trading- this is work according to the trend on long term, on charts covering large time frames. For its implementation, fundamental and technical analysis is often used. Positional trading is suitable for all types of markets: stocks, commodities, Forex.
This is how Wikipedia described positional trading:
Positional trader (short-term) - makes deals with a duration of several days, closes all positions before periods of decreasing liquidity (holidays, summer vacation etc.)
Positional trading has existed since the appearance of the first speculators, when charts with small time intervals were not available to people, and quotes were updated only several times a day manually on a board in brokerage offices. In such conditions, it was more profitable to trade in the long term and hold the position.
To date, the positional strategy is used on stock market and in Forex, while positional traders are often identified with investors, but this is not entirely true. It is necessary to understand the difference between this style and others:
Thus, positional trading is an independent style, significantly different from others. Market participants can use this approach to hold short and long term positions. Its pluses:
- Does not take into account small price changes, that is, does not require constant monitoring of the situation;
- There is no need to be near the computer all the time. In a positional strategy, the most important thing is a deep and thorough analysis, on the basis of which a further decision is made;
- For an open position, it is simply necessary to observe if there is a situation that can change the position or price.
Positional trading strategy in the real market
Positional trading strategy is an analysis of daily, weekly and monthly timeframes; holding an open position for at least several days to a month.
Positional trading in simple words Is a meaningful and balanced entry into a trade based on holding a position and in a trend.
Each strategy implies the presence of certain basic rules, positional trading is characterized by the following:
- A signal to enter a position is the beginning of a trend on a large timeframe (with a period of 1 day or 1 week);
- Exit from the transaction is carried out only if there are sufficient grounds for the end of the trend.
The simplest idea and interpretation of such a strategy is the phrase “ buy and hold", Often applied to long-term investors in large company stocks (blue chips).
Let's consider a small example of positional trading in shares of the retail chain "Magnit".
As you can see, the price has been in a strong uptrend for several years, which would be a good opportunity to hold the position for a long time. The technical signal to enter a position is the exit from the consolidation at the end of 2012. Until the beginning of 2014, the price is growing steadily, renewing highs. Only in March, a serious downward price drawdown appears, which breaks the trend line and strong support levels. At this point, most position traders close their trades, as there is clear sign that the trend is ending.
The result of the transaction could be 120% growth, if trading is carried out with a leverage of 1:20, then it was possible to increase the capital more than 40 times, with just one transaction.
In terms of technical instruments, position trading implies the use of:
- trending channels;
- support and resistance levels;
- moving averages, especially with a 200-day period.
The main task is to identify a strong global movement, therefore, the analysis of news and fundamental background is applied. Nevertheless, news is not of decisive importance in positional trading, but only serves as a confirmation of technical signals.
Poll: What type of trading do you prefer?
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Difference from investing
Positional trading means a relatively long holding of a deal in the direction of the global trend.
It is a mistake to think that positional trading is like investing in the popular sense. Let's consider their main differences:
- trading as the main source implies income from the profitable resale of an asset (stocks, futures, currency), and investment gives no less value to passive income (dividends, monthly payments);
- investors rely on fundamental analysis of the asset (company performance indicators, business growth prospects), and the trader is more focused on charts, using economic indicators just for confirmation;
- returns are often calculated at the end of the year, and a successful investor can expect the bottom line for decades.
The only similarity between a positional trader and an investor is the long-term retention of an asset and nothing more. Thus, each market participant needs to decide who he really is - an investor or a speculator.
Differences between positional trading and swing trading
Another popular strategy is this, which differs from positional trading, if not drastically, then quite significantly. Swing focuses on average time intervals and most traders receive income from entering the market, based entirely on the change in the exchange rate, which will lead to a change in the value of an open position. For the analysis, not a fundamental, but only a technical approach is used.
Positional traders, in turn, work over long periods of time. They do not stop at small price fluctuations, but study the long-term outlook for the development of the economic situation. The strategy is drawn up taking into account the trend of change financial situation for days, weeks and even months.
This is the biggest difference between position trading and swing. The first in their decisions take into account the fundamental components, such as long-term forecasts, political and economic decisions of the government, financial models and so on. And the latter open deals, looking at the short-term outlook for fluctuations in the prices of the selected currency.
Positional trading, unlike other business strategies, is most similar to investing, which means that it provides a full range of financial instruments for transactions with stocks. the main objective such trading is holding the stock for as long as possible, while it makes a profit. This period can last from several days to months. Here, the main task is to carefully study a specific sector of the economy and its general state at the time of opening a position, as well as forecasting the situation for the future in order to avoid risks. Useful helper tools:
- Indicators;
- Trend lines;
- Long-term charts with non-technical information;
- Short-term charts with monthly and weekly changes;
- Fundamental analytics.
So, the whole strategy consists of three main steps:
- Analysis of the economic sector and the position of the selected group of shares;
- Choosing the most favorable moment for opening a position;
- Holding a stock for the longest term, and closing it when abrupt change economic situation.
It is necessary to choose a positional trading strategy only for those assets for which fundamental analysis and technical analytics can be carried out, give the most accurate forecasts and be sure that the price trend continues for a long period (at least a week).
Positional Forex trading
Most of the participants in Forex use positional trading as the main approach to making money. This is due to the fact that this particular method in the Forex market has the following advantages:
- Low commission costs;
- More time to make the right decision;
- No need for constant analysis and daily monitoring of the media and for adjusting positions.
As with stock trading, the trader must have a capital supply that can cover potential losses. When choosing a currency pair, one strong and one weak currency is accepted. Many participants make the mistake of analyzing only one currency and neglecting analytics for the second.
