Wars of Alexander 1. Alexander during the reign of Paul, his attitude to the conspiracy against his father. The last years of the life and death of Alexander I

It is not simple, because he ascended the throne after the murder of his father, and became famous not only for the fact that he held the highest post in the state.

Read more about his life and work in the article.

Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich

Childhood, upbringing and education

On December 12, 1777, the All-Russian autocrat Alexander Pavlovich Romanov was born in St. Petersburg. From early childhood, he was instilled in him a love of various sciences and military affairs.

It is noteworthy that his grandmother, Catherine II, wanted to see Alexander's grandson on the throne, since she considered her own son Paul not a very good candidate for government.

And this is not surprising, because many of Alexander's character traits were similar to those of Catherine, who was actively involved in raising her grandson in Tsarskoe Selo.

From his very youth, Alexander I showed outstanding mental abilities.

In life, he was a man of liberal views.

At the same time, it should be noted that he was lazy to engage in serious activities for a long time, requiring perseverance and prolonged concentration.

Personal life

On September 17, 1793, the emperor married Elizaveta Alekseevna. After some time, he began to serve in the Gatchina troops and already in 1796 received the rank of Colonel of the Guards.

A year later, Alexander I became the commander of the Capital Division and performed a number of other duties, and already in 1798 he sat in the Senate.

Alexander as heir

Having received a good upbringing and education in childhood, Alexander had his own views and ideas, which were fundamentally different from the worldview of his father, Paul.

There were often heated arguments and even quarrels between the son and his parent.

On March 12, 1801, a sharp turn took place in the biography of Alexander I. On this day, a Palace coup took place in St. Petersburg, in which Paul was killed, and Alexander I became the emperor of Russia.

Reforms of Alexander I

At the very beginning of his reign, Alexander seriously took up political transformations within the state. He signed the amnesty law, which gave freedom to many of the freethinkers who were imprisoned during the reign of his father.

In many ways, the aim of the autocrat was the desire to weaken the oppression of serfdom. So, in 1803, he issued a decree on free farmers. Now the landowners could release their peasants to freedom together with the land estates.

A separate merit of Alexander I was the reform concerning the development of education. For example, Moscow State University received good funding, and later the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was inaugurated.

Speransky's projects

Mikhail Speransky became one of the closest assistants of Alexander I. It was he who developed the ministerial reform, according to which new ministries came to replace ineffective colleges. This became an important milestone in the biography of Alexander I.

In 1809, a draft law on the separation of powers was created. However, given the fact that Alexander was afraid of a murmur from the aristocracy, he did not give this project development.

After some time, Speransky was removed from his post.

Alexander's foreign policy

Under Alexander I, Russia joined the anti-French coalition. Over time, the situation changed, and the emperor personally met with to improve relations.

They concluded the Peace of Tilsit between the countries, according to which neutrality was established between Russia and France.

This allowed the Russian Empire to annex Moldova and Finland to its territories, which ultimately happened.

However, as a result of which began Patriotic War.

Despite the fact that the French managed to win many victories and reach, Bonaparte, having lost all his resources and people, had to leave Russia in disgrace.

During this period of his biography, during overseas trip, Alexander I led the army personally. He not only victoriously entered Paris with his army, but also became a hero for all of Europe.

Alexander I on horseback

A little later, on Vienna Congress, the fate of the entire continent was being decided. For the rulers, a new redivision of Europe was obvious. As a result of the diplomatic confrontation of the parties, Poland was annexed to Russia.

Last years

Last years the biographies of Alexander I were no longer as vivid as before. At the end of his life, he, like his father, was greatly carried away by mysticism, and then became seriously ill.

Alexander I died in Taganrog in 1825. Unfortunately, he did not leave behind posterity, which was the reason for the famous uprising of the Decembrists.

As a result, the younger brother of Alexander I, Nikolai, ascended the Russian throne.

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The reign of Alexander I (1801-1825)

March 12, 1801 as a result palace coup Alexander I ascended the throne. As a child, Alexander was taken away from his parents and raised by his grandmother, Catherine the Great. The empress appointed the prince's tutor to the Swiss nobleman F. Laharpe, who had a tremendous influence on the formation of the liberal views of the future autocrat. Trying to adapt to the confrontation between Catherine II and his father, Alexander Pavlovich was forced to maneuver between two opposing groups, which influenced the formation of such qualities of his character as cunning, insight, caution and duplicity. The fact that Alexander I knew about the impending conspiracy against the Emperor Paul I, but due to his weakness and thirst for power, could not prevent the murder of his father, contributed to the development of suspicion and distrust of others in him.

Liberal reforms 1801-1815

After becoming emperor, Alexander I fully showed himself as a cautious, flexible and far-sighted political figure, extremely prudent in his reformatory activities.

The first steps of the new emperor justified the hopes of the Russian nobility and testified to a break with the policy of Emperor Paul and a return to the reformatory activities of Catherine the Great.

Alexander I returned the disgraced nobles, the restrictions on trade with England were lifted, the ban on the import of books from abroad was lifted. Also, the emperor confirmed the privileges to nobles and cities indicated in Catherine's Letters of Charity.

At the same time, Alexander I, in order to develop liberal reforms of the state structure, created Unspoken committee(May 1801 - November 1803), which included: P. Stroganov, A. Czartoryskiy, V. Kochubei and N. Novosiltsev. The secret committee was not an official state institution, but was an advisory body under the sovereign. The main issues discussed at the meetings of the Secret Committee were the reforms of the state apparatus towards the limitation of autocracy, the peasant question and the education system.

The result of the activities of the Mill's Secret Committee is the reform of the highest state bodies. On September 8, 1802, a Manifesto was issued, according to which ministries were established instead of collegia: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice, as well as the State Treasury as a ministry.

In resolving the peasant question, discussed in the Secret Committee, Alexander I was extremely careful. The emperor considered serfdom a source of social tension, but was convinced that society was not ready for radical reforms. On February 20, 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", which provided the landowners with the opportunity to free the peasants with land for ransom. The decree was of a recommendatory nature and was not very popular with the landowners: during the entire period of the reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of serfs passed into the category of “free farmers”.

From the autumn of 1803, the importance of the Secret Committee began to decline, and its place was taken by the Committee of Ministers. To continue the transformations, Alexander I needed new people loyal to him personally. A new round of reforms was associated with the name of M. Speransky. Alexander G made Speransky his main adviser and assistant. By 1809, Speransky, on behalf of the emperor, prepared a plan of state reforms entitled "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." According to this plan, it was necessary to implement the principle of separation of powers (legislative functions were concentrated in the hands of the State Duma, judicial functions in the hands of the Senate, executive functions in the ministries). According to M. Speransky's plan, the entire population of Russia was divided into three classes: the nobility, the "middle state" (merchants, burghers, state peasants) and the "working people" (serfs, artisans, servants). All estates received civil rights, and the nobles received political rights.

The emperor approved Speransky's plan, but did not dare to carry out large-scale reforms. The transformations concerned exclusively central system state administration: in 1810 the State Council was established as a legislative body under the emperor.

In the years 1810-1811. the reform of the system of ministerial administration, which had begun in 1803, was completed. According to the General Institution of Ministries (1811), eight ministries were formed: foreign affairs, military, naval, internal affairs, finance, police, justice and public education, as well as the General Directorate post offices, the State Treasury and a number of other departments. Strict autocracy was introduced. Ministers, appointed by the tsar and accountable only to him, formed the Committee of Ministers, the status of which as an advisory body under the emperor was determined only in 1812.

In early 1811, the State Council refused to approve the new reform project. The failure of Speransky's entire plan became obvious. The nobility clearly felt the threat of the abolition of serfdom, the growing opposition of the conservatives acquired such a threatening character that Alexander I was forced to stop the reforms. M. Speransky was removed and then exiled.

Thus, the reforms at the beginning of the first period of the reign of Alexander I were very limited, but they sufficiently strengthened his position as an autocratic monarch, being the result of a compromise between the liberal and conservative nobility.

The conservative period of the reign of Alexander I

The second period of the emperor's reign is traditionally called "conservative" in historical literature, despite the fact that at this time such liberal transformations as the introduction of the Polish constitution, the granting of autonomy to Bessarabia, and the relief of the situation of the peasants in the Baltic States were carried out.

External events 1812-1815 pushed the internal political problems of Russia into the background. After the end of the war, the question of constitutional reforms and serf relations again became the focus of society and the emperor himself. A draft Constitution was developed for the Polish lands that were part of Russia. This constitution became a kind of tentative step, an experiment that was supposed to precede the introduction of the constitution in Russia.

In November 1815. the Polish constitution was approved. It retained the monarchy, but provided for the creation of a bicameral parliament (Diet). The government was supposed to be responsible before the Sejm, freedom of the press, equality of all estates before the law, and personal inviolability were also guaranteed. And at the opening of the Diet in 1818 in the speech of Alexander I, in fact, a promise was made to introduce a constitution in Russia. In March 1818, the emperor instructed a group of his advisers, headed by N. Novosiltsev, to develop a constitution for Russia. The constitution was developed, but was never implemented - Alexander I did not dare to go into direct confrontation with the opposition.

In April 1818, Alexander I granted autonomous control of Bessarabia. According to the "Charter of Education of the Bessarabian region" the highest legislative and executive branch transferred to the Supreme Council, part of which was elected from the nobility. Back in 1804, the "Regulations on the Livonian peasants" were approved, according to which the sale of serfs without land, a fixed obligation, which exempted the peasants from recruitment, was prohibited. In May 1816, the emperor signed the "Statute on Estonian peasants", according to which they received personal freedom, but all the land remained in the ownership of the landowners. Peasants could rent land and later buy it out. In 1817, the "Regulations" were extended to Courland and Livonia (1819).

