The only key in analyzing the problems and structure of ethical relationships is the actions of people.
When a person, carrying out activities, enters into ethical relationship and his activity is directed - the ego is one situation associated with a person or a group. A person's relationship with himself or the ethical disposition of a judge are more complex situations. These relationships are the main types of ethical relationships.
The fact of finding a specific person or a situation in a relationship does not change the basic structure of actions, but generates a difference in the structure of the forming factors.
Activity is not just doing, it is actually a collection of actions. There are two more types of activity that shape a person's activity and come down to doing itself - assessment and the associated life path. Each activity is a combination of these three basic elements. In addition, there are factors that determine these confused three elements of activity, dismantle big difference and shape the characteristics of activities in terms of values.
Thus, activities are confusing or simple actions and evaluations; it also includes inaction. The outer side of these actions is "behavior", and inaction - "position". When it comes to human actions, behavior is inseparable from activity. Such distinctions made by us are necessary for the formation of conclusions related to man, for the demarcation from simple psychophysical types of behavior, and also due to the fact that modern psychology is very interested in the issues of "animal behavior".
If we look at how a person in different relationships acts in a specific situation in relation to people or an individual who are also in different relationships, i.e. if we single out human activity in interpersonal relations, then at the very basis of this activity we will see the assessment that is given by acting person, - an assessment of the position, activity of the second person in relation to him or to others, or an assessment of the positions of people in relation to whom the action is planned.
Thus, this first element of activity determines at the same time the type of ethical relationship. If ethical relations are relations between a person and a person, then the evaluated person is a person in connection with an action. If a relationship is a relationship between a person and a human situation, then the assessment is given to the situation. In a relationship with oneself, a person evaluates both the activity and the situation.
The process of evaluating ethical relationships is included in a specific life path associated with evaluating a person - an unvarnished, confused, conflicted life path. The ethical relations we are considering at this stage do not stop and are not interrupted by one act, there is a stage of activity that has an intricate structure. Within the framework of ethical relations, a simplified, but not abstracted form of events is, for example: the escape from the dungeon of Polynices with the help of Antigone; Beckett's transmission of Gwendolyn to the king; the murder by Raskolnikov of an old woman-pawnbroker; the beginning of Dr. Rie's war with the plague.
The difference between the two main types of ethical relationships that I am talking about is that in one case, the peculiarities in the relationship between two people are formed by the totality of two people. And in a person's relationship with a situation, the attitude is formed only by one person, his knowledge and values. The peculiarities of the relationship between Henry and Becket formed two aggregates - Henry and Becket. In the relationship between Dr. Rie and the inhabitants of Oran, only the Rie complex plays a role, it does not matter who stands in front of him, only the situation with the inhabitants of Oran and its assessment by a person are important - Rie's calculations.
It is necessary to increase attention to the elements of activity, not at all forgetting about the inadequacy of schematization in the face of life, not forgetting that in life a person, within the framework of his activity, is also in a number of other relations, connected or not connected with it, affecting directly or indirectly on activity or its elements and having the potential of multiple collisions. Not forgetting that in life behind some actions there are many other actions, they are forced to follow them, generate a vicious circle that arises and disappears, is layered in rings, ethical relations appear; they are experienced, mastered, or performed once. This is how life is formed, which leaves or does not leave a trace. A person among the events that he generates, forming his attitude towards them, evaluating, observing or not noticing, becomes exactly the person he is.
2.3.1. Professional ethics as a kind of applied ethics Professional ethics is a term used to refer to:- Systems of professional moral standards (eg "professional ethics of a lawyer")
- Ethical Research Areas Regarding Foundations professional activity
Profession - a certain kind labor activity, requiring the necessary knowledge and skills acquired as a result of training and long-term work practice. Professionalism is seen as a moral personality trait .
Professional ethics is understood as a set of norms, principles, ideals, as well as forms of practical behavior and mechanisms that facilitate their transmission (rituals, customs, ceremonies, traditions, etc.).
Professional ethics regulates the moral relations of people in the labor sphere, ensures the moral prestige of professional groups in society.
In tasks professional ethics includes the identification of moral norms and assessments, judgments and concepts that characterize people in the role of representatives of a particular profession. Professional ethics develops norms, standards, requirements specific to certain types of activities.
The term "ethics" is used here in the sense of "morality", most likely, such word use is associated with the specifics of the formation of professional morality and the fact that from the early stages of its formation, many norms were fixed in writing, introduced into law, supported by various professional prescriptions. The norms within professional moral codes have become divided into two distinct groups: - norms and principles that determine communication and relations within the profession; - norms that determine the relations of representatives of the profession with the rest of the population. Moral norms, and subsequently the codes of such social institutions as the army, church, medicine, etc. . These norms were united by common moral requirements of people whose activities could no longer be defined only as a profession. The ongoing differentiation of the norms of professional morality has led to the fact that there are practically no professions left that do not have special moral requirements within the framework of their activities. The process is based, first of all, on the deepening cooperation of labor in all spheres of human activity. Thus, everyone is increasingly dependent on the results of everyone's labor. The content of professional ethics is codes of conduct that prescribe a certain type of moral relationship between people and ways to justify these codes.
Professional ethics studies:
Relations between labor collectives and each specialist separately;
Moral qualities, personality of a specialist, which ensure the best performance of professional duty;
Relationships within professional teams, and those specific moral norms inherent in this profession;
- features of professional education.
Professional ethics are not the result of inequality in the degree of morality of various professional groups. It's just that the society shows increased moral requirements for some types of professional activity.
Basically, these are professional spheres in which the labor process itself requires the coordination of the actions of all its participants. Particular attention is paid to the moral qualities of workers in the sphere that are associated with the right to dispose of people's lives, here we are talking not only about the level of morality, but, first of all, about the proper performance of their professional duties.
These are professions from the spheres of services, transport, management, health care, education. The labor activity of people of these professions, more than any other, does not lend itself to preliminary regulation, does not fit within the framework of official instructions. She is inherently creative.
The peculiarities of the work of these professional groups complicate moral relations and a new element is added to them: interaction with people - the objects of activity. This is where moral responsibility takes on decisive importance. Society considers the moral qualities of an employee as one of the leading elements of his professional suitability.
General moral norms should be specified in a person's labor activity, taking into account the specifics of his profession.
Certain types of professional ethics correspond to each type of human activity Scientific, pedagogical, artistic, etc.