Positional trading on the exchange has several basic principles, adhering to which you can ensure a 90% probability of successful trading:
- Analysis of the structure and market constraints;
- Determination of monthly trend reversals;
- Calm approach to business without unnecessary risks and excessive greed;
- Confidence in their own decisions based on and, news statements, forecasts and analysts' comments;
- Cold-blooded media study;
- Entering a trade with such a size of assets that at least 5% can be exposed to the risk of loss.
Advantages and disadvantages
Any trading style has its own advantages and disadvantages. In scalping, this is a long stay at the computer and a strong nervous tension, but high level potential profit. The advantages of positional trading are as follows:
- a relatively high percentage of profitable trades, since protracted trends are much more common on large time intervals and it is difficult to manipulate the market (knocking out stop orders);
- no need for a long stay at the monitor - the position can be monitored once a day or even a week;
- the possibility of a calm and long-term analysis (before entering, you can think of a few days);
- less risk of psychological breakdown due to less frequent monitoring of the schedule;
- huge profit potential while gradually building up and holding the position.
The list is not exhaustive; here are the most significant advantages of the positional style. Let's move on to the disadvantages:
- long wait for results that can be really measured only after months or years;
- high responsibility for each forecast and analysis, since it can take many days and weeks to hold the wrong position;
- slow progress in trading (it is good to hold positions if the trader already has experience, but it will not be possible to gain it quickly by opening deals once a year);
- the need for significant capital investments (you can get tangible income from positional trading only if you have a decent amount of money on your account).
As a result, holding a position in certain cases is a significant advantage for an experienced trader, but disastrous for novice speculators.
Conclusion
So what is positional trading - investing or trading?
Still, positional trading in simple words is not an investment, but trading, since an investor hopes only for growth, believes in a company and he may not analyze the market, but influence the company itself. A position trader can trade both for a decrease in price and in different markets.
Positional trading differs significantly from day trading, scalping or swing in that it aims to hold a position during the entire trend, rather than a specific part of it (swing).
This approach is well suited for experienced traders with a large investment, and less - for beginners with a small deposit.
In this chapter:
§1. Sound
Sound- the minimum unit of sounding speech. Each word has a sound shell, consisting of sounds. Sound correlates with the meaning of the word. Different words and forms of the word have different sound design. The sounds themselves don't matter, but they do important role: they help us distinguish between:
- words: [house] - [volume], [volume] - [there], [m'el] - [m'el ']
- word forms: [house] - [lady´] - [house´ ma].
Note:
words written in square brackets, are given in transcription.
§2. Transcription
Transcription- this is special system recording that displays the sound. The characters are accepted in the transcription:
Square brackets representing transcription.
[´] - stress. The stress is put if the word consists of more than one syllable.
[б ’] - the icon next to the consonant denotes its softness.
[j] and [th] are different meanings of the same sound. Since this sound is soft, these symbols are often used with the additional designation of softness:, [’’]. On this site, the designation [th '] is adopted, which is more familiar to most of the guys. The softness icon will be used to make you more accustomed to the softness of the sound.
There are other symbols as well. They will be introduced gradually as you become familiar with the topic.
§3. Vowel and consonant sounds
Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
They have a different nature. They are pronounced and perceived differently, and also behave differently in speech and play different roles in it.
Vowels- these are sounds, when pronounced, the air freely passes through the oral cavity, without encountering obstacles in its path. Pronunciation (articulation) is not focused in one place: the quality of the vowels is determined by the shape of the mouth, which acts as a resonator. When articulating vowels, the vocal cords work in the larynx. They are close, tense and vibrate. Therefore, when pronouncing vowels, we hear a voice. Vowels can be pulled. You can shout them. And if you put your hand to your throat, then work vocal cords when pronouncing vowels, you can feel it, feel it with your hand. Vowels are the basis of a syllable, they organize it. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. For example: he- 1 syllable, she- 2 syllables, guys- 3 syllables, etc. There are words that consist of one vowel sound. For example, unions: and, and and interjections: Oh !, Oh !, Ooh! other.
In a word, vowels can be in stressed and unstressed syllables.
Stressed syllable the one in which the vowel is pronounced clearly and appears in its basic form.
V unstressed syllables vowels are modified, pronounced differently. The change of vowels in unstressed syllables is called reduction.
There are six stressed vowels in Russian: [a], [o], [y], [s], [and], [e].
Remember:
Words that can only consist of vowels are possible, but consonants are also necessary.
In Russian, there are much more consonants than vowels.
§4. The way consonants are formed
Consonants- these are sounds, when pronounced, the air encounters an obstacle in its path. In Russian, there are two types of barriers: a slit and a bow - these are two main ways of forming consonants. The type of obstruction determines the nature of the consonant sound.
Slit formed, for example, when pronouncing sounds: [s], [h], [w], [g]. The tip of the tongue only approaches the lower or upper teeth. Slotted consonants can be pulled: [s-s-s-s], [w-w-w-w] . As a result, you will hear a good noise: when pronouncing [s] - whistling, and when pronouncing [w] - hissing.
Bow, the second type of articulation of consonants is formed when the organs of speech are closed. The air flow abruptly overcomes this obstacle, the sounds are short and energetic. Therefore, they are called explosive. You won't be able to pull them. These are, for example, the sounds [n], [b], [t], [d] . This articulation is easier to feel and feel.
So, when pronouncing consonants, noise is heard. Noise is a hallmark of consonants.
§5. Voiced and voiceless consonants
According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and deaf.
When pronouncing voiced consonants are heard both voice and noise, and deaf- only noise.
Deaf people cannot be pronounced loudly. They cannot be shouted.