However, due to the oppositional moods of the nobility, who did not want to part with their privileges, the reformist intentions of Alexander I were replaced by an openly reactionary course. In 1820, the State Council rejected a bill proposed by the king to prohibit the sale of serfs without land. In addition, the wave of European revolutions of 1820-1821. and uprisings in the army convinced him of the untimely transformation. In the last years of his reign, Alexander I did little internal affairs, focusing on the problems of the Holy Alliance, which became a bulwark of European monarchs against liberation and national movements... It was at this time that the influence of A. Arakcheev increased, after whom the regime established in the country was called "Arakcheevshchina" (1815-1825). Its most striking manifestation was the creation in 1820 of the military police, the strengthening of censorship, the prohibition in 1822 of the activities of secret societies and Masonic lodges in Russia, the restoration in 1822 of the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia. The creation of "military settlements" was indicative, in which, under the most severe regulation and control, the peasants carried out military service simultaneously with agricultural duty.

Thus, the liberal reform projects on the abolition of serfdom and granting Russia a constitution were not implemented due to the reluctance to reform the overwhelming mass of the nobility. Without support, the reforms could not be carried out. Fearing a new palace coup, Alexander I could not go against the first estate.

In November 1825, the emperor died unexpectedly in Taganrog (according to another version, he secretly went to a monastery). The second son of Paul I, brother of Alexander I - Constantine in 1822 refused to rule. The Manifesto, drawn up in 1823, in which the third son of Paul, Nicholas, was appointed successor, was kept secret from the heir. As a result, in 1825 a situation of interregnum arose.

Alexander I

Emperor Alexander I.
Portrait by V.L. Borovikovsky from the original by E. Vigee-Lebrun. 1802.

Blessed

Alexander I Pavlovich Romanov (Blessed) (1777-1825) - Russian emperor from March 12 (24), 1801 - after the murder by conspirators from the aristocratic circles of the emperor Paul I.

At the beginning of the reign in his domestic policy manifested a desire for moderate liberalism. The necessary changes were discussed by members of the Secret Committee - the "young friends" of the emperor. Ministerial (1802), Senate (1802), university and school (1802-1804) reforms were carried out, the State Council was created (1810), a decree on free farmers was issued (1803), etc. to conservatism (see Arakcheevshchina, military settlements).

He went down in history as a skillful politician and diplomat. He strove to create multilateral European unions (see Sacred Union), made extensive use of negotiations with politicians and the monarchs of Europe at congresses and at personal meetings (see Tilsit treaties of 1807).

His foreign policy was mainly dominated by the European direction. In the first years of his reign, he tried to maintain peaceful relations with the powers that fought for hegemony in Europe (France and England), but after the aggressive tendencies in the policy of Napoleon I intensified, Russia became an active participant in the Third and Fourth anti-Napoleonic coalitions. As a result of the victory in the Russian-Swedish War of 1808-1809. the Grand Duchy of Finland was annexed to Russia. The defeat of Napoleon during the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of the Russian army in 1813-1814. strengthened the international prestige of Russia and personally Alexander I - by decision of the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, in which the Russian tsar was an active participant, most of the Polish lands (Kingdom of Poland) were annexed to Russia.

Foreign policy in the eastern direction - the solution of the eastern issue - was expressed in support of national movements in the Balkans, the desire to annex the Danube principalities and gain a foothold in the Transcaucasus (see the Russian-Turkish War of 1806-1812, the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812, the Gulistan Peace Treaty of 1813 G.).

The exchange of envoys in 1809 marked the beginning of Russian-American diplomatic relations.

Since 1815, a conservative tendency in the foreign policy of Alexander I intensified: with his consent, the Austrian troops suppressed the revolutions in Naples and Piedmont, and the French in Spain; he took an evasive position in relation to the Greek uprising of 1821, which he saw as an act of his subjects against the legitimate monarch (sultan).

Orlov A.S., Georgieva N.G., Georgiev V.A. Historical Dictionary. 2nd ed. M., 2012, p. 11-12.

Other biographical materials:

Personalities:

Dolgorukov Petr Petrovich (1777-1806), prince, peer and close associate of Alexander I.

Elizaveta Alekseevna (1779-1826), Empress, wife of Emperor Alexander I.

Mordvinov Nikolay Semenovich (1754-1845), Count, Admiral.

Novosiltsev Nikolai Nikolaevich (1761-1836), a personal friend of Alexander I.

Platov Matvey Ivanovich (1751 - 1818), general of the cavalry. Ataman.

Rostopchin Fedor Vasilievich (1763-1826), Russian statesman.

Speransky Mikhail Mikhailovich (1772-1839), a prominent statesman.

Emperor Alexander at the Reverend Seraphim of Sarov.
Salavat Shcherbakov. Moscow, Alexandrovsky Garden.

Literature:

Bezhin L. "LG-dossier" N 2, 1992.

Bogdanovich M. H., History of the reign of Alexander I and Russia in his time, t. 1-6, St. Petersburg, 1869-1871;

Vallotton A. Alexander I. M. 1991.

Documents for the history of diplomatic relations between Russia and the Western European powers, from the conclusion of a general peace in 1814 to the Congress in Verona in 1822 St. Petersburg. 1823.Vol. 1.Ch. 1.T. 2.1825 .--

Kizevetter A. A., Emperor Alexander I and Arakcheev, in the book: Historical sketches, M., 1912;

Lenin, V.I. T. IV. P. 337 .--

Marx, K. and Engels, F. Works. T. IX. S. 371-372, 504-505. T. XVI. Part II. S. 17, 21, 23, 24.-

Martens, F. F. Collection of treatises and conventions concluded by Russia with foreign powers. T. 2, 3, 4. Part 1.6, 7, 11, 13, 14. SPb. 1875-1905. -

Martens, F. F. Russia and England in early XIX th century. "Bulletin of Europe". 1894. Book. 10.S. 653-695. Book. 11, pp. 186-223. -

Materials for the history of the Eastern question in 1808-1813 -

Modern international politics in treaties, notes and declarations. Part 1. From the French Revolution to the imperialist war. M. 1925.S. 61-136. -

Merezhkovsky D.S. Alexander the First M. "Armada", 1998.

Mironenko S. V. Autocracy and Reforms: Political Struggle in Russia at the Beginning of the 19th Century. M., 1989.

Nikolay Mikhailovich, chief prince. Emperor Alexander I. Experience of historical research. T. 1-2-SPb. 1912.-

Picheta, V.I. International policy of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I (until 1807). In the book. "Patriotic War and Russian society". T. 1. M. S. 152-174.-

Picheta, V.I., Russia's international policy after Tilsit. In the book. "Patriotic War and Russian Society". T. 2.M. S. 1-32. -

Pokrovsky M. H., Alexander I, in the book: History of Russia of the XIX century., Ed. Pomegranate, vol. 1, St. Petersburg, b. G.;

Popov, A.N. The Patriotic War of 1812. Historical research. T. 1. Relations between Russia and foreign powers before the war of 1812. M. 1905. VI, 492 p. -

Presnyakov A.E., Alexander I, P., 1924;

Predtechensky A.V., Essays on socio-political. history of Russia in the first quarter. XIX century, M.-L., 1957.

Okun S. B., Essays on the history of the USSR. The end of the 18th century - the first quarter of the 19th century, L., 1956;

Safonov M.M. The problem of reforms in the government policy of Russia at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. L., 1988.

Sakharov A. N. Alexander I // Russian autocrats (1801-1917). M., 1993.

Collection of the Russian Historical Society. T. 21, 70, 77, 82, 83, 88, 89, 112, 119, 121, 127. SPb. 1877-1908. -

Soloviev S. M., Emperor Alexander I. Politics - diplomacy, St. Petersburg, 1877;

Solovyov, S. M. Emperor Alexander I. Politics-diplomacy. Collected Works. SPb. ... S. 249-758 (there is a separate edition: St. Petersburg. 1877.560 s). - Nadler, VK Emperor Alexander I and the idea of ​​the Holy Alliance. T. 1-5. [Kharkov]. 1886-1892. -

Stalin, I. V. About Engels' article "Foreign policy of Russian tsarism". "Bolshevik". M. 1941. No. 9. S. 1-5.-

Suvorov N. On the history of the city of Vologda: On the stay in Vologda of royal persons and other remarkable historical persons // EEC. 1867. No. 9. S. 348-357.

Troitsky N.A.Alexander I and Napoleon. M., 1994.

Fedorov V.A. Alexander I // Questions of history. 1990. No. 1;

Schilder, N.K. Emperor Alexander the First. His life and reign. Ed. 2.T. 1-4. SPb. 1904-1905.-

Czartoryski, A. Mémoires du prince Adam Czartoryski et correspondance avec l empereur Alexandre I-er. Préf. de M. Ch. De Mazade. T. 1-2. Paris. 1887. (Czartorizhsky, A. Memoirs of Prince Adam Czartorizhsky and his correspondence with Emperor Alexander I. T. 1-2. M .. 1912). -

Vandal, A. Napoléon et Alexandre I-er. L alliance russe sous le premier empire. 6-me éd. T. 1-3. Paris. ... (Vandal, A. Napoleon and Alexander I. Franco-Russian alliance during the first empire. T. 1-3. St. Petersburg. 1910-1913). -

See also the literature for the article The Congress of Vienna 1814 - 1815.

Funeral procession scroll
during the funeral of Emperor Alexander I (detail).

Date of publication or update 01.11.2017

Back to contents: Rulers

Alexander Pavlovich Romanov (Alexander I)
Alexander the First Blessed
Years of life: (12 (23) December 1777, St. Petersburg - 19 November (1 December) 1825, Taganrog

Alexander was raised by the grandmother, Empress Catherine II, who did not love her son and early excommunicated her grandson from his parents. Alexander Pavlovich was educated in the spirit of the 18th century enlighteners. The main mentor and educator of the heir was the Swiss republican F.-C. Laharpe. In accordance with his principles, he preached the power of reason, the equality of people, the absurdity of despotism, the abomination of slavery. He had a huge influence on Alexander I. In 1812, the emperor confessed: "If it were not for Laharpe, there would be no Alexander."