Types of professional ethics
Professional types ethics are those specific features of professional activity that are directed directly at a person in certain conditions of his life and activity in society and relate only to those types of professional activity in which there is a different kind of dependence of people on the actions of a professional, that is, the consequences or processes of these actions have a special impact on the lives and destinies of other people or humanity.
In this regard, traditional types of professional ethics are distinguished, such as pedagogical, medical, legal, ethics of a scientist, and relatively new ones, the appearance or actualization of which is associated with an increase in the role of the "human factor" in this type of activity (engineering ethics) or the strengthening of its influence in society (journalistic ethics, bioethics).
a) professional solidarity (sometimes degenerating into corporatism);
b) a special understanding of duty and honor;
c) a special form of responsibility due to the subject and type of activity.
Private principles follow from specific conditions, the content and specifics of a particular profession and are expressed mainly in moral codes- requirements in relation to specialists.
Professionalism and attitude to work are important qualitative characteristics of the moral character of an individual. They are of paramount importance in the personal assessment of the individual.
Special attention the moral qualities of workers in those professions that are associated with the right to dispose of people's lives, significant material assets, some professions from the services, transport, management, health care, education, and so on. Here we are talking not about the actual level of morality, but about the obligation, which, remaining unfulfilled, can in some way interfere with the performance of professional functions.
Medical ethics set forth in the "Code of Ethics of the Russian Physician" adopted in 1994 by the Association of Russian Physicians. Earlier, in 1971, the oath of the doctor of the Soviet Union was created. The idea of a high moral character and a model of ethical behavior of a doctor is associated with the name of Hippocrates. Traditional medical ethics addresses the issue of personal contact and personal qualities of the doctor-patient relationship, as well as the doctor's guarantees not to harm a particular individual.
Biomedical ethics(bioethics) is a concrete form of modern professional ethics of a doctor; it is a system of knowledge about the permissible limits of manipulating a person's life and death. Manipulation must be morally regulated. Bioethics is a form of protection for human biological life. The main problem of bioethics: suicide, euthanasia, the definition of death, transplantology, experimentation on animals and humans, the attitude of the doctor and the patient, attitude towards mentally disabled people, the organization of hospices, childbirth (genetic engineering, artificial insemination, "surrogacy" motherhood, abortion, contraception) ... The aim of bioethics is to develop appropriate regulations for modern biomedical activities. In 1998, with the blessing of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II, the Council on Biomedical Ethics was established under the Moscow Patriarchate. It includes famous theologians, clergymen, doctors, scientists, lawyers.
Professional morality in journalism began to take shape along with journalistic activities. However, the process of its formation stretched for centuries and reached certainty only with the transformation of the journalistic profession into a mass one. It ended only at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when the first codes were created and the professional and moral consciousness of the journalistic community acquired a documented form of existence. A journalist, mastering the postulates of professional morality in the course of his professional development, enters into professional and moral relations with colleagues, which, unlike moral ones as such, suggest the possibility of an institutionally organized and direct intervention of the corporation in his behavior. However, this interference differs significantly from administrative action, since its purpose is not coercion, but inducement.
The professional ethics of a journalist, like other types of professional ethics, began to form directly in work. She showed herself in the course of codification of those professional and moral ideas that spontaneously developed within the framework of the mode of journalistic activity and were somehow fixed by the professional consciousness of the journalistic community. The appearance of the first codes meant the completion of a long process of formation of professional journalistic morality and at the same time opened a new stage in its development. This new stage was based on the purposeful self-knowledge of journalistic activity and the practical application of its results.
A special manifestation of professional ethics is economic ethics("Business ethics", "business ethics"). Economic ethics is an ancient science. Its beginning was laid by Aristotle in the works "Ethics", "Nicomachean Ethics", "Politics". Aristotle does not separate economics from economic ethics. He advises his son Nicomachus to engage only in the production of goods. Its principles were developed in the ideas and concepts of Catholic and Protestant theologians, who for a long time intensely reflected on the problems of business ethics. One of the earliest ethical and economic concepts was the concept of Henry Ford, one of the founders of the US auto industry. He believed that happiness and prosperity are obtained only by honest work and that this is ethical common sense, the essence of Ford's economic ethics lies in the idea that a product produced is not just a realized product " business theory", And" something more "is a theory, the purpose of which is to create a source of joy out of the world of things. Power and machine, money and property are useful only insofar as they contribute to the freedom of life. These economic attitudes of G. Ford are of practical importance at the present time.
Economic ethics is a set of norms of behavior of an entrepreneur, the requirements imposed by a cultured society on its style of work, the nature of communication between business participants, and their social appearance. Economic ethics includes Business Etiquette, which is formed under the influence of traditions and certain prevailing historical conditions of a particular country. The main tenets of the ethical code of an entrepreneur are as follows: he is convinced of the usefulness of his work not only for himself, but also for others, for society as a whole; proceeds from the fact that the people around him want and know how to work; believes in business, regards it as attractive creativity; recognizes the need for competition, but also understands the need for cooperation; respects any property, social movements, respects professionalism and competence, laws; values education, science and technology. These basic principles of ethics business person can be specified in relation to different areas his professional activities. For Russia, the problems of economic ethics are acquiring great importance. This is due to the rapid formation of market relations in our country.
V legal activity the main problem is the balance of legality and fairness. The conservatism of legislation, the complexity of the relations regulated by it can create situations in which some versions of the verdict, formally corresponding to the letter of the law, will contradict it in spirit and will be unfair. For the legal profession, justice is the main postulate, the goal of activity.
The strict subordination of a lawyer to the law contributes to his independence. Both judges and prosecutors, within the limits of their competence, exercise their powers independently of the authorities. state power and management, public and political organizations, movements. A judge, prosecutor, investigator does not have the right to yield to local influences, to be guided by the advice, instructions or requests of individuals or institutions. The principle of independence and subordination only to the law dictates important moral requirements. A lawyer (judge, prosecutor, attorney, etc.) is a specialist driven solely by a sense of duty, should not allow compromises, transactions with conscience, succumb to any influence, he should only serve the law and justice.
The work of a lawyer is directly related to the protection of human dignity. Therefore, moral norms based on the recognition of the value of a person as a person are integral components of the professional ethics of a lawyer. It is important to resist deformation, spiritual callousness, turning into a kind of cog in legal proceedings. This approach requires high personal qualities from a legal worker, but it is he who fills justice and legal activity with a humanistic content.