Let's compare the words: House and cat. Each word has 1 vowel sound and 2 consonants. The vowels are the same, but the consonants are different: [d] and [m] are voiced, and [k] and [t] are voiceless. Voice-deafness is the most important sign of consonants in Russian.
pairs of voiced-deafness:[b] - [n], [h] - [c] and others. There are 11 such pairs.
Pairs for deafness-voicedness: [n] and [b], [n "] and [b"], [f] and [c], [f "] and [c"], [k] and [g], [k "] and [g"], [t] and [d], [t "] and [d"], [w] and [g], [s] and [z], [s "] and [ h "].
But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of voicedness - deafness. For example, the sounds [p], [l], [n], [m], [y ’] do not have a voiceless pair, while [c] and [h’] have a voiced pair.
Unpaired in deafness-voiced
Voiced unpaired:[p], [l], [n], [m], [y "], [p"], [l "], [n"], [m "] . They are also called sonorous.
What does this term mean? This is a group of consonants (9 in total) with pronunciation features: when they are pronounced in the oral cavity, obstacles also arise, but such that the air stream, passing through an obstacle makes only a slight noise; air flows freely through an opening in the nasal cavity or mouth. Sonorous are pronounced using a voice with the addition of minor noise. Many teachers do not use this term, but everyone should know that these sounds are voiced unpaired.
Sonorants have two important features:
1) they are not stunned, like paired voiced consonants, before the deaf and at the end of the word;
2) in front of them, voicing of paired voiceless consonants does not occur (i.e., the position in front of them is strong in terms of voicelessness, as well as in front of vowels). For more information on positional changes, see.
Deaf unpaired:[c], [h "], [w":], [x], [x "].
What is the easiest way to memorize lists of voiced and voiceless consonants?
The phrases will help to remember the lists of voiced and voiceless consonants:
Oh, we didn’t forget each other!(There are only voiced consonants)
Foka, would you like to eat some checz?(There are only voiceless consonants here)
True, these phrases do not include hardness-softness pairs. But usually people can easily figure out that not only hard [s] sonorous, but also soft [s "], not only [b], but also [b"], etc.
§6. Hard and soft consonants
Consonants differ not only in voicelessness, but also in hardness and softness.
Hardness-softness- the second most important sign of consonants in Russian.
Soft consonants differ from solid the special position of the language. When pronouncing hard, the entire body of the tongue is pulled back, and when pronouncing soft, it is shifted forward, and the middle part of the tongue is raised. Compare: [m] - [m ’], [h] - [z’]. Voiced soft sounds higher than hard ones.
Many Russian consonants form hardness-softness pairs: [b] - [b ’], [c] - [c’] and others. There are 15 such pairs.
Pairs of hardness-softness: [b] and [b "], [m] and [m"], [p] and [p "], [c] and [c"], [f] and [f "] , [h] and [h "], [c] and [c"], [d] and [d "], [t] and [t"], [n] and [n "], [l] and [l "], [p] and [p"], [k] and [k "], [z] and [z"], [x] and [x "].
But there are sounds that do not have a hard-soft pair. For example, the sounds [w], [w], [c] do not have a soft pair, while [y ’] and [h’] have no hard pair.
Unpaired in hardness-softness
Solid unpaired: [w], [w], [c] .
Soft unpaired: [th "], [h"], [w ":].
§7. Indicating the softness of consonants in writing
Let's digress from pure phonetics. Consider practically important question: how is the softness of consonants in writing indicated?
In Russian, there are 36 consonants, among which there are 15 pairs of hardness-softness, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants. There are only 21 consonants. How can 21 letters represent 36 sounds?
For this, different methods are used:
- iotated letters e, e, y, i after consonants, except w, w and c, unpaired in hardness-softness, indicate that these consonants are soft, for example: aunt- [t'o't'a], uncle -[Yes Yes] ;
- letter and after consonants, except w, w and c... Consonants denoted by letters w, w and c, unpaired solid. Examples of words with a vowel and: no wea- [n'i' tk'i], sheet- [l'ist], cute- [cute'] ;
- letter b, after consonants, except w, w, after which soft sign is an indicator of grammatical form. Examples of soft-signed words : request- [prose'ba], stranded- [m'el '], distance- [gave ’].
Thus, the softness of consonants in writing is conveyed not in special letters, but in combinations of consonants with letters and, e, e, u, i and b. Therefore, when parsing, I advise you to pay Special attention to adjacent letters after consonants.
Discussing the problem of interpretation
School textbooks say that [w] and [w ’] -
unpaired in hardness-softness. How so? We hear that the sound [sh ’] is a soft analogue of the sound [sh].
When I studied at school myself, I could not understand why? Then my son went to school. He had the same question. It appears in all children who are thoughtful about learning.
Confusion arises because school textbooks do not take into account that the sound [ш '] is also long, but the solid [ш] is not. Pairs are sounds that differ in only one sign. A [w] and [w ’] - two. Therefore, [w] and [w ’] are not pairs.
For adults and high school students.
In order to maintain correctness, it is necessary to change the school tradition of transcribing the sound [ш ']. It seems that it is easier for the guys to use one more additional sign than to face an illogical, obscure and misleading statement. It's simple. So that generation after generation does not rack their brains, it is finally necessary to show that a soft hissing sound is long.
For this, in linguistic practice, there are two icons:
1) a superscript over the sound;
2) colon.
