Library
materials
LLC Training Center
"PROFESSIONAL"
Discipline abstract
« Cartography with the basics of topography. GIS. ICT in geography lessons »
On this topic:
Executor:
Logunova Yulia Alexandrovna
Zvenigorod 2018 year
Content
Introduction (p.3)
Types of filming (c.6)
Space cartography (p.8)
Control of the environment from space (p.12)
Conclusion (p.15)
References (p.16)
Introduction
Objective: consideration of the essence of space photography.
Space photography - technological process photographing the earth's surface from an aircraft in order to obtain photographic images of the terrain (photographs) with specified parameters and characteristics. The main tasks of space surveys include: exploration of the planets of the solar system; study and rational use natural resources Earth; study of anthropogenic changes in the earth's surface; research of the World Ocean; research on air and ocean pollution; monitoring environment; research of water areas of shelves and coastal parts .
The main difference between photographing from space is: high altitude, flight speed and their periodic change during the movement of the spacecraft in orbit; rotation of the Earth, and, consequently, of the survey objects relative to the plane of the orbit; a rapid change in the illumination of the Earth along the flight path of the spacecraft; photography through the entire layer of the atmosphere; photographic equipment is fully automated. A high shooting height causes the picture to be zoomed out. The choice of the orbit altitude is based on the tasks that are solved during the shooting, and the need to obtain photographic images of a certain scale. As a result, the requirements for optical system cameras in terms of image quality, which should be good across the field. The requirements for geometric distortions are especially high.
We are witnessing how a person is gradually mastering the near-Earth space and by automatic machines sent from the Earth, they are successfully studying other planets. solar system. Artificial Earth satellites created by people and launched into space transmit to Earth photographs of our planet taken from great heights.
So today we can sayabout space geodesy , or as it is also called satellite geodesy. We are witnessing the birth of a new section of cartography, which it would be fashionable to callspace cartography.
Already at the present time, images taken from space are being used to make changes in the content of maps, being the most rapid means for detecting these changes. Further development space cartography will lead to even more significant results.
Significance, advantage of images of the Earth from space in comparison with conventional aerial photographs are indisputable. First of all, their visibility - images from a height of hundreds and thousands of kilometers make it possible to obtain both images covering aerial photography and images of a territory hundreds and thousands of kilometers long. In addition, they have the properties of spectral and spatial generalization, i.e., sifting out the secondary, random and highlighting the essential, the main. Space photography makes it possible to obtain an image at regular intervals, which in turn makes it possible to study the dynamics of any process.
The possibility of obtaining satellite images has led to the emergence of a number of new thematic maps - maps of such phenomena, the numerous characteristics of which are almost impossible to obtain by other methods. Thus, for the first time in the history of science, global maps cloud cover and ice conditions. Space images are indispensable for studying the dynamics of atmospheric processes - tropical cyclones and hurricanes. For these purposes, shooting from zeostationary satellites is especially effective - satellites "fixed" hovering over one point on the Earth's surface, or, more precisely, moving along with the earth at the same angular velocity.
Fundamentally new information space images given to geologists. They made it possible to increase the depth of research and gave rise to the new kind cartographic works - "cosmophotogeological" maps. The most important advantage of satellite images is the possibility of using them to trace new features of the structure of territories that are invisible on ordinary aerial photographs. It is the filtration of small details that leads to the spatial organization of the ruined fragments of large geological formations into a single whole. Well visible in the pictures linear discontinuous violations, called lineaments, is not always possible to detect during direct field surveys. Lineament maps are of great help in deep prospecting for minerals. Previously unknown geological structures were discovered in this way in the middle course of the Vilyui.
Images from Space today are intensively used in glaciology, they will be the main source material. Practically, all space pioneers, especially participants in long-term space flights, successfully solve various tasks thematic mapping. In our country, forests cover more than half of the territory . The information on the many characteristics of this forest fund is vast and must be updated regularly. Giant volumes of operational, comprehensive and at the same time detailed information are unthinkable without the help of astronauts and space photography. Practice has already proved that space mapping of forests is a necessary link in their study and resource management. Regular space mapping of changes occurring in forests is very important for warning and localization harmful effects, solving problems of nature protection. Only with the help of space technology is it possible to obtain information about the sanitary condition of forests, and with the help of daily surveys from the Meteor satellites, data on the fire situation in the forests.
Space continuous mapping of the state of the environment today is referred to as "monitoring". The range of means and methods of the cartographer is becoming wider: from cosmic heights to underwater depths, but everywhere - at the control panel of a space topographer - planetary rover, at an ordinary theodolite, at the creation of a map, there is a person.
Shooting types.
Space photography is being carried out different methods(Fig. “Classification of space images by spectral ranges and imaging technology”).
The nature coverage of the earth's surface by satellite images, the following surveys can be distinguished:
single photography,
route,
aiming,
global shooting.
single (selective) photographing is carried out by astronauts with hand-held cameras. Pictures are usually obtained perspective with significant angles of inclination.
Route shooting the earth's surface is made along the flight path of the satellite. The survey swath width depends on the flight altitude and the viewing angle of the imaging system.