In 1792, Catherine II decides to marry Alexander, who is only fourteen years old.

On May 10, 1793, the future Emperor Alexander Pavlovich became engaged to a 14-year-old German woman, Princess Louise of Baden, who was named Elizaveta Alekseevna in Orthodoxy. At the moment of the betrothal, 51 shots were fired from the Peter and Paul Fortress in honor of the newlyweds.

Alexander, having learned about the grandmother's intentions to transfer the throne to him bypassing his father, publicly declares that he prefers to go abroad as an "honest man."
In 1796, his father Pavel Petrovich occupied the Russian throne, becoming Emperor Paul I, and his son was appointed military governor of St. Petersburg, chief of the Semyonovsky Life Guards regiment, inspector of cavalry and infantry, and later - chairman of the military department of the Senate. During this period, a circle of his friends was organized around Alexander, called the Secret Committee.

In March 1801, Paul I died under mysterious circumstances that have not been clarified. Apoplectic stroke was named as the official version, although it is possible that members of the Secret Committee were involved in his death. Alexander inherited the throne.

At the beginning of his reign, Alexander spent wide liberal reforms developed by the Secret Committee and M. M. Speransky. The young emperor canceled many of his father's innovations.

By the decree of 1801, the right of land ownership was given to merchants, bourgeois and state settlers. In 1803 he issued a decree on free farmers, in 1804 - a decree that eased the lot of the peasants of the Livonian province.

In 1803, a new regulation on the device was adopted. educational institutions... 5 universities were founded: in 1802 - Dorpat, in 1803 - Vilensky, in 1804 - Kharkov and Kazan. The St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, opened in 1804, was transformed into a university in 1819. Privileged secondary educational institutions - lyceums were founded: in 1811 - Tsarskoselsky, in 1817 - Richelievsky in Odessa, in 1820 - Nezhinsky.

The Secret Expedition was abolished, torture was abolished, clergymen were freed from corporal punishment, the import of foreign books and the operation of private printing houses were again allowed. Financial reform has been carried out.

Already in adulthood, Alexander Pavlovich prepared several projects for the abolition of serfdom, but due to the resistance of most of the nobles, he did not dare to reform (projects of Mordvinov, Arakcheev, Kankrin).

In foreign policy, Alexander Pavlovich the Blessed participated in two coalitions against Napoleonic France(with Prussia in 1804-1805, with Austria in 1806-1807). After being defeated at Austerlitz in 1805 and Friedland in 1807, he concluded the Peace of Tilsit (1807) and an alliance with Napoleon.

In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia, but was defeated during the Patriotic War of 1812. Brilliant victory won with talented army command Mikhail Ivanovich Kutuzov.

The combined forces of the new anti-Napoleonic coalition won the battle of Leipzig in 1813 and invaded France. Alexander Pavlovich, at the head of the Russian troops, together with the allies, entered Paris in the spring of 1814.

Alexander was one of the leaders of the Vienna Congress of 1814–1815. In an effort to establish a new European community based on religious and political principles, he participated in the creation of the Holy Union (1815). Gave Poland a liberal constitution.

At Alexander I Pavlovich the territories of Eastern Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), Azerbaijan (1813), the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia.

In 1814, the Senate granted Alexander Pavlovich the title of Blessed, Magnanimous ruler of powers.

In 1821 a secret police was introduced into the army.

In 1822, a decree was issued prohibiting secret organizations and Masonic lodges.

In the last years of his life, Alexander often spoke of his intention to abdicate the throne and "retire from the world."

Due to the fact that all the children of Emperor Alexander died, the question of succession to the throne became relevant. A secret document is being prepared, according to which the throne should pass to his brother Constantine.

In August 1823, Konstantin Pavlovich renounced the right of inheritance, and Alexander issued a manifesto, according to which his younger brother Nikolai would be the successor.

In 1825 Alexander I Pavlovich received information about an army conspiracy against himself. He decides to personally visit the military settlements.

In the summer of the same year, the health of his wife Elizaveta Alekseevna deteriorated. The doctors recommended a southern climate to her, Taganrog was elected.

Taking advantage of his stay in the south, Alexander Pavlovich the Blessed visited military settlements in Novocherkassk and in the Crimea, but on the way to the St. George Monastery in November 1825 he caught a bad cold.

December 1 (November 19) 1825 Alexander Pavlovich Romanov died of fever with brain inflammation in Taganrog. A. Pushkin wrote him an epitaph: "I spent my whole life on the road, caught a cold and died in Taganrog."

There was a legend that Alexander Pavlovich spread a false message about his death, but in fact he lived for a long time as an old hermit in Siberia under the name of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich and died in 1864 in Tomsk.

In the 20th century, evidence appeared that during the opening of the tomb of Alexander I in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, which was carried out in 1921, it was found that it was empty. The question of the identity of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich and Emperor Alexander has not been unambiguously defined by historians. Archbishop Rostislav of Tomsk spoke about the possibility of carrying out a genetic examination (the relics of a Siberian elder are kept in his diocese).

Unusual character Alexander I Pavlovich especially interesting because he is one of the most important personalities in the history of the 19th century. An aristocrat and a liberal, at the same time mysterious and famous, he seemed to his contemporaries a mystery, which everyone tried to understand in their own way. Napoleon considered him an "inventive Byzantine", an actor capable of playing any prominent role. From his grandmother, Emperor Alexander inherited the flexibility of mind, the ability to seduce the interlocutor, and a passion for acting. Raised according to Spartan principles, he knew how to endure the hardships of military life. His melancholic mood was greatly influenced by the mysterious death of his father. During his reign, Russia was not ready for freedom, and Alexander Pavlovich, a follower of the revolutionary-minded Laharpe, considered himself a "lucky coincidence" on the throne of the kings. He spoke with regret about "the state of barbarism in which the country was due to the serfdom."

Alexander married once in 1793 to Louise Maria Augusta of Baden (who took the name Elizaveta Alekseevna in Orthodoxy) (1779-1826), daughter of Karl Ludwig of Baden. Both of their daughters died in early childhood: Maria (1799-1800); Elizabeth (1806-1808).

For 15 years, Alexander Pavlovich had practically a second family with Maria Naryshkina (nee Chetvertinskaya). She bore him two daughters and a son and insisted on the dissolution of his marriage. The researchers noted the close and very personal relationship between Alexander and his sister Ekaterina Pavlovna.

Under Alexander I, the Patriotic War of 1812 ended victoriously, therefore, many monuments dedicated to the victory in that war are somehow connected with Alexander: the Palace Square Ensemble, the Arch of the General Staff Building.

The Alexander Column is widely known - one of the famous monuments of St. Petersburg, erected in 1834 by order of the younger brother of Emperor Alexander I, Nicholas I, in memory of the victory over Napoleon. The inscription reads: "Grateful Russia to Alexander I". At the top of the column is a sculpture of an angel with the facial features of Alexander I. In his left hand he has a four-pointed Latin cross, and his right is raised to heaven.

- Russian Emperor 1801-1825, son of Emperor Pavel Petrovich and Empress Maria Feodorovna. Born on December 12, 1777, ascended the throne on March 12, 1801. Died in Taganrog on November 19, 1825

Childhood of Alexander I

Catherine the Great did not love her son Pavel Petrovich, but took care of the upbringing of her grandson, Alexander, whom she early deprived of his mother's supervision for these purposes. Catherine, unusually talented in education, entered into all his little things, trying to put him at the height of the pedagogical requirements of that time. She wrote a "grandmother's alphabet" with didactic anecdotes and gave the educator of the Grand Dukes Alexander and his brother Konstantin, Count (later Prince) N.I. , courtesy and knowledge. " These instructions were built on the principles of abstract liberalism and imbued with fashionable pedagogical ideas of "Emil" Rousseau. Saltykov, an ordinary man, was chosen to serve as a screen for Catherine, who wanted, without irritating her son Pavel, to direct Alexander's upbringing personally. Other mentors of Alexander I in childhood were the Swiss Laharpe (who taught at first the brother of Catherine II's favorite, Lanskoy). An admirer of republican ideas and political freedom, Laharpe was in charge of Alexander's mental education, read with him Demosthenes and Mably, Tacitus and Gibbon, Locke and Rousseau; he earned the respect of his student. Lagarpe was assisted by the professor of physics Kraft, the famous botanist Pallas, the mathematician Masson. The Russian language was taught to Alexander by the sentimental writer M.N. Muravyov, and the law of God was taught by Archpriest A.A. liberal tendency of Catherine.

Disadvantages of Alexander I's upbringing

The upbringing that Alexander I received did not have a strong religious and national foundation; it did not develop personal initiative in him, keeping him away from contact with Russian reality. On the other hand, it was too abstract for a 10–14 year old boy. Such an upbringing planted in Alexander humane feelings and a penchant for abstract liberalism, but gave little concrete, and, therefore, was almost devoid of practical... The results of this upbringing were clearly reflected in the character of Alexander all his life: impressionability, humanity, attractive appeal, but also a tendency towards abstraction, a weak ability to translate "bright dreams" into reality. In addition, upbringing was interrupted in view of the early marriage of the Grand Duke (16 years old) to the 14-year-old princess of Baden Louise, who received the Orthodox name Elizaveta Alekseevna.