The use of an accented mark is inconvenient because it is not provided for by the set of characters that can be used in computer typing. This means that the following possibilities remain: the use of a colon [ш ’:] or a grapheme denoting the letter [ш’] . It seems to me that the first option is preferable. First, the guys often mix sounds and letters at first. The use of a letter in transcription will create a basis for such a confusion, provoke an error. Secondly, the guys now start to learn early foreign languages... And the [:] icon is already familiar to them when using it to indicate the longitude of sound. Thirdly, transcription with the designation of longitude by the colon [:] will perfectly convey the features of the sound. [ш ’:] - soft and long, both signs that make it different from the sound [ш] are presented clearly, simply and unambiguously.
What advice is there for the guys who are now studying using generally accepted textbooks? You need to understand, comprehend, and then remember that in fact the sounds [ш] and [ш ’:] do not form a pair in terms of hardness and softness. And I advise you to transcribe them as your teacher requires.
§eight. Place of consonant formation
Consonants differ not only according to the signs you already know:
- deafness-voicedness,
- hardness-softness,
- method of formation: bow-slit.
The last, fourth sign is important: place of education.
Articulation of some sounds is carried out by the lips, others - by the tongue, its in different parts... So, the sounds [n], [n '], [b], [b'], [m], [m '] - labial, [v], [v'], [f], [f ' ] - labiodental, all the rest - lingual: front-lingual [t], [t '], [d], [d'], [n], [n '], [s], [s'], [s ], [z '], [w], [w], [w':], [h '], [q], [l], [l'], [p], [p '] ,
middle lingual [th '] and posterior lingual [k], [k ’], [g], [g’], [x], [x ’].
§nine. Positional changes of sounds
1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Vowel positional changes. Reduction
People don't use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.
Speech is a stream of sound, but a stream, organized in a certain way. The conditions in which this or that sound is found are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, a stressed syllable, an unstressed syllable, a position in front of a vowel, a position in front of a consonant are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.
Strong position one in which sounds are not subject to positional changes and appear in their basic form. A strong position is allocated for groups of sounds, for example: for vowels, this is the position in the stressed syllable. And for consonants, for example, the position in front of the vowels is strong.
For vowels, the strong position is stressed, and the weak one is unstressed..
In unstressed syllables, the vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and are not pronounced as clearly as under stress. This change of vowels in a weak position is called reduction... Due to the reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong one.
Sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a], after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. The normative language in the Russian language is "akane", i.e. nondiscrimination O and A in an unstressed position after hard consonants.
- under stress: [house] - [dam] - [o] ≠ [a].
- without stress: [d a ma´] -home´ - [d a la´] -dala´ - [a] = [a].
Sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e] sound the same after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position. Hiccup is considered to be the normative pronunciation. nondiscrimination NS and A in an unstressed position after soft consonants.
- under stress: [m'ech ’] - [mach’] - [e] ≠ [a].
- without stress: [m'ich'o'm] - sword 'm -[m'ich'o'm] - ball 'm - [and] = [and].
- But what about the vowels [and], [s], [y]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position undergo only a quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more concisely, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a student these vowels in an unstressed position do not pose a problem.
[ly'zhy], [in _lu'zhu], [n'i' t'i] - both in the strong and in the weak positions, the quality of the vowels does not change. And under stress, and in an unstressed position, we clearly hear: [s], [y], [and] and write the letters with which these sounds are usually denoted.
Discussing the problem of interpretation
What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after hard consonants?
Performing phonetic parsing and making transcription of words, many guys express bewilderment. In long polysyllabic words, after hard consonants, not the sound [a] is pronounced, as school textbooks say, but something else.
They are right.
Compare the pronunciation of the words: Moscow - Muscovites... Repeat each word several times and listen to which vowel sounds in the first syllable. With the word Moscow everything is simple. We say: [maskva´] - the sound [a] is clearly audible. And the word Muscovites? In accordance with literary norm, in all syllables, except for the first syllable before the stress, as well as the positions of the beginning and end of the word, we pronounce not [a], but another sound: less distinct, less clear, more like [s] than [a]. V scientific tradition this sound is indicated by the sign [b]. So, in reality we say: [мълко´] - milk ,[xyrasho´] - OK ,[k'lbasa´] - sausage.
I understand that by giving this material in the textbooks, the authors tried to simplify it. Simplified. But many children with good hearing, hearing clearly that the sounds in the following examples are different, cannot understand why the teacher and the textbook insist that these sounds are the same. Actually:
[v a Yes ] - water '-[v b d'inoy '] - watery:[a] ≠ [b]
[dr a wha '] - firewood´ -[dr b in'ino'th '] - wood burning:[a] ≠ [b]
A special subsystem is made up of the realization of vowels in unstressed syllables after hissing ones. But in school course this material is not presented at all in most textbooks.
What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after soft consonants?
I have the greatest sympathy for the guys who learn from textbooks that offer on-site A,NS, O after soft consonants, hear and transmit the sound "and, inclined to e" in transcription. I think it is fundamentally wrong to give schoolchildren as the only option an outdated pronunciation norm - "ekane", which is much less common today "hiccups", mainly among deeply elderly people. Guys, feel free to write in an unstressed position in the first syllable before the stress in place A and NS- [and].
After soft consonants in other unstressed syllables, in addition to the position of the end of the word, we pronounce a short weak sound reminiscent of [and] and denoted as [b]. Speak the words eight, nine and listen to yourself. We pronounce: [in 's'm'] - [b], [d'e' v''t '] - [b].
Do not confuse:
Transcription signs are one thing, but letters are quite another.
The transcription sign [ъ] denotes a vowel after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ъ is a solid sign.
The transcription sign [b] denotes a vowel after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ь is a soft sign.
Transcription characters, unlike letters, are given in square brackets.