The specificity of the work of a lawyer is associated with special moral situations that are not encountered among representatives of other professions. For example, in the operational work of the criminal police, secrecy (secrecy), disinformation (lies) or pretense (moral disguise) in relation to criminals are allowed. As for the legal process, a lawyer who has learned from the defendant that it was he who committed the crime, despite the fact that the defendant at the trial falsely insists on his innocence, has no right to act as a witness against him. These examples are a typical collision between the general and the particular in morality. Therefore, it should be noted once again that such a moral specificity of the profession does not contradict the general principles of morality, but is their addition and specification in relation to the conditions of legal activity. It is important to emphasize this also because legal workers, who are constantly faced with negative manifestations of human nature, must have a moral justification for what they have done. professional choice, a kind of moral "immunity".
The actual violations of moral norms in the legal environment, as a rule, cause a huge public outcry. And this is natural - the increased moral requirements for employees of the legal profession during their official and off-duty hours (for example, the 1993 Code of Honor of Judges of the Russian Federation) are explained by the special trust in them on the part of society, the responsible nature of their functions. People who decide the fate of others, demanding from them observance of the law, should have not only an official, but also a moral right to do so.
Entrepreneur ethics in modern scientific literature coincides with the concepts of "business ethics", "economic ethics", "business ethics", "market ethics", etc. First of all, this is a set of norms of behavior of an entrepreneur in negotiations, when communicating, drawing up documentation, etc. etc., reflecting the specifics of its activities, and also often due to the historical conditions of a particular country.
For the development of an entrepreneur's ethics, certain conditions are needed: political and economic freedom, stability of legislation, the presence of traditions, etc.
Business ethics is formed within the framework of the "economic cell" - the work collective. Service relations should be based on partnership, proceed from mutual requests and needs, from the interests of the business. Such cooperation, undoubtedly, increases labor and creative activity, is important factor technological process production, business.
When interacting with other "cells", these rules are preserved. Respect for a business partner does not allow manipulating him in his own interests, suppressing him. Honesty increases the degree of trust and understanding between partners. Conscientious attitude to their duties contributes to the implementation of plans. This lays the foundations for long-term mutually beneficial cooperation.
Currently, a certain order of conduct in the field of business and in business contacts has been developed, the so-called business etiquette. It helps to avoid misses or smooth them out in accessible, generally accepted ways. Therefore, the main function or meaning of a business person's etiquette can be defined as the formation of such rules of conduct in the business community that contribute to mutual understanding between people in the process of communication.
Etiquette is one of the main "tools" for creating an image. In modern business, the person of the company plays a significant role. Those firms in which etiquette is not observed lose a lot. Where it is, productivity is higher, better results... It is more convenient to work with such a company, that is, etiquette creates a comfortable psychological climate conducive to business contacts.
For Russia, the problems of economic ethics have special meaning... They are greatly influenced by the complex nature of the formation of market relations, ambiguous historical traditions and a wide range of manifestations of mass consciousness. Entrepreneurs in Russia should remember that personal enrichment is not a criterion for a person's moral attitude to work, and profit is not the goal of personal development.
Social work ethics is a manifestation of general moral norms in social services. In the professional activity of such specialists, which consists in helping individuals, families, social groups or communities, moral and ethical standards play a special role. They are reflected in the professional and ethical code of the social worker in Russia.
The basic principles of professional ethics of a social worker include: responsibility to the client, responsibility to the profession and colleagues, responsibility to society.
Requirements for the personal and moral qualities of a social worker are also dictated by the specifics of his work. He must have developed a sense of duty, kindness and justice, self-dignity and respect for the dignity of another person; tolerance, politeness, decency, emotional stability; personal adequacy to self-esteem, the level of aspirations and social adaptation. It is also important to have certain teaching skills. Social work professionals' adherence to ethical standards prevents negative consequences of social services.
You can also talk about social worker etiquette. It includes: a) communication skills, international norms of behavior of social workers; b) the established procedure for the behavior of employees social services when meeting and introducing, dealing with colleagues and clients; c) the art of conducting a conversation, telephone conversations, negotiations, business correspondence, etiquette of protocol events at national and international conferences, symposia; d) norms of behavior on the street, in the community, in the client's family, at the client's work, in public transport, v public associations, churches, etc.
Management ethics- a science that considers the actions and behavior of a person acting in the field of management, and the functioning of the organization as a "collective 18 manager" in relation to its internal and external environment in the aspect in which the actions of the manager and the organization are correlated with universal ethical requirements.
Currently, the basic principles and rules of business conduct are formulated in codes of ethics. These can be the standards by which individual firms live (corporate codes), or the rules governing relations within an entire industry (professional codes). 2.3.3. Basic principles of professional ethics Professional ethics governs the relationship between people in business communication. Professional ethics are based on certain norms, requirements and principles.
Principles are abstracted, generalized representations that enable those who rely on them to correctly form their behavior, their actions in business sphere... The principles provide a specific employee in any organization with a conceptual ethical platform for decisions, actions, actions, interactions, etc. The order of the considered ethical principles is not determined by their significance.
The essence first principle proceeds from the so-called gold standard: "Within the framework of the official position, never allow in relation to your subordinates, to management, to colleagues, to clients, etc., such actions that you would not want to see in relation to yourself."
Second principle: justice is needed when empowering workers with the resources necessary for their performance (monetary, raw materials, material, etc.).
The third principle requires mandatory correction of an ethical violation, regardless of when and by whom it was committed.
Fourth principle- the principle of maximum progress: service behavior and actions of an employee are recognized as ethical if they contribute to the development of the organization (or its divisions) from a moral point of view.
Fifth principle- the principle of minimum progress, according to which the actions of an employee or an organization as a whole are ethical, if they at least do not violate ethical standards.
Sixth principle: ethical is the tolerant attitude of employees of the organization to moral principles, traditions, etc., taking place in other organizations, regions, countries.
Eighth principle: individual and collective origin are equally recognized as the basis for developing and making decisions in business relations.
Ninth principle: you should not be afraid to have your own opinion when solving any business issues. However, nonconformism as a personality trait should manifest itself within reasonable limits.
Tenth principle - no violence, that is, "pressure" on subordinates, expressed in various forms, for example, in an orderly, commanding manner of conducting an official conversation.
Eleventh principle - persistence of impact, expressed in the fact that ethical standards can be introduced into the life of an organization not by a one-time order, but only with the help of incessant efforts on the part of both the manager and ordinary employees.
