State report "On the state and use of mineral resources Russian Federation in 2012 "dated April 11, 2014

The absolute leader in the production of commercial chrome ores is South Africa, which provides more than 40% of their world output. This country possesses the most powerful resource base of chromite in the world; its bowels contain about three-quarters of the world's reserves and almost 70% of the world's resources of chrome ores.

All of them are concentrated in the deposits of the unique Bushveld layered massif. South Africa supplies part of the extracted raw materials to Asian countries (mainly to China) and Europe, being one of the world's leading exporters of chrome ores. At the same time, South Africa also ranks first among producers and suppliers of ferrochrome to the world market.

The second position, both in terms of production volumes and the scale of the raw material base, is taken by Kazakhstan. Its contribution to the world production of commercial chrome ores is 15-20%. The overwhelming majority of Kazakhstan's chromite reserves are explored in the Kempirsay massif deposits, the ores of which are of high quality - the average content of Cr2O3 in them reaches 50%, and the content of iron and harmful impurities (phosphorus and sulfur) is low. Kazakhstan is a major exporter of chrome ores, a producer and supplier of ferrochrome abroad. India and Turkey are also significant producers of commercial chrome ores; in 2012, their share in world production amounted to 13% and 10%, respectively.

Russia occupies the fifth or sixth position in the world production of chrome ores; in 2012, the output of this raw material amounted to only 2.2% of the world. The explored reserves of Russian chromite deposits do not exceed 0.4% of the world. At the same time, Russia is one of the main producers and exporters of ferrochromium, but more than half of the necessary raw materials for its production are purchased abroad, mainly in Kazakhstan and Turkey. In the near future, a new ferroalloy plant is expected to be commissioned in Kazakhstan, which may significantly limit the supply of Kazakh ore to Russia. Ferrochromium production in Russia significantly exceeds domestic consumption, and the bulk of the semi-finished product is exported.

	Resources and reserves, million tons		Production of commercial ores, thousand tons
Kazakhstan	Measured + Indicated Inferred Resources
	Proved + Probable Reserves
	Proved + Probable Reserves
	Proved + Probable Reserves
Finland	Proved Reserves + Indicated + Inferred Resources

Prices for salable chrome ores on the world market in 2012 fell significantly compared to 2011, but in 2013 they stabilized. World ferrochromium prices in 2012 and the first half of 2013 fluctuated strongly in line with demand from producers of stainless steel... Globally (excluding China), stainless steel production declined in 2012. To improve market conditions, many companies have suspended the commissioning of new ferroalloy capacities and reduced the utilization of existing ones. In the second half of 2013, ferrochromium prices began to rise. The Russian raw material base of chromites is unable to meet the demand from domestic producers of ferrochrome, which, in turn, are entirely dependent on the situation on the world market.

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Solid and refractory metal chrome is in great demand in many areas of industry. It is used to make dyes, resistant alloys and coatings for different surfaces as well as refractory materials. In nature, it exists in the form of numerous compounds in the composition of rocks and minerals. This article tells about chrome ore, its deposits and mining methods.

24th element

Chromium is an element of the sixth group of the periodic table with atomic number 24. As simple substance it is one of the hardest metals, but its quality is highly dependent on its purity. With various impurities, its hardness increases, but in pure form chrome can be quite ductile.

The melting point of the metal is above 1800 degrees Celsius and also depends on the amount of impurities. Due to its refractoriness, it becomes active only when heated, and under normal indoor conditions remains inert. So, it reacts with water only when it is very hot and crushed into powder. In its normal state, it is inactive with air, sulfuric and nitric acids... When faced with them, it passivates, forming a thin protective film that does not allow it to enter into further reactions. However, when heated, it easily dissolves in acids, and at temperatures above 600 degrees, it burns out in oxygen.