End of word- a special position. There is a clarification of vowels after soft consonants. The system of unstressed endings is a special phonetic subsystem. In it NS and A differ:
Building[building n'iy'e] - building[zda'n'iy'a], opinion[m'e' n'iy'e] - opinions[mn'e' n'iy'a], sea[mo're] - seas[mo'ra], in 'la[vo'l'a] - on the outside[na_vo'l'e]. Keep this in mind when doing phonetic parsing of words.
Check:
How your teacher requires you to designate vowels in an unstressed position. If he uses a simplified transcription system, that's okay: it's widely accepted. Just don't be surprised that you actually hear different sounds in an unstressed position.
2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants
For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before vowel... Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake when characterizing a consonant in a strong position: [dach'a] - dacha,[t'l'iv'i' zur] - television,[s'ino' n'ims] - sino 'nims,[b'ir'o´ zy] - birch,[karz "i´ us] - baskets... All consonants in these examples are before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.
Strong positions in voice deafness:
- before vowels: [there] - there,[I will] - I will,
- before unpaired voiced voices [p], [p ’], [l], [l’], [n], [n ’], [m], [m’], [th ’]: [dl’a] - for,[tl'a] - aphid,
- Before [in], [in ’]: [your’] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.
Remember:
In a strong position, voiced and voiceless consonants do not change their quality.
Weak positions in deafness-voicedness:
- before paired by deafness-voiced: [weak] - sweet,[zu' pk'i] - zu'bki.
- in front of deaf unpaired: [aphva 't] - girth, [fhot] - entrance.
- at the end of a word: [zup] - tooth,[dup] - oak.
Positional changes of consonants for deafness-voicedness
In weak positions, the consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced speakers become deaf, i.e. are deafened, and the deaf - voiced, i.e. voiced. Positional changes are observed only in paired consonants.
Stunning-voicing of consonants
Stunning voiced occurs in positions:
- before paired deaf: [fsta 'v'it'] - v turn,
- at the end of a word: [clath] - treasure.
Sounding the deaf happens in position:
- before paired voiced: [kaz'ba'] - NS with wha '
Strong positions in hardness-softness:
- before vowels: [mate ’] - mother,[m'at '] - crumple,
- at the end of a word: [out] - out,[out ’] - stench,
- before the labial-labial: [b], [b '], [p], [p'], [m], [m '] and posterior lingual: [k], [k'], [g], [g ' ], [x [, [x '] for sounds [s], [s'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [d], [d '], [n ], [n '], [p], [p']: [sa' n'k'i] - Sa'nky(genus. pad.), [s'anq'i] - sled,[boo lka] - bou'lka,[boo l'kat '] - boo lkat,
- all positions for sounds [l] and [l ']: [forehead] - forehead,[pal'ba] - firing.
Remember:
In a strong position, hard and soft consonants do not change their quality.
Weak positions in hardness-softness and positional changes in hardness-softness.
- before soft [t ’], [d’] for consonants [c], [z], which are necessarily softened:, [z’d’es ’],
- before [h ’] and [w’:] for [n], which is necessarily softened: [by 'n'ch'ik] - donut,[ka 'm'n'sh': uk] - ka 'the messenger.
Remember:
In a number of positions today, both soft and hard pronunciation are possible:
- before soft front-lingual [n '], [l'] for front-lingual consonants [c], [h]: snow -[s'n'ek] and, to piss off -[z'l'it '] and [evil']
- before soft front-lingual, [z '] for front-lingual [t], [d] - raise 't -[pad'n'a't '] and [pad'n'a't'] , take away -[at'n'a't ’] and [atn'a't’]
- before the soft front-lingual [t "], [d"], [s "], [z"] for the front-lingual [n]: vi' ntik -[v'i'n "t" uk] and [v'i' nt'ik], pe´ nsya -[p'e' n's'iy'a] and [p'e' ns'iy'a]
- before soft labial [v ’], [f’], [b ’], [p’], [m ’] for labial: enter -[f "p" isa 't'] and [fp "is'at '], ri´ fme(date pad) - [r'i' f "m" e] and [r'i' fm "e]
Remember:
In all cases, positional softening of consonants is possible in a weak position.
Writing a soft sign with positional softening of consonants is wrong.
Positional changes of consonants based on the method and place of formation
Naturally, in the school tradition it is not customary to present the characteristics of sounds and the positional changes occurring with them in full detail. But general patterns phonetics must be learned. It's hard to do without it phonetic parsing and perform test tasks. Therefore, below is a list of position-related changes in consonants according to the characteristics of the method and place of formation. This material is a tangible help for those who want to avoid mistakes in phonetic analysis.
Assimilation of consonants
The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by the assimilation of sounds, if they are similar in some way and at the same time appear to be close.
Learn the list:
[c] and [w] → [w:] - sew
[h] and [f] → [f:] - squeeze
[s] and [h ’] - at the root of words →
[NS':] - happiness, account
- at the junction of morphemes and words →
[w ’: h’] -
comb, dishonorable, with what (a preposition followed by a word is pronounced as one word)
[s] and [w ’:] → [w’:] - split
[t] and [c] - in verb forms→ [c:] - smiles
-at the junction of the prefix and the root →
[cs] - pour out
[t] and [c] → [c:] - unhook
[t] and [h ’] → [h’:] - report
[t] and [t] and [w ’:] ← [c] and [h’] - Countdown
[d] and [w ’:] ← [c] and [h’] - counting
Assign consonants
Assimilation is a process of positional change, the opposite of assimilation.
[g] and [k'] → [x'k '] - light
Simplifying consonant groups
Learn the list:
vst - [st]: hello feel
zdn - [zn]: late
zd - [ss] : under the bridle
lnts - [nts]: Sun
ndc -
[nts]: Dutch
ndsh -
[nsh:] landscape
ntg - [ng]: x-ray
pdc -
[rts]: heart
rdch -
[rh ’]: heart
stl - [sl ’]: happy
stn - [sn]: local
Pronunciation of groups of sounds:
In the forms of adjectives, pronouns, participles, there are letter combinations: wow, him. V a place G in them is pronounced [in]: him beautiful blue.