The ambiguity of Alexander's position between father and grandmother

Catherine, who did not love her son, Paul, thought to remove him from the throne and hand over the throne to Alexander. That is why she hastened to marry him in a very young age... The grown-up Alexander was in a rather difficult position. The relationship between his parents and his grandmother was extremely strained. Around Pavel and Maria Feodorovna, a kind of special courtyard was grouped, separate from Catherine's. Alexander's parents did not approve of the excessive free-thinking and favoritism of Catherine II. Often, being present in the morning at parades and exercises in his father's Gatchina, in a clumsy uniform, Alexander visited the refined society that was gathering in the Catherine's Hermitage in the evening. The need to maneuver between the grandmother and the parents who were at enmity with her taught the Grand Duke to secrecy, and the discrepancy between the liberal theories instilled in him by the teachers and Russian reality, instilled in him distrust of people and disappointment. All this from a young age developed secrecy and hypocrisy in Alexander. He felt disgust at court life and dreamed of giving up his hereditary rights in order to lead the life of a private man on the Rhine. These plans (in the spirit of the Western romantics of that time) were also shared by his wife, a German woman, Elizaveta Alekseevna. They strengthened in Alexander the tendency to rush around with sublime chimeras far from reality. Even then, having struck up a close friendship with the young aristocrats Czartoryski, Stroganov, Novosiltsev and Kochubei, Alexander informed them of his desire to leave for privacy... But friends urged him not to lay down the royal burden. Under their influence, Alexander decided to first give the country political freedom and only then relinquish power.

Alexander during the reign of Paul, his attitude to the conspiracy against his father

The changes that took place in the Russian order after the death of Catherine II and Paul's accession to the throne were very painful for Alexander. In letters to friends, he resented his father's recklessness, tyranny and favoritism. Pavel appointed Alexander the chief military governor of St. Petersburg, and the bulk of Pavlov's punitive measures went directly through him. Not really trusting his son, Paul forced him to personally sign the orders of cruel punishments to innocent people. In this service, Alexander became close to an intelligent and strong-willed cynic, Count Palen, who soon became the soul of a conspiracy against Paul.

The conspirators dragged Alexander into the conspiracy, so that in case of his failure, the participation of the heir to the throne would provide them with impunity. They convinced the Grand Duke that their goal was only to force Paul to abdicate and then establish a regency headed by Alexander himself. Alexander agreed to the coup, taking an oath from Palen that Paul's life would remain inviolable. But Paul was killed, and this tragic denouement plunged Alexander into despair. Involuntary participation in the murder of his father contributed much to the development of a mystical, almost morbid mood in him towards the end of the reign.

Accession of Alexander I to the throne

The dreamy Alexander from his youth showed humanity and meekness in his treatment of subordinates. They seduced everyone so that, according to Speransky, even a person with a stone heart could not resist such treatment. Therefore, the society with great joy welcomed the accession of Alexander I to the throne (March 12, 1801). But the young tsar faced difficult political and administrative tasks. Alexander was inexperienced in public affairs, was poorly informed about the situation in Russia and had few people on whom he could rely. Former Catherine's nobles were already old or dispersed by Paul. Alexander did not trust clever Palen and Panin because of their gloomy role in the conspiracy against Paul. Of the young friends of Alexander I, only Stroganov was in Russia. Czartoryski, Novosiltsev and Kochubey were urgently summoned from abroad, but they could not arrive quickly.

The international position of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I

Against his own will, Alexander left Palen and Panin in the service, who, however, personally they did not participate in the murder of Paul. Pahlen, the most knowledgeable of the then leaders, at first acquired enormous influence. The country's international position at that time was not easy. Emperor Paul, outraged by the selfish actions of the British during the joint landing with the Russian in Holland (1799), left the coalition with Britain against France before his death and was preparing to enter into an alliance with Bonaparte. With this, he summoned the British on a naval expedition against Russia and Denmark. A week after Pavel's death, Nelson bombed Copenhagen, destroyed the entire Danish fleet and prepared to bombard Kronstadt from St. Petersburg. However, the accession of Alexander I to Russia somewhat calmed the British. London government and former ambassador Whitworth were involved in a conspiracy against Paul, with the aim of keeping Russia from an alliance with France. After negotiations between the British and Palen, Nelson, who had already reached Revel with his squadron, sailed back with an apology. On the very night of Paul's assassination, the Don Cossacks, sent by Paul on a campaign against the British in India, were ordered to stop this expedition. Alexander I decided for the time being to follow a peaceful policy, restored peaceful relations with England by convention on June 5, and concluded peace treaties on September 26 with France and Spain. Having achieved this, he considered it necessary, first of all, to devote himself to internal transformative activities, which took the first four years of his reign.

Cancellation by Alexander I of his father's harsh measures

The old Catherine's grandee Troshchinsky drew up a draft manifesto on the accession of the new emperor to the throne. It was published on March 12, 1801. Alexander I promised to rule in it "according to the laws and according to the heart of his grandmother, Catherine the Great." This satisfied the main desire of Russian society, which was indignant at the persecution and extravagant arbitrariness of Paul. On the same day, all the victims of the secret expedition were released from prison and exile. Alexander I fired the main henchmen of his father: Obolyaninov, Kutaisov, Ertel. All officials and officers expelled without trial (from 12 to 15 thousand) were returned to the service. The Secret Expedition (founded, however, not by Paul, but also by Catherine II) was destroyed and it was announced that any criminal should be punished not arbitrarily, but "by the power of laws." Alexander I canceled the ban on the import of foreign books, again allowed private printing houses, restored the free passage of Russian subjects abroad and the liberation of nobles and members of the clergy from corporal punishment. With two manifestos of April 2, 1801, Alexander restored the Letters of Catherine's Grant to the nobility and cities, which had been abolished by Paul. The freer customs tariff of 1797 was also restored, which Paul, shortly before his death, replaced with another, protectionist, unprofitable for England and Prussia. As the first hint of the government's desire to alleviate the plight of the serfs, the Academy of Sciences, which issued statements and public announcements, was prohibited from accepting announcements of the sale of peasants without land.

Having ascended the throne, Alexander I did not abandon his inclination towards liberal principles. At first, he, moreover, was still fragile on the throne and was strongly dependent on the oligarchy of prominent nobles, who killed Paul. In this regard, projects of reform of higher institutions appeared, which did not change under Catherine II. Outwardly following liberal principles, these projects actually tended to strengthen political significance not of the whole people, but of the highest officials - about the same as during the "trick" of the Supreme Privy Council under Anna Ioannovna. On March 30, 1801, according to the project of the same Troshchinsky, Alexander I established an "Indispensable Council" of 12 dignitaries, with the aim of serving as an advisory institution under the sovereign on all important matters. This is formally only deliberative body did not externally restrict monarchical power, but its members, making "Indispensable" (that is, life-long, without the king's right to replace them at will), in fact, received a special, exclusive position in the power system. All important state affairs and draft regulations were subject to consideration by the Indispensable Council.

Draft reform of the Senate and the development of new Russian legislation

On June 5, 1801, Alexander issued decrees addressed to another higher institution, To the Senate. In them, the senators were instructed by ourselves submit a report on their rights and obligations for the approval of these in the form of a state law... By another decree of the same June 5, Alexander I established Count Zavadovsky's commission "on drafting laws." Its purpose, however, was not to develop new legislation, but to clarify and harmonize existing laws with the publication of their Code later. Alexander I openly admitted that since the last Russian Code - 1649 - many conflicting laws had been issued.

Secret ("intimate") committee of Alexander I

All these decrees made a great impression on the society, but the young tsar thought to go further. On April 24, 1801, Alexander I talked with P. Stroganov about the need for indigenous state transformation. In May 1801, Stroganov proposed to Alexander I to establish a special unspoken committee to discuss the transformation plan. Alexander approved this idea and appointed Stroganov, Novosiltsev, Czartorysky and Kochubei to the committee. The work of the committee began on June 24, 1801, after the arrival of the last three from abroad. The mentor of the youth of Alexander I, the Swiss Jacobin Laharpe, was also summoned to Russia.

Shrewd and knew England better than Russia gr. V. P. Kochubei, smart, learned and capable N. N. Novosiltsev, a fan of the English order, Prince. A. Czartoryski, Pole by sympathy, and gr. PA Stroganov, who received an exclusively French education, became Alexander I's closest assistants for several years. None of them had state experience. The "secret committee" decided "first of all to find out the real state of affairs" (!), Then to reform the administration and, finally, "to introduce a constitution corresponding to the spirit of the Russian people." However, Alexander I himself at that time most of all dreamed not so much about serious transformations as about publishing some loud demonstrative declaration, like the famous Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

Alexander I instructed Novosiltsev to collect information about the state of affairs in Russia, and the committee did not expect the results of this collection for a long time. They were also delayed by the fact that the committee met in secret and avoided giving an official order to officials to submit the necessary data. For the first time, the Secret Committee began to use scraps of random information.

Discussion international situation Russia revealed Alexander's complete unpreparedness in matters of foreign policy. Having just signed a friendly treaty with England, he now startled the committee members with the opinion that a coalition should be formed against the British. Czartoryski and Kochubey insisted that England is a natural friend of Russia, since all the interests of the Russian foreign trade... Almost all of the Russian export went to England at that time. Friends advised Alexander I to adhere to peacefulness, but at the same time carefully limit the ambition of the enemy of the British, France. These recommendations prompted Alexander to devote himself to a detailed study of foreign policy.

Projects to limit autocracy and estate reforms in the early years of Alexander I

Alexander I wanted to start internal reforms with the publication of a written "declaration of rights" and the transformation of the Senate into a body that would support these rights. The court oligarchy liked the idea of ​​such a body. The last Catherine's favorite, Platon Zubov, proposed turning the Senate into an independent legislative body, formed from high officials and representatives of the high nobility. Derzhavin proposed that the Senate be composed of persons elected among officials of the first four classes. However, the Tacit Committee rejected these projects as having nothing to do with folk representation.