In the normal state, chrome is a metal with a pronounced blue-white tint. Oxidizing to degrees +2, +3 and +6, it forms great amount compounds that can be red, green, blue, orange, and even yellow. Because of this, he was nicknamed "chrome", which means "color" in Greek.

Chrome ore

Chromium is widespread on planet Earth - its content in earth crust is 0.012% by weight. It does not form nuggets and does not occur on its own. In nature, it exists only in compounds of various minerals, for example, in vokelenite, ditzeite, uvarovite, crocoite, melanchroite. They are usually dark, almost black in color and have a characteristic metallic sheen.

Chromium ores form minerals that belong to the group of Cr-spinels. They contain the largest number metal sufficient for its industrial use. They include four main types of raw materials:

• alumochromite;
• birchite (magnochromite);
• picotite;
• chromite.

They are of magmatic origin. They vary greatly in composition, but outward appearance and the structure are very similar to each other. They can only be distinguished by chemical analysis.

Chrome spinels are distinguished by high hardness, black, brown-black and gray color, weak magnetic properties. Together with them, uvarovite, olivine, brucite, serpentine, kemmererite, and bronzite often occur. The main source of the metal is chromite.

Place of Birth

Deposits of chrome ores exist in Eurasia, Africa, as well as South and North America... The largest reserves are possessed by South Africa, which accounts for more than 75% of the total explored volume of chromium. After it, Kazakhstan and Zimbabwe are leading in terms of ore reserves, followed by the United States, India, Oman, and Turkey.

Large deposits are concentrated in Russia, where they are present mainly in the Urals. V early XIX For centuries, Russian chrome ores were the main source of metal in the world, but the emphasis shifted with the discovery of other deposits. Today the volume of consumption of this resource by the country exceeds the volume of production.

Ore, as a rule, lies at considerable depths, therefore it is extracted from the bowels of the planet mainly by the mine method. In 10-15% of cases, mining takes place with the help of open pits. About 15 billion tons of ore are extracted annually.

Usage

In industry main value metal is that it is very resistant to corrosion and does not deteriorate under the influence of air and water. These properties are used for the production of stainless steels, which are characterized by high strength and hardness. Purified chrome is also coated with aluminum, magnesium, silver, zinc, cadmium, and some other metals to protect them from impact. environment.

Chromium ores, containing less chromium, but rich in magnesium and aluminum oxides, are used to produce refractory materials that can withstand high melting temperatures.

Its colored compounds are used to create dyes, pigments and colored glasses. Synthetic rubies are made from doped trivalent chromium and molten corundum mineral, which are used in jewelry.

Chromium

Chromium (lat.Cromium), Cr, chemical element VI group periodic system Mendeleev, atomic number 24, atomic mass 51.996. Chromium is sometimes referred to as ferrous metals. Chrome - hard metal which has a bluish-white color. Refers to heavy, refractory metals, but at the same time it is plastic in its pure form, has antiferromagnetic properties and is chemically inactive. The metal does not combine with water, but the reaction proceeds actively with oxygen, after which an oxide film forms, which protects it from further reaction.