Avoid reading letter by letter. Say the words him, blue, beautiful right.
§ten. Letters and Sounds
Letters and sounds have different purposes and different nature... But these are related systems. Therefore, the types of ratio need to be known.
Types of ratio of letters and sounds:
- The letter denotes a sound, for example vowels after hard consonants and consonants before vowels: weather.
- The letter has no sound of its own, for example b and b: mouse
- The letter denotes two sounds, for example, iotated vowels e, e, y, i in positions:
- the beginning of a word,
- after the vowels,
- after dividing b and b.
- A letter can denote the sound and quality of the preceding sound, such as iotated vowels and and after soft consonants.
- The letter may indicate the quality of the preceding sound, for example b in words shadow, stump, firing.
- Two letters can denote one sound, more often a long one: sew, compress, rush
- Three letters correspond to one sound: smile - yes -[c:]
Test of strength
Check your understanding of the content of this chapter.
Final test
What determines the quality of a vowel sound?
- From the shape of the oral cavity at the time of pronouncing the sound
- From the obstacle formed by the organs of speech at the time of uttering a sound
What is called a reduction?
- pronunciation of stressed vowels
- unstressed vowel pronunciation
- special pronunciation of consonants
For what sounds does the air stream meet an obstacle on its way: a bow or a gap?
- Vowels
- Consonants
Can voiceless consonants be pronounced loudly?
Are the vocal cords involved in pronouncing voiceless consonants?
How many pairs of voiceless consonants form?
How many consonants do not have a voice-deafness pair?
How many pairs of hardness-softness Russian consonants form?
How many consonants have no hard-softness pair?
How is the softness of consonants conveyed in writing?
- Special badges
- Combinations of letters
What is the name of the position of sound in the stream of speech, in which it appears in its basic form, without undergoing positional changes?
- Strong position
- Weak position
What sounds have strong and weak positions?
- Vowels
- Consonants
- For all: both vowels and consonants
Right answers:
- From the shape of the oral cavity at the time of pronouncing the sound
- unstressed vowel pronunciation
- Consonants
- Combinations of letters
- Strong position
- For all: both vowels and consonants
In contact with
What is called positional alternation of sound units? When can you say that sound units alternate positionally?
We will proceed from the concept of alternation. Alternation is always found in the composition of a particular morpheme. If the same morpheme in different words(or in different forms one word) has a partially unequal sound composition, then there is an alternation. Twist - twist. Forms of one verb, they have one root; its meaning in these two forms is the same; the sound composition is also partially the same: yes a common part cool, but the last sound of this root in one form [t ’], in another [h’]. This is alternation.
The alternation is radically abrupt / abruptly reflected in the writing. But there are alternations that are not captured in the spellings of words. For example, spelling does not reflect the alternation of moro [s] -moro [z] s word forms; but still it is an alternation.
Position is a condition for the pronunciation of sounds. There are, for example, such positions: vowels - under stress, in an unstressed syllable after a soft consonant, before [l], before a pause, consonants - at the end of a word, before [e], before a soft dental, after a sonoric consonant. Each sound in a word is in a position.
Some alternations are due to position and are called positional. For example, exchange
[h] to [s] occurs at the end of a word before a pause. Indeed: moro [s] s - moro [s], rasska [s] s -
rasska [s], ro [z] a - ro [c1, va [z] a - va [c]; black-ole [z] a - black-ole [s], plague [s] th - plague [s], si [z] th - si [s]; pogrya [z] la - pogrya [s], froze [z] la - froze [s], oble [z \ l - oble [s], head of ho [z '] egg - zavho [s], Kamsky auto [s] ] avod - KAMA [s], higher educational [h] education - wu \ s]. There is no word, no form of a word in which [z], having got to the end of a word, would not be replaced by a voiceless [s].
By itself, from a purely acoustic or articulatory point of view, a pause does not at all require that a noisy consonant in front of it be deaf. There are many languages (Ukrainian, Serbo-Croatian, French, English), where the final noisy remains voiced. The alternation is not due to the acoustic or articulatory nature of the sound, but to the laws of the given language.
On what basis do we conclude that alternation is positional? Maybe we take into account the articulatory and acoustic visualization of the interaction of sounds? For example, a dentist in front of a soft denture should be soft himself (in the Russian literary language), cf. ...
But the opinion about the need for a visual and obvious assimilation of sounds to each other is wrong. Sound similarity is not necessary to recognize the pattern of positional alternation. It is possible as a special case, but just as a particular one. There are cases when phonetic alternation is alive, acting, positional, but there is no similarity between the sounds that have entered into interaction.
Example. In the Russian literary language [o] (stressed vowel) in the first pre-stressed syllable after a hard consonant is replaced by a vowel [a]: new - newer, house - at home, stop - stand, etc. The alternation is positional. However, there is no acoustic need for such alternation. One cannot even say that [o] is replaced in an unstressed syllable by the sound [a], because [a] is articulationally weaker than [o] (this would explain why it is appropriate to have [a] in weak unstressed syllables). On the contrary, [a] requires a larger oral cavity solution, that is, more vigorous articulation.
In general, to imagine (as a general law) the reason for sound alternation is that one sound requires an acoustic or articulatory adaptation of another to itself sound, - large delusion. So, the fact that the position requires a certain alternation cannot be guessed from the acoustic-articulatory essence of the sounds.