Twelfth principle - when influencing (on a team, an individual employee, on a consumer, etc.), take into account the force of possible opposition. The fact is that, recognizing the value and necessity of ethical norms in theory, many workers, encountering them in their practical daily work, for one reason or another begin to oppose them.
Thirteenth principle consists in the expediency of advancing with trust - the employee's sense of responsibility, to his competence, to a sense of duty.
The fourteenth principle strongly recommends striving for conflict-freeness. Although business conflict has not only dysfunctional but functional consequences, it is nevertheless a fertile ground for ethical violations.
Fifteenth principle- freedom that does not restrict the freedom of others; usually this principle, albeit implicitly, is conditioned by job descriptions.
Sixteenth principle: the employee must not only act ethically himself, but also contribute to the same behavior of his colleagues.
Seventeenth principle: don't criticize your competitor. I mean not only a competing organization, but also an "internal competitor" - the team of another department, a colleague in which you can "see" a competitor. These principles should serve as the basis for each employee of any firm to develop their own personal ethical system. The content of the codes of ethics of firms originates from the principles of ethics.
The requirements of professional ethics are becoming more and more complex. Society cannot rely only on traditional mechanisms for their assimilation. Therefore, the practice of professional ethical education includes: - the creation of ethical associations; - the practice of various instructions, leaflets, which draws attention to possible deviations from ethical standards, is widely spread. 2.3.4. Service ethics Service ethics is the broadest concept in the field of professional ethics. Service ethics is understood as a set of the most general norms, rules and principles of human behavior in the field of his professional, production and service activities. . These norms must be observed by every person who starts working. The number of these norms is small. The overwhelming majority of them are formulated in the extremely general view, in order to be detailed in relation to specific types of activities. Service ethics requirements: 1. Discipline; 2. Saving material resources provided to the employee for the implementation of production activities; 3. Correctness of interpersonal relationships. A person in the field of his work should behave in such a way that as little as possible interpersonal conflicts, and so that other people feel comfortable working next to him in direct and indirect interpersonal contact. All these requirements are divided into two subgroups: The first group: includes requirements in interpersonal contacts vertically (subordinate - manager). Here the main requirement for a subordinate is the recognition of the very right of the leader to give orders, which includes functional responsibilities taken over by a person labor contract... The subordinate must, based on these responsibilities, appropriately structure his behavior, and not use various forms evasion from the execution of orders. Evasion can be vowel, public, showing certain conditions to the head. It can be hidden, take on the character of a secret (with the help of facial expressions, gestures, individual words) provoking the head to open actions against a subordinate. In these situations, the subordinate to the environment can often appear as a suffering party, and the manager's response to him is inadequate. One of the reasons for such behavior of subordinates may be the desire to amass a certain social capital, to look persecuted, to acquire the status of an informal leader, to achieve any benefits for themselves, etc. 2.3.5. Management ethics Management ethics is the second largest concept after service ethics. It is a set of norms, rules, principles, ideals that determine the behavior of people in the sphere of exercising power and administrative powers, i.e. in the field of management. All the norms of management ethics can be divided into two groups: the norms associated with the decision-making process and the norms that regulate the process of communication with subordinates and other managers (horizontally and vertically). The norms governing the decision-making process can be conditionally divided into three subgroups: A. The rules governing the process of proposing a problem and preparing a solution. All managerial decisions must be permeated with responsibility. The peculiarity of moral consequences is that they can change the meaning from a positive initial result to a negative one later and vice versa. In a broad sense, a leader needs such qualities as professionalism, competence, confidence in his competence, will, organizational skills and a general set of qualities of a leader: self-confidence, the ability to captivate people, the ability to "ignite" interest in the business, etc. But any of these qualities, presented in excess, can turn into its opposite. So the will to achieve the goal turns into the imposition of your desires, confidence in your competence - in the belief in your infallibility. Belief in infallibility, combined with excess will, gives rise to a specific type of leader who feels himself always right and strives under any conditions and, regardless of possible consequences, insist on your own at all costs. At the first stage of preparing management decisions, a contradiction often arises between the knowledge of the need specific changes and ignorance of specific ways, methods and means of these changes, ignorance of the mechanism of functioning of the object that needs to be controlled. A clear awareness of the fact that any emerging management problem has at least two, and more often many possible solutions... Decisions differ: · Duration of achieving the desired result; · Material costs; · The number of attracted funds and structures; · The peculiarity of satisfying the palette of interests of various people, social groups, organizations, political forces interested in this decision. B. Norms governing the process of discussion and decision-making. At the stage of discussion and decision-making, the leader should strive for the discussion to be attended, if possible, by representatives of all groups, strata of the population, all those whose interests may be affected by the decision being made. It is necessary that the most complete examination data and statistical data on possible options solutions. If in the course of discussion it becomes obvious that the leader's preferred solution is less satisfying to the interests of various groups than any other, the leader who leads the discussion should have the courage to abandon his opinion in favor of the majority, and not insist on the wrong solution that he chose. it is he. C. Execution and control over the execution of the decision. There is a point of view that the execution of the decision is a purely administrative process, which includes the execution of the decision, the identification of the executors, bringing the assigned tasks to their attention, drawing up a plan for the implementation of the decision, etc. In fact, the main thing in the execution of the decision is that at the moment of its execution, the decision made in relation to any organization (system) can introduce this system into a state of instability. The main responsibility of the manager in the process of monitoring the execution of the decision is to monitor the state of the system to detect signs of instability. If such signs appear, it is necessary either to terminate the process of implementing the decision, or to take any corrective actions.
2.3.6. Stages of formation and development of professional morality
The specificity of the formation of professional morality is characterized by the fact that from the early stages of its formation, many norms were fixed in writing, introduced into law, and supported thanks to various professional prescriptions.
The formation of the norms of professional ethics dates back to the period of the early slave-owning society, when the first relatively mass professions began to take shape.
In early written sources there is evidence that more than 4000 years ago people realized the need for certain moral prohibitions in a number of professions, and that the professions themselves, or rather belonging to them, can form a number of both positive and negative moral qualities in people. ...
However passed long time while in a slave society Ancient Greece the first prototypes of future professional moral codes began to take shape.
First step. Perhaps the first oath of loyalty to the profession appeared among people called to serve people. The oath-promise, which was given in Ancient Greece by doctors who graduated from the so-called school of asclepiades, said: “The way of life of the sick, I will, according to my strength and understanding, arrange for their benefit, and I will protect them from any harm and vice. Whatever happens to see and hear during my medical activity, I will remain silent, and consider a secret that is not subject to publicity. "
The provisions developed by the school of Asclepiades echoed the ideas of the famous Hippocratic Oath, which has not lost its significance to this day.