Sighting (selective) shooting is designed to obtain images of specially defined areas of the earth's surface away from the road.
global filming produced from geostationary and polar orbiting satellites. satellites. Four to five geostationary satellites in equatorial orbit provide practically continuous acquisition of small-scale panoramic images of the entire Earth (space patrols) except for the polar caps.
aerospace image - this is a two-dimensional image of real objects, which is obtained according to certain geometric and radiometric (photometric) laws by remote registration of the brightness of objects and is intended to study visible and hidden objects, phenomena and processes of the surrounding world, as well as to determine their spatial position.
A space image in its geometric properties does not fundamentally differ from an aerial photograph, but has features associated with:
photographing from great heights,
and high speed.
Since the satellite moves much faster than the aircraft, it requires short shutter speeds when shooting.
Space photography differs in:
scale,
visibility,
spectral characteristics .
These parameters determine the possibilities of deciphering various objects on satellite images and solving those geological problems that it is advisable to solve with their help.
space cartography
Images from space are especially widely used in cartography. And this is understandable, because a space photograph captures the surface of the Earth accurately and with sufficient detail, and specialists can easily transfer the image to a map.
Reading (interpretation) of satellite images, as well as aerial photographs, is based on identification (interpretation) features. The main ones are the shape of objects, their size and tone. Rivers, lakes and other bodies of water are depicted in the images in dark tones (black) with a clear selection of coastlines. Forest vegetation is characterized by less dark tones of a fine-grained structure. The details of the mountain relief are well distinguished by sharp contrasting tones, which are obtained in the photograph as a result of the different illumination of the opposite slopes. Settlements and roads can also be identified by their deciphering features, but only under high magnification. This cannot be done on prints.
The use of satellite images for cartographic purposes begins with determining their scale and linking to a map. This work is usually performed on a map of a smaller scale than the scale of the image, since it is necessary to draw the boundaries of not one, but a whole series of images on it.
By comparing the image with the map, you can find out what and how is shown in the image, how it is shown on the map, and what additional information about the area is provided by a photographic image of the earth's surface from space. And even if the map is of the same scale as the photograph, it is still possible to obtain more extensive and, most importantly, fresh information about the area from the photograph compared to the map.
Compilation of maps from satellite images is performed in the same way as for aerial photographs. Depending on the accuracy and purpose of the cards, various methods compiling them using appropriate photogrammetric instruments. It is easiest to make a map to the scale of the image. It is these cards that are usually placed next to the pictures in albums and books. To compile them, it is enough to copy images of local objects onto tracing paper from a photograph, and then transfer them from tracing paper to paper.
Such cartographic drawings are called maps. They display only terrain contours (without relief), have an arbitrary scale and are not tied to a cartographic grid.
In cartography, satellite images are primarily used to create small-scale maps. The advantage of space photography for these purposes is that the scales of the images are similar to the scales of the maps being created, and this eliminates a number of rather laborious compilation processes. In addition, satellite images, as it were, went through the path of primary generalization. This is due to the fact that photography is done on a small scale.
At present, various thematic maps have been created based on satellite images. In a number of cases, the characteristics of certain phenomena can only be determined from satellite images, and it is impossible to obtain them by other methods. Based on the results of space photography, many thematic maps have been updated and detailed, new types of geological landscape and other maps have been created. When compiling thematic maps, images obtained in different zones of the spectrum are especially useful, since they contain rich and versatile information.
Space images have found wide application in the production of intermediate cartographic documents - photo maps. They are composed in the same way as photographic plans, by mosaic gluing individual images on a common basis. Photocards can be of two types: some show only a photographic image, while others are supplemented with individual elements of ordinary cards. Photocards, like individual photographs, serve valuable sources study of the earth's surface. However, they are additional material to regular map and cannot fully replace it.
The face of the Earth is constantly changing, and any map is gradually aging. Satellite images contain the latest and most reliable information about the area and are successfully used to update maps not only on a small scale, but also on a large scale. They allow you to correct maps large territories the globe. Space photography is especially effective in hard-to-reach areas where field work associated with a large expenditure of manpower and resources.
Shooting from space is used not only for mapping the earth's surface. Based on space photographs, maps of the Moon and Mars were compiled. When creating a map of the Moon, data obtained from automatic self-propelled vehicles "Lunokhod-1" and "Lunokhod-2" were also used. How was the shooting with their help? When the self-propelled vehicle was moving, the so-called filming move was laid. Its purpose is to create a frame, relative to which future map will inflict the topographic situation. To construct the course, the lengths of the traveled segments of the path and the angles between them were measured. From each position of the "Lunokhod" television shooting of the area was carried out. Television images and measurement data were transmitted via radio to Earth. Processing was carried out here, as a result of which plans were drawn up for individual sections of the area. These separate plans were tied to the filming process and combined.
The map of Mars, compiled from satellite images, is less detailed than the map of the Moon, but nevertheless it clearly and fairly accurately displays the surface of the planet (Fig. 55). The map was made on thirty sheets on a scale of 1:5,000,000 (50 km in 1 cm). Two near-pole sheets are drawn in azimuth projection, 16 near-equatorial sheets - in cylindrical projection, and the remaining 12 sheets - in conic projection. If all the sheets are glued together, then an almost regular ball will be obtained, that is, the globe of Mars.