What is the reliable criterion for separating positional alternations from non-positional alternations? Just one at a time: positional alternations have no exceptions. If position N2 appears instead of N1, then the sound a is always exchanged for the sound P; it is natural to consider position N2 as the reason for the exchange.
On the contrary, if the position N2 in some words is accompanied by the appearance of p (instead of a), and in others it is not accompanied (but remains without replacement), then the position N2 cannot be considered as the reason for its alternation || R. It is not she who determines it. Therefore, alternation that knows the exception is not positional.
Therefore, positional alternation can be explained in two ways: it is the alternation that is carried out in a given language system without exception; it is the alternation due to the position. Both definitions are identical in essence.
Different sounds with completely dissimilar characteristics can be in positional alternation. For example, [o] (vowel of the middle rise, back row, labialized) and [a] (vowel of the bottom rise, middle row, non-labialized) alternate. Significant qualitative differences do not prevent them from being alternating sounds (Table 4):
Table 4
Examples of
Position
Members
alternations
Home, newer, stand
Stressed syllable
First pre-stressed syllable after a hard consonant
There are no exceptions, that is, there are no cases (among the commonly used full-valued words of Russian literary language), when the vowel [o] would be preserved in the second position, hence the alternation is positional.
The sound can alternate with zero (Table 5):
Table 5
| Position | Members alternations | Examples of |
| Before pause | 1and] | stop, build, hero, your |
| After vowel before voice | zero | worth building |
| nym [and] | heroes, their | |
Positional alternations of consonants are associated with the position of the sound in the word, as well as with the influence of sounds on each other. As with vowels, there are also strong and weak positions for consonants. However, consonants can coincide or differ in sound in two ways: voiced-deafness and hard-softness. The position in which the paired consonants differ is called strong.
Usually, strong positions in voicing-voicelessness and hardness-softness do not coincide, however, in the position in front of a vowel sound, the consonants differ in both signs. This position is called absolutely strong ... The following consonants can be distinguished in it: [d] - [house] (House), [d`] - [id`om] (let's go), [t] - [current] (current), [t`] - [t`ok] (tek), [h] - [umbrella] (umbrella), [z`] - [z`orn] (grains), [s] - [som] (som), [s`] - [s`ol] (villages), [b] - [boudr] (cheerfully), [б`] - [б`о́дръ] (hips), [n] - [sweat] (sweat), [n`] - [n`otr] (Peter), [in] - [ox] (ox), [in`] - [in`ol] (led), [f] - [background] (background), [ф`] - [ф`о́дър] (Fedor), [g] - [goal] (Goal), [г`] - [г`э́н`ы`] (genius), [to] - [cat] (cat), [k`] - [tk`ot] (weaves), [m] - [mol] (they say), [m`] - [m`ol] (chalk), [n] - [nose] (nose), [n`] - [n`os] (carried), [p] - [rof] (moat), [p`] - [p`of] (roar), [l] - [lot] (lot), [l`] - [l`ot] (ice), [x] - [hot] (move), [x`] - [x`ýtry`] (cunning), [f] - [jock] (burned), [f`:] - [f`: from] (burns), [w] - [shock] (shock), [w`:] - [w`: ok`i] (cheeks), [h`] - [ch`ol'alk] (bang), [ts] - [tsokkt] (clatter), [th`] - [th`ok] (yogi).
In addition to an absolutely strong position, there are strong positions for different groups paired consonants. So, for noisy consonants, paired in voiced-voicelessness, the following positions are also strong:
Before a sonorous consonant: [s`l`it`] - [z`l`it`] (merge - angry), [asking] - [throwing] (asks - quit), [see `and e y`as`] - [zm` and e y`as`] (laughing - snaking), [whip] - [bend] (whip - bend);
Before [in], [in`]: [dvLr`ets] - [tvLr`ets] (the palace is the creator), [zv`er`] - [sv`er`] (beast - beast).
In identifying strong positions for consonants, paired in hardness-softness, there are certain difficulties associated, firstly, with a change in pronunciation norms (compare the outdated (take a drink) and normative), and secondly, with the possibility of pronunciation options (compare [s'm'eh] and [sm'eh] (laughter), [d`v`er`] and [dv`er`] (a door) etc.). In the scientific literature, sometimes there are conflicting information regarding strong positions in hardness-softness, therefore, we will limit ourselves only to listing those positions on which the teacher needs to rely. primary grades:
At the end of a word: [con] (con)- [con`] (horse), [m'el] (chalk)- [m'el`] (stranded), [throne] (throne)- [throne`] (touch);
Before a hard consonant: [l'inq] (Linka)- [l`in`kъ] (molt), [bridge] (bridge), [proz`b] (request)... For dental consonants - also before soft labial, which is associated with the allowed orthoepic norms variability: [s`m`at`] - [sm`at`] (crumple), [t`v` solid`] - [solid`] (solid);
For [l] and [l`] - all positions are strong: [small`въ] (mallow)- [мLлва́] (rumor), [пLлз`а́] (crawling)- [n`i e l`z`а́] (it is forbidden).
TO positional changes consonants in weak positions include stunning and assimilation.
Stunning due to the fact that in Russian at the end of a word a voiced consonant cannot be pronounced: [gr`ip] (flu or mushroom), [l`es] ( Forest or climbed), [sink] ( runoff or stack), [burden] ( knife or burden- R. p. plural), [p`at`] ( five or span) etc. When changing a word, when the corresponding consonant falls into a strong position, it becomes clear if there is positional alternation in this word: [gr`ip] - [gr`iby] (mushroom - mushrooms)- [n] // [b], [l'es] - [l'esu] (climb - climb)- [s] // [s], [stock] - [stLgá] (stack - stacks)- [k] // [g] etc.