Professional morality initially develops in the environment of professions, whose representatives directly in the performance of their professional duty contacted people: doctors, teachers, educators, politicians, scribes, priests, ministers at temples, etc. In these contacts, they could influence the physical and moral condition of people, harm them, and destabilize the social situation.
The number of norms in the first professional codes was small. They touched upon the most general aspects of professional activity, many of them were descriptive and did not reach the degree of general abstraction, as was the case in later periods of the formation of professional moral norms.
Second phase in the development of professional morality begins in the late Middle Ages, for this there were several reasons.
First of all, the strengthening of statehood and the formation of the norms of absolutist power, which predetermined the formation and strengthening of such social institutions as the army, church, and public service. Secondly, the rapid growth of cities in medieval Europe, which gave rise to the isolation of professions serving the population and made people dependent on each other's labor.
New stage in the development of professional morality was marked by the formation of several trends:
The range of professions for which moral requirements were formed has significantly expanded, mainly due to professions that did not contact the population directly, but through the result of their labor. Vivid evidence of this process is the codes of craft guilds (statutes), which included requirements for the fulfillment of certain moral obligations.
Secondly, the norms within professional moral codes began to be divided into two distinct groups: norms and principles that determine communication and relations within the profession and norms that determine the relations of representatives of the profession with the rest of the population. This division was caused by the fact that by this time people appreciated how much the assessment and recognition of their work depends on the characteristics of work, behavior and attitude to the profession of their colleagues in the craft.
This is due to the fact that cities and trade were rapidly developing in Western Europe at that time, therefore, when buying a product, people thought least of all about the person who made this product.
First of all, the new moral norms were aimed at ensuring the proper quality of labor and manufactured products by all members of the professional brotherhood, then a number of norms determined the specifics of communication between people of the same profession, in order to create a favorable professional community.
What ethics? People put different meanings into this concept, believing that it is:
· Teaching about morality;
· The system of rules that control and correct the behavior of people;
· The way of assessing human actions, their approval or condemnation;
· "Social regulator" of behavior and relationships between people;
Indeed, ethics is interested in issues of human behavior and relationships between people. Even Aristotle argued that the main task of ethics is The study of human relations in their most perfect form. Since its inception in antiquity, it began to act as “philosophy practical life”, Which analyzes the behavior of a“ public person ”,“ a communicating person ”. Ethics -Philosophical teaching, Subject which is Morality (morality), a The central issue - Good and evil. Ethics studies the genesis, essence, specificity of morality; reveals its place and role in the life of society, reveals the mechanisms of moral regulation of human life, the criteria for moral progress. She examines the structure of the moral consciousness of society and the individual, analyzes the content and meaning of such categories as good and evil, freedom and responsibility, duty and conscience, honor and dignity, happiness and the meaning of life. Thus, ethics becomes the basis for the creation of an optimal model of humane and fair relations that ensure a high quality of communication between people and a guideline for each person to develop their own strategy and tactics of “right life”.
Ethics focused on A person, his life, freedom and interests – this is Humanistic ethics. NS Tika and morality, focused on something else, external to man (for example, the idea of communism, or world domination, or the fulfillment of the will of the leader), is Authoritarian character.
The principled position of humanistic ethics Thing is she considers a person in his bodily-spiritual integrity, believing that “ Target human - To be youreself, a Condition achieving such a goal - Be human for yourself” (E. Fromm). Higher values humanistic ethics - “not self-denial and selfishness - but love for oneself, not a denial of the individual, but the assertion of one's truly human self” (E. Fromm). Thus, Humanistic ethics is based on faith in man, his autonomy, independence, freedom and reason, Believing that a person is capable On one's own Distinguish between good and evil and make ethical assessments correctly. From the point of view of humanistic ethics, there is nothing higher and more worthy than human life. But a person finds himself and his happiness only in kinship and solidarity with people. Moreover, love for humanistic ethics is “not a higher power descending on a person, and not a duty imposed on him: it is his own power, thanks to which he becomes related to the world and makes the world truly his own” (E. Fromm).
Ethics is structured in different ways, depending on the affiliation of a particular ethical school, on the tasks facing ethics as a science and academic discipline. Based on the principles of humanistic ethics and its role as "practical philosophy" in its The structure the following blocks are highlighted:
History of morality and ethical teachings -Describes the process of development of ethical teachings, as well as the genesis and evolution of morality from antiquity to the present day; here you can highlight Descriptive ethics describing the socio-historical types of morality (chivalrous, bourgeois, etc.).
Moral theory – Explains evolution and the mechanism of action of morality based on it Structural and functional analysis; It is a teaching about the essence of morality, its basic principles and categories, structure, functions and patterns.
Normative ethics- gives justification moral principles and norms that are based on higher moral values , They act as a theoretical development and addition to the moral consciousness of society and the individual and Prescribe from the standpoint of obligation ( Deontology) certain rules of behavior in human relationships, helping a person to develop The strategy and tactics of the "right life".
Applied ethics- on the basis of normative ethics, performs Practical learning function People behave appropriately in specific situations and in certain areas of their life. Applied ethics also has its own structure. It includes:
· Environmental ethics and bioethics;
· Ethics of citizenship;
· Situational ethics;
· Ethics of interpersonal communication;
· Ethics of Business Communication;
· Professional ethics.
QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS
Ethics. Morality. Moral. How do these concepts differ? Is such a task of ethics as "to teach morality" feasible? Can morality be taught?
“If ethics is a teaching about the moral norms of society, then will it not turn out that ethical norms lead to unification human personality, - reflects student K. - Isn't ethics in this case a means for selecting those qualities that are useful to society, the rest - down with it? What is your opinion on this?
"Don't you think that ethics is a product of human weakness, since it replaces the formation of one's own views with ready-made clichés?" - such a question was asked by the student M. M. to the teacher. What would you answer to him?
What do you see distinctive features authoritarian and humanistic ethics on different grounds: by goals and means, by basic principles, by methods and methods of regulation.
How do you assess the statement of A. Schweitzer that ethics is an infinitely expanded responsibility to everyone living?
"Situational" ethics: are any situations in life subject to ethical standards? Can you name situations “outside ethics”?
In this connection, professional ethics arise and become relevant? What is professional deontology?
Analyze the presented schemes and find additional connections in them: between normative and applied ethics, normative and situational, within applied ethics. Are all connections and relationships presented in the diagram unambiguous? Establish double bonds between individuals structural elements ethics.