The basis for the map of Mars, as well as for the map of the Moon, was the photographs themselves, in which the surface of the planet is depicted under side illumination directed at a certain angle. The result was a photo map on which the relief is depicted in a combined way- horizontal lines and natural shadow coloring. On such a photo map, not only the general character of the relief is well read, but also its details, especially craters, which cannot be displayed by contour lines, since the height of the relief section is 1 km.
The situation with photographing Venus is much more complicated. It cannot be photographed in the usual way, because it is hidden from optical observation by dense clouds. Then the idea came up to make her portrait not in light, but in radio rays. To do this, they developed a sensitive radar that could, as it were, probe the surface of the planet.
To see the landscape of Venus, you need to bring the radar closer to the planet. This was done by the automatic interplanetary stations Venera-15 and Venera-16.
The essence of radar survey is as follows. The radar installed at the station sends the radio signals reflected from Venus to the Earth to the radar information processing center, where a special electronic computer converts the received signals into a radio image.
From November 1983 to July 1984, the Venera-15 and Venera-16 radars photographed the northern hemisphere of the planet from the pole to the thirtieth parallel. Then, with the help of a computer, a photographic image of the surface of Venus was plotted on a cartographic grid and, in addition, a relief profile was plotted along the line of flight of the station.
Currently, the problem of environmental protection is global. That's why everyone greater value acquiring space-based methods of control, allowing to increase the volume of research and speed up the acquisition and processing of data. The main means of monitoring is a system of space surveys based on a network of ground stations. This system includes photography with artificial satellites Earth, manned spacecraft and orbital stations. The obtained photographic images are sent to ground receiving centers, where the information is processed.
What can be seen in satellite images? First of all - almost all forms and types of environmental pollution. Industry - main source nature pollution. The activities of most industries are accompanied by emissions of waste into the atmosphere. The images clearly capture the plumes of such emissions and smoke screens stretching for many kilometers. With a high concentration of pollution, even the earth's surface is not visible through them. There are cases when, near some North American metallurgical enterprises, vegetation died on an area of several square kilometers. Here, not only the impact of harmful emissions is already affecting, but also the pollution of soil and groundwater. These areas appear in the photographs as a faded, dry, lifeless semi-desert among forests and steppes.
Suspended particles carried by the rivers are clearly visible in the photographs. Abundant pollution is especially characteristic of the delta sections of the rivers. Erosion of the banks, mudflows, and hydrotechnical works lead to this. The intensity of mechanical pollution can be determined by the density of the image of the water surface: the lighter the surface, the greater the pollution. Shallow areas are also highlighted in the images as bright spots, but unlike pollution, they are permanent, while the latter change depending on meteorological and hydrological conditions. Satellite imagery made it possible to establish that mechanical pollution of water bodies increases in late spring, early summer, less often in autumn.
Chemical pollution of water areas can be studied with the help of multi-zone images, which fix how oppressed the aquatic and coastal vegetation is. Biological pollution of water bodies can also be established from the pictures. It gives itself out as an overdevelopment of special vegetation, visible in the images in the green region of the spectrum.
Emissions of warm water into rivers by industrial and energy enterprises are clearly distinguished in infrared images. The boundaries of the distribution of warm water make it possible to predict changes in natural environment. So, for example, thermal pollution disrupts the formation of the ice cover, which is clearly visible even in the visible range of the spectrum.
Big damage national economy cause forest fires. From space, they are visible primarily due to the smoke plume, sometimes stretching for several kilometers. Satellite imagery allows you to quickly determine the extent of the spread of a fire. In addition, satellite images help to detect nearby clouds, from which heavy rain is caused with the help of special reagents sprayed in the air.
Of great interest are satellite images of dust storms. For the first time it became possible to observe their origin and development, to follow the movement of dust masses. The front of a dust storm can reach thousands of square kilometers. Most often, dust storms sweep over deserts. The desert is not a lifeless land, but an important element of the biosphere and therefore needs constant monitoring.
Now let's move to the north of our country. People often ask why there is so much talk about the need to protect the nature of Siberia and Far East? After all, the intensity of the impact on it is many times less than in the central regions.
The fact is that the nature of the North is much more vulnerable. Anyone who has been there knows that after an all-terrain vehicle driving through the tundra, the soil cover is not restored and surface erosion develops. The purification of water basins is ten times slower than usual, and even a small newly laid road can cause an irreversible change in the natural environment.
The northern territories of our country stretch for 11 million km 2 . This is taiga, forest-tundra, tundra. Despite difficult living conditions and logistical difficulties, more and more cities are appearing in the North, and the population is increasing. In connection with the intensive development of the territory of the North, there is a particularly acute shortage of initial data for the design of settlements and industrial facilities. That is why the space study of these regions is so relevant today.
At present, two related methods - cartographic and aerospace - closely interact in the study of nature, economy and population. The prerequisites for such an interaction are laid down in the properties of maps, aerial photographs and satellite images as models of the earth's surface.
Conclusion
Space surveys solve various problems associated with remote sensing of the earth, and testify to their wide possibilities. Therefore, space methods and tools already today play a significant role in the study of the Earth and near the Earth space. Technologies are advancing, and in the near future their importance for solving these problems will increase significantly.