AR Vorontsov proposed, simultaneously with the coronation of Alexander I, to issue a "letter of gratitude to the people", following the model of Catherine's letters of gratitude to cities and nobility, but with the extension of guarantees of citizens' freedom to the whole people, which would largely repeat English Habeas corpus act. Vorontsov and the famous Admiral Mordvinov ("a liberal, but with the views of the English Tory") also advised to deprive the nobles of the monopoly of ownership of real estate and extend the right to possess them to merchants, petty bourgeois and state peasants. But the unspoken committee of Alexander I decided that “when this state countries "such a letter is untimely. This vividly illustrated the caution of Alexander's young friends, whom their enemies called the Jacobin gang. The "old bureaucrat" Vorontsov turned out to be more liberal than them.

"Liberal" Mordvinov believed that the best way to limit autocratic power would be to create an independent aristocracy in Russia. For this, in his opinion, it was necessary to sell or distribute to the nobility a significant part of the state lands. The emancipation of the peasants, in his opinion, could be accomplished only at the request of the nobility, and not by "tsarist arbitrariness." Mordvinov strove to create an economic system in which the nobility would recognize the bonded labor of serfs as unprofitable and would themselves renounce it. He offered to give the right to own real estate to commoners, hoping that they would create farms with hired labor, which would become more efficient than serfdom and would induce the landlords to abolish serfdom.

Zubov walked on. In an effort to restore the old, more preferential for the people and historically correct legal view of the fortress of the peasants land, and not the face of the landowner, he proposed to prohibit the sale of serfs without land. (Alexander really forbade the Academy of Sciences to accept announcements of such a sale). Zubov also advised that Alexander I forbid landowners to own courtyards - people whom the nobility arbitrarily torn away from their land plots and turned into personal domestic servants. However, Novosiltsev in the Secret Committee categorically opposed this, considering it necessary "not to rush" with measures against serfdom, so as not to "irritate the landlords." The Jacobin Laharpe was also extremely indecisive, advising "first of all to spread enlightenment in Russia." Czartoryski, on the other hand, insisted that serfdom was such a filth that one should not fear anything in the fight against it. Kochubey pointed out to Alexander I that according to the Mordvin project state peasants will receive important right own real estate and landlord the peasants will be left out. Stroganov urged not to be afraid of the nobility, which is politically weak and unable to defend itself during the reign of Paul. But the peasant hopes, in his opinion, it was dangerous not to justify.

However, these convictions did not shake either Alexander I or Novosiltsev. Zubov's project was not accepted. But Alexander approved of Mordvinov's idea to give non-nobles the right to buy uninhabited land. By decree of December 12. 1801 merchants, bourgeoisie and state peasants were given the right to acquire land real estate. On the other hand, in 1802 the landowners were allowed to conduct foreign wholesale trade with the payment of guild duties. (Later, in 1812, the peasants were allowed to trade from own name, with the payment of the required fees.) However, Alexander I decided to abolish serfdom only slowly and gradually, and the Committee did not outline any practical ways to this.

The Committee hardly touched upon the development of trade, industry and agriculture. But he took up the issue of transformation central authorities management, which was extremely necessary, for Catherine II, having rearranged local institutions and abolishing almost all colleges, did not have time to transform the central bodies. This created a lot of confusion in business, which is partly why the government of Alexander I did not have accurate information about the state of the country. On February 10, 1802, Czartoryski presented a report to Alexander I, where he pointed out the need for a strict division of competence higher bodies management, supervision, court and legislation. He advised to clearly distinguish between the competences of the Permanent Council and the Senate. The Senate, according to Czartoryski, was to be in charge of only controversial cases, administrative and judicial, and the Indispensable Council should be transformed into a deliberative institution to consider important cases and draft laws. Czartoryski suggested that Alexander I put a sole minister at the head of each of the individual departments of the higher administration, because in the colleges created by Peter I, no one has personal responsibility for anything. Thus, it was Czartoryski who initiated one of the most important reforms of Alexander I - the establishment of ministries.

Establishment of ministries (1802)

The committee unanimously approved the idea of ​​creating ministries. By the Manifesto of September 8, 1802, ministries were established: foreign, military and naval, corresponding to the collegia remaining at that time, and completely new ministries: internal affairs, finance, public education and justice. On the initiative of Alexander I, the Ministry of Commerce was added to them. In the Petrine collegiums, cases were decided by a majority vote of their members. The ministries were based on the principle of one-man command of their head, who was responsible to the tsar for the work of his department. This was the main difference between ministries and collegia. To unite the activities of the ministries, all ministers had to, meeting in general meetings, make up a "committee of ministers", in which the sovereign himself was often present. All ministers were present in the Senate. In some ministries, members of the Secret Committee took the posts of ministers or deputy ministers (for example, Count Kochubei became Minister of Internal Affairs, and Count Stroganov became his comrade). The establishment of ministries became the only, completely independent and completed work of the Secret Committee of Alexander I.

Transformation of the Senate into the highest court

The same manifesto on September 8, 1802 defined and new role Senate. The idea of ​​transforming it into a legislative institution was rejected. The committee and Alexander I decided that the Senate (chaired by the sovereign) would become the body of state supervision over the administration and the highest court. The Senate was allowed to inform the sovereign about laws that are very inconvenient to enforce, or disagree with others - but the tsar could ignore these ideas. Ministers were obliged to submit their annual reports to the Senate. The Senate could demand from them any information and explanations. Senators could only be tried by the Senate.

End of the work of the unspoken committee

The secret committee only worked for about a year. In May 1802, its meetings actually ceased. It was only at the end of 1803 that it was assembled several more times, but on minor issues. Alexander I, apparently, was convinced that his friends were poorly prepared for practical activities, did not know Russia and were unable to carry out radical transformations. Alexander gradually lost interest in the committee, began to collect it less often, and then it ceased to exist altogether. Although the Conservatives considered the Committee of Young Friends of Alexander I a "Jacobin gang", it can be accused rather of timidity and inconsistency. Both main issues - serfdom and the limitation of autocracy - were nullified by the Committee. However, classes in it gave Alexander I important new knowledge on domestic and foreign policy, which was very useful to him.

Decree on Free Farmers (1803)

Alexander I nevertheless took some timid steps designed to show his sympathy for the idea of ​​freeing the peasants. On February 20, 1803, a decree on "free farmers" (1803) was issued, which gave the nobles the right, on certain conditions, to free their serfs with the provision of their own land. The conditions concluded between the landowners and the peasants were approved by the government, after which the peasants entered a special class of free farmers, who were no longer considered either private or state peasants. Alexander I hoped that in this way voluntary the liberation of the peasants by the landowners will gradually bring about the abolition of serfdom. But only a very few nobles took advantage of this method of letting the peasants free. During the entire reign of Alexander I, less than 50 thousand people were enrolled in free farmers. Alexander I also stopped further distribution of populated estates to landowners. The regulations on the peasants of the Livonian province, approved on February 20, 1804, eased their lot.

Measures of the first years of Alexander I in the field of education

Along with the administrative and estate reforms, the revision of laws in the commission of Count Zavadovsky, created on June 5, 1801, continued, and a draft code began to be drawn up. This code, according to Alexander I, was supposed to "protect the rights of everyone and everyone", but it remained undeveloped, except for one common part. But the measures in the field of public education... On September 8, 1802, a commission (then the main board) of schools was established; She worked out a regulation on the structure of educational institutions in Russia, approved on January 24, 1803. According to this regulation, schools were divided into parish, district, provincial or gymnasiums and universities. In St. Petersburg, the Academy of Sciences was restored, new regulations and staff were issued for it, a pedagogical institute was founded in 1804, and universities in Kazan and Kharkov in 1805. In 1805 P. G. Demidov donated significant capital for the device of a higher school in Yaroslavl, gr. Bezborodko did the same for Nezhin, the nobility of the Kharkov province petitioned for the founding of a university in Kharkov and provided funds for this. In addition to general education, technical institutions were founded: a commercial school in Moscow (in 1804), commercial gymnasiums in Odessa and Taganrog (1804); the number of gymnasiums and schools has been increased.

The break of Alexander I with France and the war of the Third Coalition (1805)

But all this peaceful reformatory activity would soon cease. Alexander I, not accustomed to a stubborn struggle with those practical difficulties and surrounded by inexperienced young advisers, little familiar with Russian reality, soon lost interest in reforms. Meanwhile, European strife increasingly attracted the attention of the tsar, opening up a new field of diplomatic and military activity for him.

Ascending the throne, Alexander I intended to maintain peace and neutrality. He stopped preparations for war with England and renewed friendship with her and with Austria. Relations with France immediately deteriorated, since France was then in an acute enmity with England, which was interrupted for a while by the Peace of Amiens in 1802, but already in next year resumed. However, in the early years of Alexander I, no one in Russia thought about a war with the French. War became inevitable only after a series of misunderstandings with Napoleon. Napoleon became consul for life (1802) and then emperor of France (1804) and thus turned the French Republic into a monarchy. His immense ambition worried Alexander I, and his arrogance in European affairs seemed extremely dangerous. Neglecting the protests of the Russian government, Napoleon forcibly ruled in Germany and Italy. Violation of the articles of the secret convention on October 11 (n. Art.) 1801 on the preservation of the inviolability of the possessions of the King of the Two Sicilies, the execution of the Duke of Enghien (March 1804) and the adoption by the first consul of the imperial title led to a break between France and Russia (August 1804). Alexander I became even closer to England, Sweden and Austria. These powers created a new coalition against France ("Third Coalition") and declared war on Napoleon.

But it was very unsuccessful: the shameful defeat of the Austrian troops at Ulm forced the Russian forces sent to the aid of Austria, led by Kutuzov, to retreat from Inna to Moravia. The affairs of Krems, Gollabrunn and Schöngraben were only ominous harbingers of the defeat of Austerlitz (November 20, 1805), under which Emperor Alexander stood at the head of the Russian army.