Can environmental and citizenship ethics be classified as normative ethics? Try to justify your position.
1. Basic concepts of ethics
Concept "ethics" comes from ancient greek ethos (it with). At first, ethos was understood as a place of cohabitation, a house, a dwelling, an animal den, a bird's nest. Then they began mainly to denote the stable nature of some phenomenon, temper, custom, character.
Understanding the word "ethos" as a person's character, Aristotle introduced the adjective "ethical" in order to designate a special class of human qualities, which he called ethical virtues. Ethical virtues, therefore, are the properties of the human character, his temperament, spiritual qualities.
At the same time, character traits can be considered: moderation, courage, generosity. To designate the system of ethical virtues as a special sphere of knowledge and to highlight this knowledge as an independent science, Aristotle introduced the term "ethics".
For a more accurate translation of the Aristotelian term "ethical" from Greek in latin Cicero introduced the term "moralis" (moral). He formed it from the word "mos" (mores - plural), which was used to denote character, temperament, fashion, cut of clothes, custom.
Words that mean the same as what is meant by the terms "ethics" and "morality". In Russian, this word became, in particular, "morality", in German - "Sittlichkeit" ... These terms repeat the history of the emergence of the concepts of "ethics" and "morality" from the word "temper".
Thus, in its original meaning "ethics", "morality", "morality" - three different words though they were one term.
The situation has changed over time. In the process of the development of philosophy, as the originality of ethics as a field of knowledge is revealed, different meanings begin to be assigned to these words.
So, under ethics first of all, it means the corresponding field of knowledge, science, and by morality (or morality) - the subject studied by it. Although researchers have made various attempts to separate the terms "morality" and "morality". For example, Hegel under morality understood the subjective aspect of actions, and by morality - the actions themselves, their objective essence.
Thus, he called morality how a person sees actions in his subjective assessments, experiences of guilt, intentions, and morality is what the actions of an individual actually are in the life of a family, state, people. In accordance with the cultural and linguistic tradition, morality is often understood as high fundamental positions, and under morality, on the contrary, mundane, historically very changeable norms of behavior. In particular, the commandments of God can be called moral, but the rules of the school teacher are moral.
In general, in general cultural vocabulary, all three words are still used interchangeably. For example, in spoken Russian, what is called ethical standards, with the same right can be called moral or ethical standards.
From the book Culturology: lecture notes the author Enikeeva DilnaraLECTURE No. 2. Basic concepts of cultural studies 1. Values. Norms. Cultural traditions Value is understood as a generally recognized norm formed in a particular culture, which sets patterns and standards of behavior and influences the choice between possible
From the book Ethics: lecture notes the author Anikin Daniil AlexandrovichLECTURE № 1. Basic concepts of ethics 1. The concept of ethics The concept of "ethics" comes from the ancient Greek ethos (ethos). At first, ethos was understood as a place of cohabitation, a house, a dwelling, an animal den, a bird's nest. Then they began to denote mainly sustainable
From the book History of Culture author Dorokhova MA1. The concept of ethics The concept of "ethics" comes from the ancient Greek ethos (ethos). At first, ethos was understood as a place of cohabitation, a house, a dwelling, an animal den, a bird's nest. Then they began to denote mainly the stable nature of some phenomenon, character,
From the book Ethics the author Zubanova Svetlana Gennadievna1. The main provisions of Christian ethics Medieval ethical thinking denied the provisions of ancient moral philosophy primarily because the basis for the interpretation of morality in it is not reason, but religious faith. Thinkers of the Middle Ages in their
From the book Theory of Culture the author author unknown4. Basic concepts of culture Let us dwell on the basic concepts of culture in more detail. An artifact (from the Latin artefactum - "artificially made") of culture is a unit of culture. That is, an object that carries not only physical features, but also symbolic ones. To such
From the book China is ruled. Good old management the author Malyavin Vladimir Vyacheslavovich11. The main provisions of Christian ethics Medieval ethical thinking denied the provisions of ancient moral philosophy primarily because the basis for the interpretation of morality in it is not reason, but religious faith. Thinkers of the Middle Ages in their
From the book Culturology (lecture notes) author Khalin KE1. The concepts of "culture", "civilization" and concepts directly related to them Culture (from the Latin. Cultura - processing, cultivation, ennobling and cultus - worship) and civilization (from the Latin. different interpretations
From the book Culturology. Crib the author Barysheva Anna Dmitrievna From the book An Eye for an Eye [Old Testament Ethics] by Wright ChristopherLecture 8. Basic concepts of culturology 1. Cultural genesis (origin and development of culture) Cultural genesis, or the formation of culture, is the process of forming the main essential characteristics. Cultural genesis begins when a group of people has a need for
From the book Man. Civilization. Society the author Sorokin Pitirim Alexandrovich1 BASIC MEANINGS OF THE CONCEPT OF "CULTURE" The original Latin use of the word "culture" comes from the words colo, colere - "to cultivate, cultivate the land, engage in agriculture." But already in Cicero, a wider use of this term began to be found -
From the book Language and Man [On the problem of motivation language system] the author Shelyakin Mikhail Alekseevich From the book The World of Modern Media the author Alla Ivanovna ChernykhCrisis of ethics and law 1. Ideational, idealistic and sensual systems of ethics Any integrated society has ethical ideals and values as the highest embodiment of its ethical consciousness. In the same way, any society has its own legislative
From the book Professional Ethics of the Librarian the author Altukhova Galina AlekseevnaII. Basic provisions and concepts 1. Concept and characteristics of adaptation of complex systems to the environment Any sign system, including language, functions as a means of transmitting and receiving information. However, there is no single sign system,
From the book Anthropology of Sex the author Marina Lvovna Butovskaya1. Terminology (basic concepts) Difficulties in studying the phenomenon of mass communication are associated primarily with its truly comprehensive nature, penetration into almost all pores of modern society, the role and influence, sometimes implicit, hidden, which
From the author's book3. Norms of Library Ethics 3.1. Free Access to Information At the beginning of the century, librarians were worried about collecting and organizing knowledge that was scattered around the world. Many of them argued that this knowledge, constantly increasing and widespread,
From the author's book1.1. Basic concepts First of all, let us define the semantic component of the concepts "sex" and "gender" and the terms directly related to them. In the English language literature, the concepts of "sex" and "sex" are defined by one word "sex". In Russian, the word "floor" means
The activities of representatives of all legal professions are inseparable from the sphere of social and interpersonal conflicts, therefore lawyers bear special moral responsibility for their actions and decisions.