Bibliography
Bogomolov L. A., The use of aerial photography and space photography in geographical research, in the book: Cartography, v. 5, M., 1972 (Itogi science and technology).
Vinogradov B. V., Kondratiev K. Ya., Cosmic methods of geography, L., 1971;
Kusov V. S. "The map is created by pioneers", Moscow, "Nedra", 1983, p. 69.
Leontiev N. F "Thematic Cartography" Moscow, 1981, from. "Science", p.102.
Petrov B. N. Orbital stations and the study of the Earth from space, Vestn. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1970, No. 10;
Edelstein, A. V. "How a map is created", M., "Nedra", 1978. c. 456.
Find material for any lesson,
indicating your subject (category), class, textbook and topic:
you can also choose the type of material:
Short description document:
On this topic:"Space photography. Types and properties of satellite images, their application in cartography»
Introduction(p.3)
- Shooting types (p.6)
- Space cartography (p.8)
- Control of the environment from space (p.12)
- Conclusion (p.15)
- References (p.16)
Introduction
Objective: consideration of the essence of space photography.
Space photography is a technological process of photographing the earth's surface from an aircraft in order to obtain photographic images of the terrain (photographs) with specified parameters and characteristics. The main tasks of space surveys include: exploration of the planets of the solar system; study and rational use of the Earth's natural resources; study of anthropogenic changes in the earth's surface; research of the World Ocean; research on air and ocean pollution; environmental monitoring; research of water areas of shelves and coastal parts sushi.
The main difference between photographing from space is: high altitude, flight speed and their periodic change during the movement of the spacecraft in orbit; rotation of the Earth, and, consequently, of the survey objects relative to the plane of the orbit; a rapid change in the illumination of the Earth along the flight path of the spacecraft; photography through the entire layer of the atmosphere; photographic equipment is fully automated. A high shooting height causes the picture to be zoomed out. The choice of the orbit altitude is based on the tasks that are solved during the shooting, and the need to obtain photographic images of a certain scale. In this regard, the demands on the optical system of cameras are increasing in terms of image quality, which must be good throughout the field. The requirements for geometric distortions are especially high.
We are witnessing how a person is gradually mastering near-Earth space and by automata sent from the Earth are successfully studying other planets of the solar system. Artificial Earth satellites created by people and launched into space transmit to Earth photographs of our planet taken from great heights.
So today we can say about space geodesy, or as it is also called satellite geodesy. We are witnessing the birth of a new section of cartography, which it would be fashionable to call space cartography.
Already at the present time, images taken from space are being used to make changes in the content of maps, being the most rapid means for detecting these changes. Further development of space cartography will lead to even more significant results.
Significance, advantage of images of the Earth from space in comparison with conventional aerial photographs are indisputable. First of all, their visibility - images from a height of hundreds and thousands of kilometers make it possible to obtain both images covering aerial photography and images of a territory hundreds and thousands of kilometers long. In addition, they have the properties of spectral and spatial generalization, i.e., sifting out the secondary, random and highlighting the essential, the main. Space photography makes it possible to obtain an image at regular intervals, which in turn makes it possible to study the dynamics of any process.
The possibility of obtaining satellite images has led to the emergence of a number of new thematic maps - maps of such phenomena, the numerous characteristics of which are almost impossible to obtain by other methods. Thus, for the first time in the history of science, global maps of cloud cover and ice conditions were compiled. Space images are indispensable for studying the dynamics of atmospheric processes - tropical cyclones and hurricanes. For these purposes, shooting from zeostationary satellites is especially effective - satellites "fixed" hovering over one point on the Earth's surface, or, more precisely, moving along with the earth at the same angular velocity.
Space images gave geologists fundamentally new information. They made it possible to increase the depth of research and gave rise to a new type of cartographic works - "cosmophotogeological" maps. The most important advantage of satellite images is the possibility of using them to trace new features of the structure of territories that are invisible on ordinary aerial photographs. It is the filtration of small details that leads to the spatial organization of the ruined fragments of large geological formations into a single whole. Linear discontinuities clearly visible on the photographs, called lineaments, are not always possible to detect during direct field surveys. Lineament maps are of great help in deep prospecting for minerals. Previously unknown geological structures were discovered in this way in the middle course of the Vilyui.
Images from Space today are intensively used in glaciology, they will be the main source material. Practically, all space pioneers, especially participants in long-term space flights, successfully solve various problems of thematic mapping. In our country, forests cover more than half of the territory sushi. The information on the many characteristics of this forest fund is vast and must be updated regularly. Giant volumes of operational, comprehensive and at the same time detailed information are unthinkable without the help of astronauts and space photography. Practice has already proved that space mapping of forests is a necessary link in their study and resource management. Regular space mapping of changes occurring in forests is very important for preventing and localizing harmful impacts, and solving problems of nature protection. Only with the help of space technology is it possible to obtain information about the sanitary condition of forests, and with the help of daily surveys from the Meteor satellites, data on the fire situation in the forests.