The results of this defeat were reflected: in the retreat of Russian troops to Radziwill, in the uncertain and then hostile relations of Prussia to Russia and Austria, in the conclusion of the Treaty of Presburg (December 26, 1805) and the Schönbrunn defensive and offensive alliance. Before the defeat of Austerlitz, Prussia's relations with Russia remained extremely uncertain. Although Emperor Alexander managed to persuade the weak Frederick Wilhelm to approve the secret declaration on May 12, 1804 regarding the war against France, but on June 1 it was violated by new conditions concluded by the Prussian king with France. The same hesitation is noticeable after Napoleon's victories in Austria. On a personal date, imp. Alexandra and the king in Potsdam signed the Potsdam Convention on October 22. 1805 According to this convention, the king pledged to help restore the conditions of the Luneville peace violated by Napoleon, to accept military mediation between the belligerent powers, and in case of failure of such mediation was to join the Coalition. But the Schönbrunn Peace Treaty (December 15, 1805) and even more the Paris Convention (February 1806), approved by the King of Prussia, showed how little there was to hope for the consistency of Prussian policy. Nevertheless, the declaration and counter-declaration signed on July 12, 1806 in Charlottenburg and on Kamenny Island, revealed a rapprochement between Prussia and Russia, a rapprochement that was secured by the Bartenstein Convention (April 14, 1807).

Union of Russia with Prussia and the Fourth Coalition (1806-1807)

But already in the second half of 1806 a new war broke out - the Fourth Coalition against France. The campaign began on October 8, was marked by terrible defeats of the Prussian troops at Jena and Auerstedt and would have ended with the complete conquest of Prussia if Russian troops had not come to the aid of the Prussians. Under the command of M. F. Kamensky, who was soon replaced by Bennigsen, these troops put up strong resistance to Napoleon at Pultusk, then were forced to retreat after the battles at Morungen, Bergfried, Landsberg. Although the Russians also retreated after the bloody battle at Preussisch-Eylau, Napoleon's losses were so significant that he unsuccessfully sought an opportunity to enter into peace negotiations with Bennigsen and straightened his affairs only with a victory at Friedland (June 14, 1807). Emperor Alexander did not take part in this campaign, perhaps because he was still under the impression of the Austerlitz defeat and only 2 April. 1807 came to Memel to meet with the king of Prussia, deprived of almost all his possessions.

Peace of Tilsit of Alexander I with Napoleon (1807)

The failure at Friedland forced him to agree to peace. The whole party at the court of the sovereign and the army wanted peace; moreover, the ambiguous behavior of Austria and the emperor's dissatisfaction with England prompted; finally, Napoleon himself needed the same peace. On June 25, a meeting took place between the emperor Alexander and Napoleon, who managed to charm the sovereign with his intelligence and insinuating appeal, and on the 27th of the same month the Tilsit treatise was concluded. According to this treatise, Russia acquired the Belostok region; Emperor Alexander ceded to Napoleon Cattaro and the republic of 7 islands, and the principality of Ievres - to Louis of Holland, recognized Napoleon as emperor, Joseph of Naples - as king of the Two Sicilies, and also agreed to recognize the titles of the rest of Napoleon's brothers, the present and future titles of members of the Rhine Union. Emperor Alexander took over mediation between France and England and, in turn, agreed to mediate Napoleon between Russia and the Porte. Finally, in the same world "out of respect for Russia" the Prussian king was returned to his possessions. - The Tilsit treatise was confirmed by the Erfurt Convention (September 30, 1808), and Napoleon then agreed to the annexation of Moldavia and Wallachia to Russia.

Russian-Swedish War 1808-1809

When meeting in Tilsit, Napoleon, wishing to divert the Russian forces, pointed out to the Emperor Alexander to Finland and even earlier (in 1806) armed Turkey against Russia. The reason for the war with Sweden was Gustav IV's dissatisfaction with the Peace of Tilsit and his unwillingness to enter armed neutrality, restored due to the breakup of Russia with England (October 25, 1807). War was declared on March 16, 1808. Russian troops, commanded by gr. Buksgevden, then c. Kamensky, occupied Sveaborg (April 22), won victories at Alovo, Kuortan and especially at Orovais, then in the winter of 1809 they crossed the ice from Abo to the Aland Islands under the command of Prince. Bagration, from Vaza to Umeå and through Torneo to Westrabotnia under the leadership of Barclay de Tolly and c. Shuvalov. The successes of the Russian troops and the change of government in Sweden contributed to the conclusion of the Peace of Friedrichsgam (5 September 1809) with the new king, Charles XIII. In this world, Russia acquired Finland before the river. Torneo with the Aland Islands. Emperor Alexander himself visited Finland, opened the Diet and "preserved the faith, fundamental laws, rights and advantages, which until then had been enjoyed by every estate in particular, and by all the inhabitants of Finland in general according to their constitutions." A committee has been set up in St. Petersburg and a state secretary for Finnish affairs has been appointed; in Finland itself, executive power was vested in the Governor-General, and legislative power in the Governing Council, which later received the name of the Finnish Senate.

Russian-Turkish War 1806-1812

The war with Turkey was less successful. The occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Russian troops in 1806 led to this war; but before the Peace of Tilsit, hostile actions were limited to Michelson's attempts to occupy Zhurzha, Ishmael and some friends. fortress, as well as the successful actions of the Russian fleet under the command of Senyavin against the Turkish fleet, which suffered a severe defeat at Fr. Lemnos. Peace of Tilsit ended the war for a time; but it was resumed after the Erfurt rendezvous in view of Porte's refusal to cede Moldavia and Wallachia. Failures of the book. Prozorovsky was soon corrected by the brilliant victory of gr. Kamensky at Batyn (near Ruschuk) and the defeat of the Turkish army at Slobodz on the left bank of the Danube, under the command of Kutuzov, who was appointed to the place of the deceased gr. Kamensky. The successes of Russian weapons forced the Sultan to peace, but the peace negotiations dragged on for a very long time, and the sovereign, dissatisfied with the slowness of Kutuzov, had already appointed Admiral Chichagov commander-in-chief when he learned about the conclusion of the Bucharest Peace (May 16, 1812). In this world, Russia acquired Bessarabia with the fortresses of Khotin, Bendery, Akkerman, Kiliya, Izmail to the Prut River, and Serbia - internal autonomy. - Along with the wars in Finland and on the Danube, Russian weapons had to fight in the Caucasus as well. After the unsuccessful management of Georgia, General. Knorring was appointed the chief governor of Georgia. Tsitsianov. He conquered the Jaro-Belokan region and Ganja, which he renamed Elisavetopol, but was treacherously killed during the siege of Baku (1806). - When managing gr. Gudovich and Tormasov, Mingrelia, Abkhazia and Imereti were annexed, and the exploits of Kotlyarevsky (the defeat of Abbas-Mirza, the capture of Lankaran and the conquest of the Talshin Khanate) contributed to the conclusion of the Peace of Gulistan (October 12, 1813), the conditions of which changed after some acquisitions made by Mr. ... Ermolov, commander-in-chief of Georgia since 1816.

Russian finance crisis

All these wars, although they ended in rather important territorial gains, had a harmful effect on the state of the national and state economy. In 1801-1804. government revenues collected about 100 mil. annually, there were up to 260 m of banknotes in circulation, the external debt did not exceed 47.25 mil. silver rubles, the deficit was insignificant. Meanwhile, in 1810, incomes decreased by half, and then by 4 times. Notes were issued in the amount of 577 m. Rubles, the external debt increased to 100 m. Rubles, and there was a deficit of 66 m. Rubles. Consequently, the value of the ruble has fallen sharply. In 1801-1804. the silver ruble accounted for 1.25 and 1.2 banknotes, and on April 9, 1812, it was supposed to count 1 p. silver equal to 3 p. assignment The bold hand of a former student of the St. Petersburg Alexander Seminary brought the state economy out of such a difficult situation. Thanks to the activities of Speransky (especially the manifestos of February 2, 1810, January 29 and February 11, 1812), the issuance of banknotes was stopped, the per capita salary and quitrent tax were increased, and a new progressive income tax, new indirect taxes and duties. The monetary system was also transformed by the manifesto of June 20, 1810. The results of the transformations were already partly reflected in 1811, when income of 355.5 million rubles (= 89 million silver rubles) arrived, expenses extended only up to 272 m., Arrears were registered 43 m., And 61 m long.

Alexander I and Speransky

This financial crisis was triggered by hard wars. But these wars after the Peace of Tilsit no longer absorbed all the attention of Alexander I. The unsuccessful wars of 1805-1807. instilled in him a distrust of his own military abilities, and he again turned to internal transformations. Around Alexander then a young and brilliant employee Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky appeared as a new confidant. This was the son of a village priest. After graduating from the St. Petersburg "main seminary" (theological academy), Speransky was retained as a teacher and at the same time was a secretary to Prince A. Kurakin. With the help of Kurakin, Speransky got into the service of the Senate Chancellery. Talented and educated, he attracted attention for his abilities and hard work. After the formation of ministries (1802) new minister Internal Affairs, Count Kochubey, appointed Speransky as one of his closest assistants. Soon he became personally known to Alexander I, became very close to him and soon became, as it were, the first tsarist minister.

Alexander I instructed Speransky to work out overall plan state transformation, which did not succeed in the Secret Cabinet. Speransky, in addition, was placed at the head of the commission of laws, which worked on drawing up a new code. He was also an adviser to the sovereign on current affairs of administration. With extraordinary zeal, Speransky worked for several years (1808–1812), displaying a subtle mind and broad political knowledge. Perfectly familiar with French and English and with Western political literature, he had an outstanding theoretical training often lacked by the members of the former Secret Committee. However, with the administrative practice the young and, in fact, inexperienced Speransky was little known. In those years he and Alexander I put too much emphasis on the principles of abstract reason, reconciling them little with Russian reality and the country's historical past. This huge flaw became the main reason the collapse of most of their joint projects.