Modern applied ethics provides specialists whose activities are accompanied by moral costs and require the regulation of natural moral feelings and principles, a set of approaches (and techniques that can be used when making decisions, when assessing them from the point of view of morality, when resolving and preventing conflicts and in order to build strategies for the most effective professional communication.
In our country, applied ethics is at an early stage of development: in the regions of Russia there are only a few centers of business ethics dealing with the problems of ethical education and consulting, therefore, domestic specialists are actively using and adapting the rich experience of the international business and pedagogical community.
To better understand the essence of applied ethics approaches and learn how to use them in your work, you must first get acquainted with the basic ethical concepts and terms.
Ethics Is a philosophical discipline, the object of study of which is morality. Morality(lat. moralitas, from moralis) - referring to the disposition, character, disposition of the soul, habits; mores - mores, customs, fashion, behavior. The Latin word "morality" etymologically coincides with the Greek word "ethics" and was formed by analogy with it. (Dictionary of Ethics. M, 1989. S. 186).
In ordinary communication, people often do not distinguish between the concepts of "ethics" and "morality", but in the philosophical, specialized and professional literature, they mean different things. Morality is what ethics studies, what it describes and prescribes, these are the forms of people's consciousness (individual, group, social, corporate), ways of worldview, experience and perception that are valuable, unique and inimitable for each individual and accessible for understanding and observation only to himself (love, friendship, brotherhood, relationship with God, mercy); it is a type of relations in society and between people, as well as relations between social institutions and structures, etc.
The term "morality" is also used to characterize:
Those forms of behavior and activities that are considered right or wrong;
Rules and standards that govern the implementation of activities;
The values that exist in consciousness are embedded in consciousness and can be realized in certain forms of behavior.
For description complex world moral phenomena during its long, more than 2500-year history of existence, ethics has developed a special language, the knowledge of which allows people to highlight, identify (identify), analyze moral experiences, feelings, problems, principles, values, norms, ideals, as well as design codes, rules, solve problems, make decisions, develop principles, communicate values and ideals. If you are not familiar with this language, the world of morality will remain inaccessible to you.
The first and extremely important distinction of concepts that we will introduce is the division of ethics into secular and religious.
The subject of the course "Professional Ethics of Lawyers" is secular ethics. The presentation of this subject has its own traditions, which we will follow, and the specifics, which we will, if possible, take into account. In ethical literature and social practice the division of ethics into universal and professional.
Universal ethics governs the behavior of people regardless of their professional background. There are many contradictions between universal and professional ethics, which are very sharp character and often give rise to various conflicts. One of the most famous examples such contradictions are a contradiction between the commandment of the universal ethics "Thou shalt not kill" and military ethics, which obliges soldiers to defend their homeland with weapons in their hands and, if necessary, destroy the enemy. Another example is related to the nature of people's professional activities. According to the requirement of universal ethics, reflected in the second formulation of the moral law (the categorical imperative of I. Kant), mankind and oneself can never be treated only as a means, but must be treated in the same way as a goal, as an independent value. Within the framework of professional activity, people inevitably act as objects of labor, influence, coercion, study, education, that is, as means for achieving goals.
According to some psychologists, all professional communication is inherently manipulative (See: Krizhanskaya Yu.S., Tretyakov V.P. Grammar of communication, L., 1990), and the success of joint activities largely depends on a person's ability to use other people as funds. We often ourselves do not notice how we admit in communication a violation of this ethical requirement - to treat people as an independent value, as a goal. For example, an employee meets a colleague and says to him: “How glad I am to see you! Help me write a report! ”Or:“ Happy recovery! We've got so much work to do. " These are examples of clear violation this principle and the consequence of this will be feelings of discontent, disappointment, resentment that arise in a person who has been addressed in this way - he feels himself an independent value.
Almost all codes of professional ethics offer options for balancing such contradictions. The ethical codes of lawyers, in particular, regulate their right and obligation not to disclose confidential information in the interests of clients, which can be interpreted by public opinion as concealing the truth, violation of the universal principles of truthfulness and honesty. Legal professions are also charged with the obligation not to do what they would not want people to do towards them, for example, to exercise coercion - this is a variant of violating another commandment of universal ethics, the so-called "golden rule of morality." The most common wording of this rule is as follows: “(not) treat others as you do(not) would like them to act towards you". In the Sermon on the Mount (the Gospel of Matthew), Christ says “ Golden Rule morality ":" In everything you want people to do with you, so do you with them. "
Thus, professions associated with the need to coerce other people are associated with certain moral costs, since people experience suffering, being forced to violate the norms of universal ethics in order to perform professional activities. At the same time, professional ethics does not relieve individuals of certain professions from moral obligations that lie on people in general - on the contrary, they must assume not less, but great moral obligations precisely as representatives of this profession.
Social (institutional) ethics and individual ethics (virtue ethics)... Law is a product of both social events and a manifestation of human will. A lawyer has to work with individuals and legal entities, with the state and society as a whole. Lawyers are sometimes themselves part of some social institution, such as law enforcement. In order to perform his professional duty well, a lawyer must have the ability to feel, understand the purpose, meaning, goals, intentions, "rules of the game" that are characteristic of a particular social institution, organization, industry, profession, etc. One moral intuition alone may not be enough to build the correct system of relations, for example, between any government agency and a commercial enterprise, a public authority and an international concern, two or more different bodies executive power etc.
In modern society, every social system, for example, science, religion, law, customs, police, trade unions, branches of the national economy, etc., is an autonomous, self-contained culture that reproduces itself and develops independently of other cultures and is for them "opaque". The nature of the system can be understood only in the process of interacting with it and / or having legal descriptions and instructions.
Everything human relations can be conditionally divided into two large groups:
1) direct, personal, intimate, spontaneous, not subject to any external rules, orders, no External necessity. These relations are formed on the basis of a community of beliefs, friendship, love, worldview, neighborly communication, in small working communities (See: A. Rikh Economic ethics. M., 1996. P.65). These relations are not legalized and do not need to be streamlined or institutionalized: a person simply joins a group of people and makes friendly contacts, following his natural desires. Direct, personal relationships are dealt with by individual ethics, which is also sometimes called the ethics of virtues. Virtue is a concept that is used to characterize positive, stable, active, active nature, moral qualities of a person;
2) institutional, subject to legislative registration. A person is influenced by the institutions of the family, marriage, various unions, organizations, enterprises, government. The area of legal institutional relations is the sphere of application of the forces of social ethics, which is sometimes also called institutional ethics or ethics of institutions (See: Political and economic ethics. Moscow, 2001, p. 16). Specialists in the field of ethics and sociology also use the concept of traditional morality to describe moral phenomena occurring in society. V feudal society traditional morality dictated the structure of all relations between people according to the "family" model: fatherhood - vertically and brotherhood - horizontally. The larger structures of society were also built according to the "family" model. If someone tried to act and live outside these family ties, he destroyed the "family", a single whole, a social organism.