Space continuous mapping of the state of the environment today is referred to as "monitoring". The range of means and methods of the cartographer is becoming wider: from cosmic heights to underwater depths, but everywhere - at the control panel of a space topographer - planetary rover, at an ordinary theodolite, at the creation of a map, there is a person.
Types of filming.
Space imaging is carried out by different methods (Fig. "Classification of space images by spectral ranges and imaging technology").
According to the nature of the coverage of the earth's surface by satellite images, the following surveys can be distinguished:
single photography,
route,
aiming,
Global shooting.
single (selective) photographing is carried out by astronauts with hand-held cameras. Pictures are usually obtained perspective with significant angles of inclination.
Route shooting the earth's surface is made along the flight path of the satellite. The survey swath width depends on the flight altitude and the viewing angle of the imaging system.
Sighting (selective) shooting is designed to obtain images of specially defined areas of the earth's surface away from the road.
global filming produced from geostationary and polar orbiting satellites. satellites. Four to five geostationary satellites in equatorial orbit provide practically continuous acquisition of small-scale panoramic images of the entire Earth (space patrols) except for the polar caps.
aerospace image - this is a two-dimensional image of real objects, which is obtained according to certain geometric and radiometric (photometric) laws by remote registration of the brightness of objects and is intended to study visible and hidden objects, phenomena and processes of the surrounding world, as well as to determine their spatial position.
A space image in its geometric properties does not fundamentally differ from an aerial photograph, but has features associated with:
Photographing from great heights
And high speed.
Since the satellite moves much faster than the aircraft, it requires short shutter speeds when shooting.
Space photography differs in:
scale,
spatial resolution
visibility,
spectral characteristics.
These parameters determine the possibilities of deciphering various objects on satellite images and solving those geological problems that it is advisable to solve with their help.
space cartography
Images from space are especially widely used in cartography. And this is understandable, because a space photograph captures the surface of the Earth accurately and with sufficient detail, and specialists can easily transfer the image to a map.
Reading (interpretation) of satellite images, as well as aerial photographs, is based on identification (interpretation) features. The main ones are the shape of objects, their size and tone. Rivers, lakes and other bodies of water are depicted in the images in dark tones (black) with a clear selection of coastlines. Forest vegetation is characterized by less dark tones of a fine-grained structure. The details of the mountain relief are well distinguished by sharp contrasting tones, which are obtained in the photograph as a result of the different illumination of the opposite slopes. Settlements and roads can also be identified by their deciphering features, but only under high magnification. This cannot be done on prints.
The use of satellite images for cartographic purposes begins with determining their scale and linking to a map. This work is usually performed on a map of a smaller scale than the scale of the image, since it is necessary to draw the boundaries of not one, but a whole series of images on it.
By comparing the image with the map, you can find out what and how is shown in the image, how it is shown on the map, and what additional information about the area is provided by a photographic image of the earth's surface from space. And even if the map is of the same scale as the photograph, it is still possible to obtain more extensive and, most importantly, fresh information about the area from the photograph compared to the map.
Compilation of maps from satellite images is performed in the same way as for aerial photographs. Depending on the accuracy and purpose of the maps, various methods of compiling them using appropriate photogrammetric instruments are used. It is easiest to make a map to the scale of the image. It is these cards that are usually placed next to the pictures in albums and books. To compile them, it is enough to copy images of local objects onto tracing paper from a photograph, and then transfer them from tracing paper to paper.
Such cartographic drawings are called maps. They display only terrain contours (without relief), have an arbitrary scale and are not tied to a cartographic grid.
In cartography, satellite images are primarily used to create small-scale maps. The advantage of space photography for these purposes is that the scales of the images are similar to the scales of the maps being created, and this eliminates a number of rather laborious compilation processes. In addition, satellite images, as it were, went through the path of primary generalization. This is due to the fact that photography is done on a small scale.
At present, various thematic maps have been created based on satellite images. In a number of cases, the characteristics of certain phenomena can only be determined from satellite images, and it is impossible to obtain them by other methods. Based on the results of space photography, many thematic maps have been updated and detailed, new types of geological landscape and other maps have been created. When compiling thematic maps, images obtained in different zones of the spectrum are especially useful, since they contain rich and versatile information.
Space images have found wide application in the production of intermediate cartographic documents - photo maps. They are composed in the same way as photographic plans, by mosaic gluing individual images on a common basis. Photocards can be of two types: some show only a photographic image, while others are supplemented with individual elements of ordinary cards. Photomaps, like individual photographs, are valuable sources for studying the earth's surface. At the same time, they are additional material to a regular map and cannot fully replace it.
The face of the Earth is constantly changing, and any map is gradually aging. Satellite images contain the latest and most reliable information about the area and are successfully used to update maps not only on a small scale, but also on a large scale. They allow you to correct maps of large areas of the globe. Space photography is especially effective in hard-to-reach areas, where field work is associated with a large expenditure of manpower and resources.
Shooting from space is used not only for mapping the earth's surface. Based on space photographs, maps of the Moon and Mars were compiled. When creating a map of the Moon, data obtained from automatic self-propelled vehicles "Lunokhod-1" and "Lunokhod-2" were also used. How was the shooting with their help? When the self-propelled vehicle was moving, the so-called filming move was laid. Its purpose is to create a frame, relative to which the topographic situation will be applied to the future map. To construct the course, the lengths of the traveled segments of the path and the angles between them were measured. From each position of the "Lunokhod" television shooting of the area was carried out. Television images and measurement data were transmitted via radio to Earth. Processing was carried out here, as a result of which plans were drawn up for individual sections of the area. These separate plans were tied to the filming process and combined.