Speransky's transformation plan

Being in great confidence in Alexander I, Speransky concentrated in his hands all the current affairs of management: he was engaged in upset finances, and diplomatic affairs, and the organization of the newly conquered Finland. Speransky reconsidered the details of the reform carried out at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I central administration, changed and improved the structure of ministries. Changes in the distribution of affairs among ministries and in the order of their administration were set forth in a new law on ministries ("general institution of ministries", 1811). The number of ministries was increased to 11 (added: Ministry of Police, Railways, State Control). On the contrary, the Ministry of Commerce was abolished. His affairs were divided between the Ministries of Internal Affairs and Finance. According to Speransky's plans, a decree on August 6, 1809 promulgated new rules for the production of civil service ranks and on tests in the sciences for the production of officials in the 8th and 9th grades without university certificates.

At the same time, Speransky drew up a plan for a cardinal state transformation. Instead of the previous estates, a new division of citizens into "nobility", "people of average condition" and "working people" was supposed. Over time, the entire population of the state was supposed to become civilly free, and serfdom abolished - although Speransky worked out this part of the reform least of all and intended to carry it out after the main state transformations. The nobles retained the right of ownership populated lands and freedom from compulsory service. The average fortune was made up of merchants, bourgeois, settlers who had not inhabited peasants of the land. The working people consisted of peasants, artisans and servants. It was supposed to divide the country anew into provinces, districts and volosts and create a new state system based on elective representatives of the people... The head of the state was supposed to be the monarch and his "state council". Three types of institutions should operate under their leadership: legislative, executive and judicial.

For the election of legislative bodies, the landowners of each volost had to make up a “volost duma” every three years. The deputies from the district councils of the district would constitute the “district council”. and the deputies of the district councils of the province - the “provincial council”. From the deputies from all the provincial dumas, an all-Russian legislative institution would be formed - “ The State Duma”, Which was supposed to be collected annually in September to discuss laws.

The executive power was to be led by ministries and subordinate "provincial governments" with governors at their head. In the order of the court, it was assumed that the Senate would become the "supreme court" for the entire empire, and the volost, district and provincial courts would operate under its leadership.

Speransky saw the general meaning of the transformation "in the fact that the government, hitherto autocratic, should be decreed and established on the basis of an indispensable law." Alexander I approved Speransky's project, whose spirit coincided with his own liberal views, and intended to begin its implementation in 1810. By the Manifesto of January 1, 1810, the former Indispensable Council was transformed into the State Council with legislative significance. All laws, statutes and institutions were to be submitted for its consideration, although the decisions of the State Council received force only after their approval by the sovereign. The State Council was subdivided into four departments: 1) laws, 2) military affairs, 3) civil and spiritual affairs, 4) state economy. Speransky was appointed secretary of state under this new council. But the matter did not go further. The reform met with strong resistance at the top of the government, and Alexander I saw fit to postpone it. The deterioration of the international situation was also strongly inclined towards this - a new war with Napoleon was clearly brewing. As a result, Speransky's project on the establishment of a people's representation remained only a draft.

Along with work on a plan for a general transformation, Speransky directed the actions of the "commission of laws." In the early years of Alexander I, rather modest tasks were set before this commission, but now it was instructed to draw up a new legislative body of existing laws, supplementing and improving them from the general principles of jurisprudence. Under the influence of Speransky, the commission made large borrowings from French laws (Napoleon's Code). The project of the new Russian developed by her civil code was introduced to the new Council of State, but not approved there. Members of the State Council, not without reason, considered Speransky's civil legislation too hasty and non-national, little connected with Russian conditions. It remained unpublished.

Discontent with Speransky and his fall

Speransky's activities and his rapid rise aroused displeasure in many. Some envied Speransky's personal successes, others saw in him a blind admirer of French ideas and order and a supporter of an alliance with Napoleon. These people, out of patriotic feelings, armed themselves against the direction of Speransky. One of the most famous literary men of that time, the European educated N. M. Karamzin, compiled for Alexander I a note "on ancient and new Russia", which proved the harm and danger of Speransky's measures. These measures, according to Karamzin, thoughtlessly destroyed the old order and just as thoughtlessly introduced French forms into Russian life. Although Speransky denied his loyalty to France and Napoleon, in the eyes of the whole society his closeness to French influences was undeniable. When Napoleon's invasion of Russia was expected, Alexander I did not consider it possible to leave Speransky near him. Speransky was dismissed from his post as Secretary of State; on some dark accusations, the sovereign sent him into exile (to Nizhny Novgorod, and then to Perm), from where the reformer returned only at the end of Alexander's reign.

Thus, the plan for a broad state transformation, developed jointly by Alexander I and Speransky, was not implemented. The unspoken committee of the first years of Alexander I showed poor preparation. Speransky, on the contrary, was in theory very strong but lacking practical skills, coupled with a lack of determination on the part of the king himself, stopped all undertakings halfway. Speransky only succeeded in giving the central institutions of Russia a finished look, for a long time restoring the centralization of government lost under Catherine II and strengthening the bureaucratic order.

Along with the reform of the central government, reforms continued in the field of spiritual education. The church's candle revenues, determined for the expenses for the construction of theological schools (1807), made it possible to increase their number. In 1809 the theological academy was opened in St. Petersburg and in 1814 - in the Sergievskaya Lavra; in 1810 a corps of railway engineers was established, in 1811 the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was founded, and in 1814 the Public Library was opened.

Deteriorating relations between Alexander I and Napoleon

But the second period of transformative activity was also violated. new war... Soon after the Erfurt Convention, disagreements between Russia and France were revealed. By virtue of this convention, Emperor Alexander sent the 30,000th detachment of the allied army in Galicia during the Austrian war of 1809. But this detachment, which was under the command of Prince. S.F. Golitsyn, acted indecisively, since Napoleon's obvious desire to restore or at least significantly strengthen Poland and his refusal to approve the convention on 23 December. 1809, which protected Russia from such a strengthening, aroused strong fears on the part of the Russian government. The emergence of disagreement intensified under the influence of new circumstances. The tariff for 1811, issued on December 19, 1810, aroused Napoleon's displeasure. Even the agreement of 1801 restored peaceful trade relations with France, and in 1802 the trade agreement concluded in 1786 was extended for 6 years.But already in 1804 it was forbidden to bring any paper tissue along the western border, and in 1805 increased duties on some silk and woolen products in order to encourage local, Russian production. The government was guided by the same goals and in 1810 the new tariff increased the duties on wine, wood, cocoa, coffee and granulated sugar; foreign paper (except for white ones under branding), linen, silk, woolen and the like are prohibited; Russian goods, flax, hemp, bacon, linseed, sailing and flam textiles, potash and resin are imposed with a higher holiday duty. On the contrary, the import of raw foreign products and duty-free export of iron from Russian factories are allowed. The new tariff harmed French trade and infuriated Napoleon, who demanded that Emperor Alexander accept the French tariff and not accept not only English, but also neutral (American) ships in Russian harbors. Soon after the publication of the new tariff, the Duke of Oldenburg, the uncle of Emperor Alexander, was deprived of his possessions, and the sovereign's protest, which was circularly expressed in this regard on March 12, 1811, remained without consequences. After these clashes, war was inevitable. Scharngorst already in 1810 assured that Napoleon had a plan for a war against Russia. In 1811 Prussia entered into an alliance with France, then Austria.

Patriotic War 1812

In the summer of 1812 Napoleon moved with the allied troops through Prussia and on June 11 crossed the Neman between Kovno and Grodno, with a 600,000-strong army. Emperor Alexander had at his disposal a military force three times less; at their head were: Barclay de Tolly and Prince. Bagration in the Vilna and Grodno provinces. But behind this relatively small army stood the entire Russian people, not to mention individuals and the nobility of entire provinces, all of Russia voluntarily put up up to 320,000 warriors and donated at least a hundred million rubles. After the first clashes of Barclay near Vitebsk and Bagration near Mogilev with French troops, as well as Napoleon's unsuccessful attempt to enter the rear of the Russian troops and occupy Smolensk, Barclay began to retreat along the Dorogobuzh road. Raevsky, and then Dokhturov (with Konovnitsyn and Neverovsky) managed to repulse two attacks of Napoleon on Smolensk; but after the second attack, Dokhturov had to leave Smolensk and join the retreating army. Despite the retreat, Emperor Alexander left without consequences Napoleon's attempt to start peace negotiations, but was forced to replace the unpopular among Barclay's troops - Kutuzov. The latter arrived at the main apartment in Tsarevo Zaymishche on August 17, and on the 26th gave the battle at Borodino. The outcome of the battle remained unresolved, but the Russian troops continued to retreat to Moscow, whose population was strongly agitated against the French, among other things, the posters of gr. Rostopchina. The military council in Fili on the evening of September 1 decided to leave Moscow, which was occupied by Napoleon on September 3, but soon (October 7) was abandoned due to a lack of supplies, severe fires and the decline of military discipline. Meanwhile, Kutuzov (probably on the advice of Tolya) turned from the Ryazan road, along which he was retreating, to Kaluga and gave battles to Napoleon at Tarutin and Maloyaroslavets. Cold, hunger, unrest in the army, a quick retreat, successful actions of the partisans (Davydov, Figner, Seslavin, Samus), the victories of Miloradovich at Vyazma, Ataman Platov at Vopi, Kutuzov at Krasnoye led the French army into complete disorder, and after the disastrous crossing of the Berezina forced Napoleon, before reaching Vilna, to flee to Paris. On December 25, 1812, a manifesto was issued on the final expulsion of the French from Russia.

Foreign campaign of the Russian army 1813-1815

The Patriotic War was over; she made a big change in mental life Emperor Alexander. In a difficult time of national calamities and mental anxiety, he began to look for support in religious feelings and in this regard found support in the state. sec. Shishkov, who now occupied a place that was empty after the removal of Speransky even before the start of the war. The successful outcome of this war further developed in the sovereign faith in the inscrutable ways of Divine Providence and the conviction that the Russian tsar had a difficult political task: to establish peace in Europe on the basis of justice, the sources of which the religiously minded soul of Emperor Alexander began to seek in the Gospel teachings ... Kutuzov, Shishkov, partly gr. Rumyantsev were against the continuation of the war abroad. But Emperor Alexander, supported by Stein, was determined to continue military operations.