Assimilation Is the assimilation of sounds to each other within one phonetic word... Assimilation occurs as a result of the fact that the articulation of one of the adjacent consonants extends to the other. The interaction of sounds, due to which they become the same, is called complete assimilation ([w: at`] - squeeze, [б` и Э с: на́] - without sleep, [uch`its: b] - study). Usually, as a result of such assimilation, so-called long sounds are formed.
The interaction of sounds, as a result of which they become similar only in any one articulatory feature, is called incomplete (or partial) assimilation : [Ло́шкъ] (spoon)- assimilation by deafness, [cos`t`] (bone)- assimilation by softness.
The following types of assimilation are distinguished:
- by voiced-deafness (by voice). In Russian, voiced and voiceless or voiceless and voiced consonants cannot be pronounced side by side. The first of these sounds is assimilated, i.e. is likened to the second. Thus, there are either two voiceless (stunning) or two voiced (voicing) consonants next to each other: (aloud), [п́тп`is`] (signature), [istuch`i] (out of the cloud)- stunning; (beat off), [proz`b] (request), [where`edu] (to grandfather)- sounding;
- by hardness-softness ... In some cases, the subsequent soft consonant affects the previous one, softening it: [kon`ch`ik] (tip), [рLс`т`и́] (grow)... Such assimilation occurs inconsistently in the Russian language (recall the above-mentioned variants of the normative pronunciation). In addition, hardness-softness assimilation into primary grades It is not specially studied, therefore, we note only those most consistent cases that are important for teaching spelling to primary schoolchildren:
a) assimilation by softness [s], [s], [n] before [d`], [t`], [n`]: [hvós`t`ik] (tail), [пLл`э́з`н`ь`ь] (more useful), [in`d`iy`y] (India), [can`t`ik] (edging);
b) assimilation by softness [n] before [h`], [w`:]: [n`an`ch`it`] (babysit), [gon`sh`: uk] (racer);
c) assimilation by hardness: [y'i e nvárskiy`] (January)(cf. [y` and e nvar`] (January)), [s`t` and e pnoy`] (steppe)(cf. [s`t`ep`] (steppe)).
In general, in case of difficulties associated with the presence or absence of assimilation by hardness-softness, it is best to refer to the relevant reference literature, for example, Spelling dictionary Russian language.
- by place and method of education ... With such assimilation, the articulation of the previous consonant is adjusted to the articulation of the next one: [w: yt`] (sew), [s: ad`i] (behind), [knight: b] (rummage)- complete assimilation; [h`sh`: etn] (in vain), [best`] (best)- partial assimilation.
Note that only consonants paired by these characteristics can be assimilated in terms of voicedness-deafness and hardness-softness.
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All topics in this section:
Subject and tasks of phonetics
The subject of the study of phonetics is the whole sound system language: sounds in the stream of speech, their regular alternations, compatibility, acoustic and articulatory characteristics. Also in phonetic
Sound and letter concept
The study of the Russian language in elementary grades begins with the fact that the teacher gradually acquaints students with the sounds, and then with the letters that denote these sounds in writing. Textbooks and programs
Phonetic transcription
Oral speech, which is the object of consideration of phonetics, differs from written, which fixes the sounding speech in letter designations... But when studying phonetics, it becomes necessary to accurately characterize
Phonetic units of the Russian language
Our speech is not a continuous stream of sound. It is divided into segments, distinguished by various kinds of pauses. Indeed, to understand the meaning of what has been said, it is not only the sequence of grammatical with
Acoustic characteristics of sounds
The sounds of speech, like other sounds around us, are the result of special vibrational movements of the air environment. There are two main types of sounds: musical tone (the result of rhythmic
Vowel sounds
Different articulation (the work of the speech organs) allows you to pronounce sounds that are clearly different from each other. The quality of the vowel sound depends on the position of the tongue and the participation of the lips in the formation process.
Consonants
Articulation of consonants is more difficult than articulation of vowels. The main feature of the formation of consonants is that the speech apparatus creates an obstacle in the form of closing or convergence of speech organs.
Syllable. Hyphenation
Our speech is divided into segments of different duration. Recall that one of the units of such a division is the syllable (see § 4). In modern Russian linguistics, there are various theo
Sound changes in the flow of speech
Sounds in the stream of speech are very rarely used in isolation. Usually they are closely related to each other and undergo various changes. If such changes occur within the same sea
Positional changes of vowel sounds
The alternation of vowel sounds depends primarily on their position in relation to the stressed syllable. In it, the vowels sound most distinctly, therefore the position of the vowel in the stressed syllable is called
Phoneme concept
One of the basic phonetic units of the language is sound - the minimum speech unit (see § 4). Therefore, it is easy to assume that it is the sound that performs the meaningful function: [ardor] -
Composition of modern Russian phonemes
Since a phoneme is determined by its strong variant, it is quite easy to count the number of vowels and consonant phonemes in the Russian language: there are as many of them as there are sounds in strong positions... However not
Phonemic transcription
The sound composition of a word is conveyed using phonetic transcription, taking into account the entire variety of sounding speech (see § 3). Phonetic transcription has great importance for fixing acoustic
Phonetic transcription signs
[a] [o] vowels in a strong position
Vowel sounds
It is based on the table presented in "Russian grammar" (Moscow: Nauka, 1980). sounds characteristic rise
Consonants
It is based on the table presented in "Russian grammar" (Moscow: Nauka, 1980) sounds participation of voice and noise
Phonetic analysis of the word
І. The order of characteristics of a syllable: 1. Stressed or unstressed syllable. 2. Covered or overt. 4. Open or closed.