The map of Mars, compiled from satellite images, is less detailed than the map of the Moon, but nevertheless it clearly and fairly accurately displays the surface of the planet (Fig. 55). The map was made on thirty sheets on a scale of 1:5,000,000 (50 km in 1 cm). Two near-pole sheets are drawn in azimuth projection, 16 near-equatorial sheets - in cylindrical projection, and the remaining 12 sheets - in conic projection. If all the sheets are glued together, then an almost regular ball will be obtained, that is, the globe of Mars.
Rice. 55. Fragment of a photo map of Mars
The basis for the map of Mars, as well as for the map of the Moon, was the photographs themselves, in which the surface of the planet is depicted under side illumination directed at a certain angle. The result was a photo map, on which the relief is depicted in a combined way - by horizontal lines and natural shadow coloring. On such a photo map, not only the general character of the relief is well read, but also its details, especially craters, which cannot be displayed by contour lines, since the height of the relief section is 1 km.
The situation with photographing Venus is much more complicated. It cannot be photographed in the usual way, because it is hidden from optical observation by dense clouds. Then the idea came up to make her portrait not in light, but in radio rays. To do this, they developed a sensitive radar that could, as it were, probe the surface of the planet.
To see the landscape of Venus, you need to bring the radar closer to the planet. This was done by the automatic interplanetary stations Venera-15 and Venera-16.
The essence of radar survey is as follows. The radar installed at the station sends the radio signals reflected from Venus to the Earth to the radar information processing center, where a special electronic computer converts the received signals into a radio image.
From November 1983 to July 1984, the Venera-15 and Venera-16 radars photographed the northern hemisphere of the planet from the pole to the thirtieth parallel. Then, with the help of a computer, a photographic image of the surface of Venus was plotted on a cartographic grid and, in addition, a relief profile was plotted along the line of flight of the station.
Control from space over the environment
Currently, the problem of environmental protection is global. That is why space-based methods of control are becoming increasingly important, making it possible to increase the volume of research and speed up the acquisition and processing of data. The main means of monitoring is a system of space surveys based on a network of ground stations. This system includes photography from artificial Earth satellites, manned spacecraft and orbital stations. The obtained photographic images are sent to ground receiving centers, where the information is processed.
What can be seen in satellite images? First of all - almost all forms and types of environmental pollution. Industry is the main source of environmental pollution. The activities of most industries are accompanied by emissions of waste into the atmosphere. The images clearly capture the plumes of such emissions and smoke screens stretching for many kilometers. With a high concentration of pollution, even the earth's surface is not visible through them. Cases are known when vegetation on an area of several square kilometers died near some North American metallurgical enterprises. Here, not only the impact of harmful emissions is already affecting, but also the pollution of soil and groundwater. These areas appear in the photographs as a faded, dry, lifeless semi-desert among forests and steppes.
Suspended particles carried by the rivers are clearly visible in the photographs. Abundant pollution is especially characteristic of the delta sections of the rivers. Erosion of the banks, mudflows, and hydrotechnical works lead to this. The intensity of mechanical pollution can be determined by the density of the image of the water surface: the lighter the surface, the greater the pollution. Shallow areas are also highlighted in the images as bright spots, but unlike pollution, they are permanent, while the latter change depending on meteorological and hydrological conditions. Satellite imagery made it possible to establish that mechanical pollution of water bodies increases in late spring, early summer, less often in autumn.
Chemical pollution of water areas can be studied with the help of multi-zone images, which fix how oppressed the aquatic and coastal vegetation is. Biological pollution of water bodies can also be established from the pictures. It gives itself out as an overdevelopment of special vegetation, visible in the images in the green region of the spectrum.
Emissions of warm water into rivers by industrial and energy enterprises are clearly distinguished in infrared images. The boundaries of the distribution of warm water make it possible to predict changes in the natural environment. So, for example, thermal pollution disrupts the formation of the ice cover, which is clearly visible even in the visible range of the spectrum.
Forest fires cause great damage to the national economy. From space, they are visible primarily due to the smoke plume, sometimes stretching for several kilometers. Satellite imagery allows you to quickly determine the extent of the spread of a fire. In addition, satellite images help to detect nearby clouds, from which heavy rain is caused with the help of special reagents sprayed in the air.
Of great interest are satellite images of dust storms. For the first time it became possible to observe their origin and development, to follow the movement of dust masses. The front of a dust storm can reach thousands of square kilometers. Most often, dust storms sweep over deserts. The desert is not a lifeless land, but an important element of the biosphere and therefore needs constant monitoring.
Now let's move to the north of our country. People often ask why there is so much talk about the need to protect the nature of Siberia and the Far East? After all, the intensity of the impact on it is many times less than in the central regions.