On January 1, 1813, Russian troops crossed the border of the empire and found themselves in Prussia. Already on December 18, 1812, York, the head of the Prussian detachment sent to help the French troops, entered into an agreement with Diebitsch on the neutrality of the German troops, although, however, did not have permission from the Prussian government. The Kalisz treaty (February 15-16, 1813) concluded a defensive-offensive alliance with Prussia, confirmed by the Teplitsky treatise (August 1813). Meanwhile, the Russian troops under the command of Wittgenstein, together with the Prussians, were defeated in the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen (April 20 and May 9). After the armistice and the so-called Prague conferences, which resulted in Austria joining an alliance against Napoleon under the Reichenbach Convention (June 15, 1813), hostilities resumed. After a successful battle for Napoleon at Dresden and unsuccessful ones at Culm, Brienne, Laon, Arsis-sur-Aub and Fer Champenoise, Paris surrendered on March 18, 1814, the Peace of Paris was concluded (May 18) and Napoleon was overthrown. Soon thereafter, on May 26, 1815, the Congress of Vienna opened mainly to discuss Polish, Saxon and Greek issues. Emperor Alexander was with the army during the entire campaign and insisted on the occupation of Paris by the allied forces. According to the main act of the Congress of Vienna (June 28, 1816), Russia acquired a part of the Duchy of Warsaw, except for the Grand Duchy of Poznan, given to Prussia, and a part ceded to Austria, and in the Polish possessions annexed to Russia, the constitution was introduced by Emperor Alexander, drawn up in liberal spirit. Peace talks at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by Napoleon's attempt to regain control of the French throne. Russian troops again moved from Poland to the banks of the Rhine, and Emperor Alexander left Vienna for Heidelberg. But the hundred-day reign of Napoleon ended with his defeat at Waterloo and the restoration of a legitimate dynasty in the person of Louis XVIII under the difficult conditions of the Second Paris Peace (November 8, 1815). Wishing to establish peaceful international relations between the Christian sovereigns of Europe on the basis of brotherly love and the Gospel commandments, Emperor Alexander drew up an act of the Holy Alliance, signed by himself, the King of Prussia and the Austrian emperor. International relations were maintained by the congresses in Aachen (1818), where it was decided to withdraw the Allied troops from France, to Troppau (1820) over the riots in Spain, Laibach (1821) - in view of the indignation in Savoy and the Neapolitan revolution and, finally, in Verona (1822) - to pacify the indignation in Spain and discuss the Eastern question.

The position of Russia after the wars of 1812-1815

A direct result of the hard wars of 1812-1814. there was a deterioration in the state economy. By January 1, 1814, there were only 587½ million rubles in the parish; domestic debts reached 700 million rubles, the Dutch debt extended to 101½ million guilders (= 54 million rubles), and the silver ruble in 1815 went for 4 rubles. 15 k. Alloc. How long these effects lasted, the state of Russian finance reveals ten years later. In 1825, state revenues were only 529½ million rubles, notes issued for 595 1/3 million. rubles, which together with the Dutch and some other debts amounted to 350½ million rubles. ser. It is true that more significant gains are being seen in trade. In 1814, the import of goods did not exceed 113½ million rubles, and the export - 196 million appropriations; in 1825 the import of goods reached 185½ mil. rub., the export extended to the amount of 236½ mil. rub. But the wars of 1812-1814. had another series of consequences. The restoration of free political and commercial relations between the European powers also led to the publication of several new tariffs. In the tariff of 1816, some changes were made in comparison with the tariff of 1810, the tariff of 1819 greatly reduced the prohibitive duties on some of the foreign goods, but already in the orders of 1820 and 1821. and the new tariff of 1822 marked a return to the previous protective system. With the fall of Napoleon, the established relationship of political forces in Europe collapsed. Emperor Alexander assumed a new definition of their relationship.

Alexander I and Arakcheev

This task also distracted the sovereign's attention from the internal reforming activities of previous years, especially since at that time there were no former admirers of English constitutionalism at the throne, and the brilliant theoretician and adherent of French institutions Speransky was eventually replaced by a stern formalist, the chairman of the military department State Council and chief boss military settlements, poorly gifted by nature Count Arakcheev.

The liberation of the peasants in Estonia and Courland

However, in the government orders of the last decade of the reign of Emperor Alexander, traces of former transformative ideas are sometimes still noticeable. On May 28, 1816, the project of the Estonian nobility for the final emancipation of the peasants was approved. The Courland nobility followed the example of the Estonian nobility at the invitation of the government itself, which approved the same project for the Courland peasants on August 25, 1817 and for the Livonian peasants on March 26, 1819.

Economic and financial measures

Together with the estate orders, several changes were made in the central and regional administration. By a decree on September 4, 1819, the Ministry of Police was annexed to the Ministry of the Interior, from which the Department of Manufactures and Internal Trade was transferred to the Ministry of Finance. In May 1824 the affairs of the Holy Synod were separated from the Ministry of Public Education, where they were transferred according to the manifesto of October 24, 1817, and where only the affairs of foreign confessions remained. Even earlier, by the manifesto on May 7, 1817, a council of credit institutions was established, both for auditing and verifying all operations, and for considering and concluding all assumptions on the credit part. By the same time (the manifesto of April 2, 1817) the replacement of the ransom system by the state sale of wine belongs to; management of drinking fees is concentrated in the government chambers. Regarding the regional administration, an attempt was also made shortly thereafter to distribute the Great Russian provinces into general governorships.

Education and press in the last years of Alexander I

Government activities also continued to take their toll on public education concerns. At St. Petersburg teacher training institute in 1819 public courses were organized, which laid the foundation for St. Petersburg University. In 1820 p. an engineering school was reorganized and an artillery school was founded; the Richelieu Lyceum was founded in Odessa in 1816. The schools of mutual learning according to the method of Bel and Lancaster began to spread. In 1813, the Bible Society was founded, to which the emperor soon gave a significant financial allowance. In 1814 the Imperial Public Library was opened in St. Petersburg. Individuals followed the lead of the government. Gr. Rumyantsev constantly donated cash for the printing of sources (for example, for the publication of Russian chronicles - 25,000 rubles) and scientific research. At the same time, journalistic and literary activities developed greatly. Already in 1803, under the Ministry of Public Education "a periodical essay on the success of public education" was published, and under the Ministry of Internal Affairs - "St. Petersburg Journal" (since 1804). But these official publications did not have the same significance as they received: "Vestnik Evropy" (from 1802) by M. Kachenovsky and N. Karamzin, "Son of the Fatherland" by N. Grech (from 1813), "Otechestvennye zapiski" Svinin (since 1818), "Siberian Bulletin" by G. Spassky (1818-1825), "Northern Archive" by F. Bulgarin (1822-1838), which later merged with the "Son of the Fatherland". The publications of the Moscow Society of History and Antiquities, founded back in 1804 ("Proceedings" and "Chronicles", as well as "Russian Memories" - since 1815) were distinguished by their scholarly character. At the same time V. Zhukovsky, I. Dmitriev and I. Krylov, V. Ozerov and A. Griboyedov acted, the sad sounds of Batyushkov's lyre were heard, the mighty voice of Pushkin was already heard and Baratynsky's poems began to be printed. Meanwhile, Karamzin published his "History of the Russian State" historical science studied A. Schletser, N. Bantysh-Kamensky, K. Kalaydovich, A. Vostokov, Evgeny Bolkhovitinov (Metropolitan of Kiev), M. Kachenovsky, G. Evers. Unfortunately, this mental movement was subjected to repressive measures, partly under the influence of the riots that took place abroad and responded to an insignificant extent in the Russian troops, partly due to the increasingly religiously conservative trend that the sovereign's own way of thinking took. On August 1, 1822, all secret societies were banned, in 1823 it was not allowed to send young people to some of the German universities... In May 1824, the management of the Ministry of Public Education was entrusted to the famous adherent of Old Russian literary legends, Admiral AS Shishkov; from the same time the Bible Society ceased to gather and censorship conditions were significantly constrained.

The death of Alexander I and an assessment of his reign

The last years of his life, Emperor Alexander spent most of his time traveling to the most remote corners of Russia, or almost in complete seclusion in Tsarskoe Selo. At this time, the Greek question was the main subject of his concern. The uprising of the Greeks against the Turks, provoked in 1821 by Alexander Ypsilanti, who was in the Russian service, and the indignation in Morey and on the islands of the Archipelago, provoked a protest from the Emperor Alexander. But the sultan did not believe the sincerity of such a protest, and the Turks in Constantinople killed many Christians. Then the Russian ambassador, bar. Stroganov, left Constantinople. The war was inevitable, but, arrested by European diplomats, broke out only after the death of the sovereign. Emperor Alexander died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog, where he accompanied his wife, Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna, to improve her health.

In the attitude of the Emperor Alexander to the Greek question, the peculiarities of that third stage of development, which the political system created by him experienced in the last decade of his reign, was quite clearly manifested. This system originally arose on the basis of abstract liberalism; the latter was replaced by political altruism, which in turn was transformed into religious conservatism.

Literature about Alexander I

M. Bogdanovich. History of Emperor Alexander I, VI volume. St. Petersburg., 1869-1871

S. Soloviev. Emperor Alexander the First. Politics, diplomacy. SPb., 1877

A. Hadler. Emperor Alexander the First and the idea of ​​the Sacred Union. Riga, IV volume, 1865-1868

H. Putyata, Review of the life and reign of imp. Alexander I (in the Historical collection. 1872, No. 1)

Schilder. Russia in its relations with Europe during the reign of Emperor Alexander I, 1806-1815

A. Pypin. Public movement at Alexandre I... SPb., 1871