With the growth and complication of society, personal and family ties are destroyed and, accordingly, the traditional morality based on them is destroyed. Social institutions begin to determine the nature of moral relations between people - they put forward certain requirements in relation to individuals and groups, establish the framework, the boundaries of their actions, thereby limiting their freedom and at the same time orienting and giving stability and orderliness to their lives. Relations in society cease to be the result of a decision of someone's individual will or a single legal act - these relationships are usually based on collective agreements and follow from a whole group of contracts and legislative provisions.
Direct personal and institutional relationships are closely intertwined in everyday life.
Example 1. A person does not pollute the nature around his home, but at the same time he works in an enterprise that throws harmful waste into the air. We can say that the real negative impact on nature does not depend on the individual moral position of this person, but on the nature of the social institutions in the system of which he is included.
Example 2. I work in a company and I have good friendly relations with colleagues and superiors, but at the same time I obey the requirements of the contract concluded with me; the activity of my enterprise is regulated by the state and the "rules of the game" of the market economy, connected by a certain system of relations with other enterprises. Therefore, my relationship with colleagues and superiors does not depend on personal likes and (or) antipathies, but on the way of organizing production, leadership style, and market needs. I am hired or fired for business reasons, not personal likes or dislikes.
Example 3. Sometimes the requirements of different structures contradict each other, and a person becomes hostage to different norms, rules, principles. This happens when the interests and "rules of the game" of the enterprise and the norms of behavior of its members accepted in the professional community conflict. The conflict of interests of these two structures is manifested in the clash of requirements of loyalty and subordination that a person must comply with as an employee of a given organization (these are the requirements of corporate ethics), on the one hand, and the requirements of independence and impartiality, which a given employee must obey as a member of a specific professional group (these are requirements of the code of professional ethics of a lawyer) - on the other.
In a market economy, this division of ethics into individual and social is very important due to the fact that the development of the market in different countries is accompanied, as a rule, by the growth of moral problems and moral indignation of significant segments of the population. Business and the market are accused of immorality, the destruction of the traditional foundations of society, the impoverishment of the population, the inequality of the distribution of income, etc. Economic (or entrepreneurial) ethics, which is a section of social ethics, deals with the solution of the ethical problems of the economy.
Economists don't see bad motives or preferences as the reason for morally unsatisfactory policy outcomes individuals or enterprises, but in the special nature of the social situation. They believe that problems that are of a collective nature and are the result of the action of the social system cannot be solved by appealing to the internal motives of people - to a sense of shame, remorse, or a correctly understood moral duty, or a "corporate conscience" individual enterprises... To solve them, collective agreements and appropriate legislation are required, taking into account the benefit of all, For example, a company that “legally pollutes the environment, forces morally-minded competitors to abandon their voluntary abstinence” (Political and Economic Ethics. P.207). At the same time, providing moral behavior a firm requires a lot of money from it (in particular, the cost of treatment plants), therefore, a single enterprise is unlikely to voluntarily finance long-term ethical programs due to the fact that it may not withstand fierce competition. Because of this, the behavior of a firm that meets high ethical standards and at the same time does not ruin it is possible only if other entrepreneurs are also willing to follow these standards.In other words, the ethical behavior of firms in the long term can only be ensured by collective efforts.
Economic ethics helps to build the activities of social institutions in such a way that their ethical behavior becomes possible, but it does not destroy competition, and also observes the "rules of the game" of the market, according to which the moral obligation of firms is long-term profit maximization.
Social institutions cannot, nevertheless, take responsibility for the individual morality of a person and do for him what he should and can only do himself. A person should be responsible for everything that directly concerns him for his life, his relationships with people around, with nature, with social structures and institutions within which he acts. However, these institutions can facilitate the moral, correct behavior of people, and lawyers largely contribute to this, identifying and developing such "rules of the game" that do not interfere with the individual and group responsibility, but, on the contrary, contribute to it.
In order to understand the "rules of the game" by which social institutions should be guided, it is necessary to master a special style of thinking and form a perception of the world, which is sometimes called "organizational Darwinism" in management science.
From the standpoint of organizational Darwinism, researchers consider enterprises, industries, the state, science, etc. as living beings, somewhat similar to people. In sociology, a similar approach is followed by a direction called "understanding sociology" Its creator was the German sociologist M. Weber. In this case, social institutions are ascribed the property of being conscious, reasonable, having the ability to make decisions, have their own goals, purpose, intentions, goodwill, conscience, reputation, interests and even the properties of "getting sick", "getting old", "dying", behaving correct, ethical (socially responsible), follow certain moral principles.
People may feel pride in an industry, enterprise, scientific achievements, or disappointment or resentment, for example, at the same enterprise, state or any government authority They experience injustice or "nobility" of any action of a social institution and at the same time their feelings and feelings real, true, giving them pain or joy. It turns out that at first people endow institutions with reason, will, the ability to do good or evil, and then experience their relationship with them as if they are human beings and are morally equal to them.
From a moral point of view, any actions can be evaluated, regardless of whether they are carried out by a person or by such subjects as a corporation or the state, otherwise it would turn out that committing a murder for a particular person is immoral, but for enterprises it is not immoral. It is another matter if a natural, spontaneous moral assessment, due to its emotionality, prevents a lawyer from seeing the reasons, motives, circumstances that are important for him to understand the essence of the case. Therefore, in order to deal with the objects of your moral feelings, for example, a sense of responsibility, it is important to be able to carry out reflection.
The theory of morality teaches us to reflect on our assessments and understand what lies at their basis - their assumptions assumptions, hypotheses, beliefs, stereotypes, ideals, representations We morally assess ourselves, people, actions, and this assessment is done mentally, therefore “thought about evaluation is actually a thought about a thought ”, and the reflection of a thought in another thought is called reflection (See: Yu. A. Shreider, Lectures on Ethics, M 1994).