The fact is that the nature of the North is much more vulnerable. Anyone who has been there knows that after an all-terrain vehicle driving through the tundra, the soil cover is not restored and surface erosion develops. The purification of water basins is ten times slower than usual, and even a small newly laid road can cause an irreversible change in the natural environment.
The northern territories of our country stretch for 11 million km 2. This is taiga, forest-tundra, tundra. Despite difficult living conditions and logistical difficulties, more and more cities are appearing in the North, and the population is increasing. In connection with the intensive development of the territory of the North, there is a particularly acute shortage of initial data for the design of settlements and industrial facilities. That is why the space study of these regions is so relevant today.
At present, two related methods - cartographic and aerospace - closely interact in the study of nature, economy and population. The prerequisites for such an interaction are laid down in the properties of maps, aerial photographs and satellite images as models of the earth's surface.
Conclusion
Space surveys solve various problems associated with remote sensing of the earth, and testify to their wide possibilities. Therefore, space methods and tools already today play a significant role in the study of the Earth and near the Earth space. Technologies are advancing, and in the near future their importance for solving these problems will increase significantly.
Bibliography
- Bogomolov L. A., The use of aerial photography and space photography in geographical research, in the book: Cartography, v. 5, M., 1972 (Itogi science and technology).
- Vinogradov B. V., Kondratiev K. Ya., Cosmic methods of geography, L., 1971;
- Kusov V. S. "The map is created by pioneers", Moscow, "Nedra", 1983, p. 69.
- Leontiev N. F "Thematic Cartography" Moscow, 1981, from. "Science", p.102.
- Petrov B. N. Orbital stations and the study of the Earth from space, Vestn. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1970, No. 10;
- Edelstein, A. V. "How a map is created", M., "Nedra", 1978 . c. 456.
ATTENTION TO TEACHERS: Do you want to organize and lead a mental arithmetic circle at your school? The demand for this technique is constantly growing, and to master it, it will be enough for you to take one refresher course (72 hours) right in your personal account on the
Leave your comment
To ask questions.
space pictures
space pictures- the collective name of the data obtained through spacecraft(KA) in different ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum, which are then visualized according to a certain algorithm.
Basic information
As a rule, the concept of space images in the broad masses is understood as processed data earth remote sensing, presented as visual images, for example, Google Earth.
The initial information of satellite images is the information recorded by a certain type of sensors electromagnetic radiation(AMY). Such radiation can have both a natural nature and a response from artificial ( anthropogenic or other) origin. For example, pictures Earth, so-called optical range, are essentially the usual photograph(methods of obtaining, which, however, can be quite complicated). Such images are characterized by the fact that they register the reflection of natural radiation. sun from the surface of the Earth (as in any photograph on a clear day).
Pictures using artificial light response are similar to photography at night with photo flash when there is no natural illumination and the light reflected from the bright flash of the lamp is used. Unlike amateur photography, spacecraft can use re-emission (reflection) in the ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum that goes beyond the optical range visible eye human and sensitive sensors(cm.: matrix (photo)) household cameras. For example, these are radar images for which the cloudiness of the atmosphere is transparent. Such images give an image of the surface of the Earth or other cosmic bodies "through the clouds".
At the very beginning, to obtain space images, either the classical “photographic” method was used - shooting with a special camera on a light-sensitive film, followed by the return of the capsule with the film from space to Earth, or shooting television camera with transfer TV signal to the ground receiving station.
Back to top 2009 the scanner method prevails, when the transverse sweep (perpendicular to the SC movement route) is provided by a scanning (mechanically oscillating or providing electronic sweep) mechanism that transmits EMP to the SC sensor (receiving device), and the longitudinal sweep (along the SC movement route) is provided by the movement of the SC.
Space images of the Earth and others celestial bodies can be used for the various activities: assessing the degree of crop ripening, assessing surface contamination with a certain substance, determining the boundaries of the distribution of an object or phenomenon, determining the presence of minerals in a given territory, for military intelligence purposes, and much more.
see also
Links
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .
- space rocket trains
- Space Rangers 2: Dominators
See what "Space pictures" are in other dictionaries:
space photograph- Space images from the Landsat satellite with a resolution of 15 m per pixel form the basis of the Google database. These images are gradually being replaced in Google's meringue by high-precision satellite images with a resolution of 60 cm per pixel. In the picture, the Shaksgama valley, ... ... Tourist Encyclopedia
Web mapping- The information in this article or some of its sections is out of date. You can help the project by updating it and then removing this template ... Wikipedia
BKA (satellite)- BKA ... Wikipedia
Earth remote sensing- Is it desirable to improve this article?: Find and arrange in the form of footnotes links to authoritative sources confirming what has been written. Correct the article according to the stylistic rules of Wikipedia ... Wikipedia
INTERPRETATION OF SPACE IMAGES- Reading, transcribing, interpreting content. photographic and television shots made in decomp. intervals of the visible zone of the spectrum and infrared (IR) images in the range of 1.8-14 mkm. Shooting from space is made from manned space ... ... Geological Encyclopedia
Ukrainian crisis: a chronicle of the confrontation in the southeast in July 2014- Massive anti-government actions began in the southeastern regions of Ukraine at the end of February 2014. They were the answer local residents on the violent change of power in the country and the ensuing attempt to abolish the law by the Verkhovna Rada, ... ... Encyclopedia of Newsmakers
Chad (lake)- This term has other meanings, see Chad (meanings). Chad fr. Lac Tchad Lake Chad Coordinates: Coordinates ... Wikipedia
Lake Chad- Chad Cameroonian village on the shores of Lake Chad Coordinates: Coordinates ... Wikipedia
stereophotogrammetry- a section of photogrammetry (See Photogrammetry), studying geometric properties stereopairs of photographs and methods for determining the size, shape, spatial position of objects from a stereopair of its photographic images. Distinguish between air and ground C ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
MAP- a reduced generalized image of the Earth's surface (or part of it) on a plane. Man has been creating maps since ancient times, trying to visualize the relative position of various parts of land and seas. A collection of cards, usually bound... ... Collier Encyclopedia
Books
- Universe. Illustrated Atlas, Garlick Mark. In this book, you will see a breathtaking picture of the universe: you will see star clusters and galaxies, planets and asteroids, comets and meteors, learn about latest discoveries astronomers...
Today, amazing images of the Earth from space are available to us.
How do we know what we see on them?
Global Forest Watch and other sources necessary for your research (see guide 7 "Where to get data") use images of the Earth from space. Therefore, this guide for project participants will tell you how satellite images are obtained.
What is space photography?
As soon as man learned to fly and saw the Earth from above, there was remote sensing Earth (ERS) - the study of the planet without direct contact with its surface, that is, at some distance, from a height. Space photography is the shooting of celestial bodies and cosmic phenomena with instruments located outside the earth's atmosphere.
Satellite types
Satellites use different kinds sensors for registration of electromagnetic radiation reflected from the Earth. Passive sensors do not require energy, as they register the radiation emitted by the Sun and reflected from the Earth's surface. Active sensors require significant amount energy to emit electromagnetic radiation, but they are indispensable, since they can be used at any time of the year and time of day (passive sensors cannot be used on the dark side of the Earth), and they can also be a source of radiation not emitted by the Sun (for example, radio waves).
One of the main characteristics of a satellite image is its spatial resolution. It is expressed as the size of the smallest objects visible in the image. The image consists of individual colored dots - pixels. The fewer meters on the ground fit into one pixel, the higher the resolution and the more detailed image in the image can be obtained.
Depending on the resolution, there are three types of satellites.
satellites high resolution are used for detailed exploration of territories, detection of ships in the ocean, construction planning; they are necessary in the preparation and refinement of plans for settlements, the forecast of man-made accidents and natural disasters.
On space pictures high resolution It is possible to distinguish objects several tens of centimeters in size. In the forest, high-resolution images make it possible not only to see the crowns of individual trees, but often also to determine their species. In many cases, only high-resolution images can detect illegal logging, if only single trees of valuable species are cut down.
satellites medium resolution are used for refinement and updating topographic maps, forest research and control of industrial cuttings, forecast of unfavorable and dangerous natural phenomena(floods, forest fires, oil spills), solving many agricultural problems (charting fields, predicting crop yields).
satellites low resolution(several kilometers per pixel) when shooting covers large areas the surface of the earth. Such satellite images are used in the study of the atmosphere and the cloud layer, compiling meteorological maps, determining the temperature of the land and ocean surfaces, and monitoring ice cover and forest fires.
Satellites and the electromagnetic spectrum
While people can only perceive a small part electromagnetic spectrum (visible light), satellite sensors also use other types of electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared light, ultraviolet radiation, radio waves, and even microwaves. Rocks, soils, water, vegetation reflect and absorb electromagnetic waves in different ways. Shooting of the earth's surface in the visible spectrum is carried out in the daytime and in clear weather. Shooting in the spectrum of radio waves is carried out by a special radar equipment at any time of the day, regardless of lighting conditions and cloudiness, therefore, it has found wide application in the study of the polar regions of the planet (observations of the ice conditions of the Arctic seas, search for polynyas, study of ice thickness).
Specular reflection
Specular reflection
Diffuse reflection
Diffuse reflection
Analysis of satellite images
Satellite images provide useful information, because various surfaces and objects can be identified in different ways, depending on how they react to the radiation. For example, smooth surfaces such as roads reflect nearly all of the energy that hits them in one direction. It is called mirror reflection. At the same time, rough surfaces such as trees reflect energy in all directions. This is called diffuse reflection. Use different types Reflections are useful in measuring the density and amount of forests, as well as capturing changes in forest cover.
In addition, objects reflect electromagnetic radiation with different wavelengths in different ways. For example, infrared light provides a lot of information about the nature and condition of the vegetation cover. In the infrared spectrum, different tree species(including coniferous and deciduous forests), healthy and damaged vegetation.
In modern satellites, the image is divided into several spectral channels, each of which is transmitted and recorded separately. Each spectral channel contains certain information, for example, the far infrared channel - data on the temperature of the Earth's surface. Applying various combinations of channels, and passing them on the final image different colors visible part of the spectrum, you can get different color variations of the same image. Although the colors in such images seem "unnatural", they can tell a lot about the earth's surface to an experienced decoder. Such conditional colors are often used to emphasize differences in vegetation, in rocks, humidity, etc.