Chrome discovery

The discovery of chromium (English Chromium, French Chrome, German Chrom) refers to the period of rapid development of chemical analytical research salts and minerals. In Russia, chemists have shown special interest to the analysis of minerals found in Siberia and almost unknown in Western Europe. One of these minerals was the so-called Siberian red lead ore (crocoite), described by Lomonosov and first chemically studied by I.G. Leman in St. Petersburg in 1766. P. S. Pallas, describing gold mines near Yekaterinburg, refers to crocoite as about a particularly interesting mineral. Later, this mineral was studied many times by Russian scientists - I. D. Bindheim, T. E. Lovits, A. A. Musin-Pushkin and others. late XVIII v. crocoite samples were included in mineralogical collections Western Europe... Vauckelin and McQuart analyzed it, but found nothing in it except for the oxides of lead, iron and aluminum. However, in 1797 Vauckelin returned to the study of the mineral, "the wonderful red color, transparency and crystalline structure of which prompted chemists to be interested in its nature." At first, according to Bindheim's data, he assumed the presence of molybdenum in the mineral, but then became convinced of the erroneousness of this assumption. Having boiled a finely ground sample of the mineral with potash and precipitated lead carbonate, Vaukelen obtained a solution colored orange-yellow. From this solution, he crystallized a ruby-red salt, from which he isolated an oxide and a free metal, different from all known metals. Vauckelin called it chrome (Chrome) from the Greek. - coloring, color; it is true that what was meant here was not the property of the metal, which had a silvery-white color, but of its brightly colored salts. Almost simultaneously with Vauquelen, Klaproth discovered chrome. Processing powdered crocoite hydrochloric acid Klaproth obtained lead chromate, from which he separated lead chloride. He treated the remaining solution with soda, resulting in a greenish chromium hydroxide. According to the tradition, going back to alchemists, who recognized only seven metals, each newly discovered metal received a successive number. Klaproth considered chromium to be the 21st newly discovered metal. In Russia in the XIX century. it was also called chromium. This name is found in Zakharov (1810), Dvigubsky (1824 - 1828) and even in the textbook of Hess (1845).

Distribution of chromium in nature

The average content of Chromium in the earth's crust (clarke) is 8.3 · 10-3%. This element is probably more characteristic of the Earth's mantle, since ultrabasic rocks, which are believed to be the closest in composition to the Earth's mantle, are enriched in Chromium (2 · 10-4%). Chromium forms massive and disseminated ores in ultrabasic rocks; the formation of the largest deposits of Chromium is associated with them. In basic rocks, the Chromium content reaches only 2 · 10-2%, in acidic rocks - 2.5 · 10-3%, in sedimentary rocks (sandstones) - 3.5 · 10-3%, shales - 9 · 10-3 %. Chromium is a relatively weak water migrant; Chromium content in sea ​​water 0.00005 mg / l. In general, Chromium is a metal of the deep zones of the Earth; stone meteorites (analogs of the mantle) are also enriched in chromium (2.7 · 10-1%). More than 20 chromium minerals are known. Industrial value have only Cr-spinels (up to 54% Cr); in addition, chromium is contained in a number of other minerals that often accompany chromium ores, but themselves are not of practical value (uvarovite, volkonskoite, kemerite, fuchsite).

Physical properties of Chromium.

Chromium is a hard, heavy, refractory metal. Pure Chrome is ductile. Chromium has always been considered a very brittle metal with almost no ductile properties. V last years by melting it with an electron beam in a vacuum, a very plastic metal was obtained, which bends into a thin wire. The plastic properties of chromium are especially influenced by gases that enter it during the production process. So, for example, chromium obtained electrolytically, can contain 0.03% hydrogen, which is 3.36 l of N per 1 kg of chromium. Hydrogen is removed when the metal is heated to 40 ° C, and it is completely disposed of only by remelting the metal in a vacuum.

Application of chromium

Chromium is an important component in many alloy steels (in particular, stainless steel), as well as in a number of other alloys. It is used as wear-resistant and beautiful electroplated coatings (chrome plating). Chromium is used for the production of alloys: chromium-30 and chromium-90, indispensable for the production of powerful plasma torches nozzles and in the aerospace industry. Chromium is used to obtain various grades of special steels in the manufacture of barrels of firearms (from rifle to cannon), armor plates, fireproof cabinets, etc. in particular, for the construction of submarine hulls. Chromium is widely used for chrome plating of products. Chromium plating is carried out electrolytically. Despite the fact that the thickness of the applied films often does not exceed 0.005 mm, chrome-plated products become resistant to external influences(moisture, air) and do not rust. Chromium compounds are used to make chrome bricks - chromomagnesites, which are used in the working space of metallurgical furnaces and other metallurgical devices and structures. "Stainless steel" - steel, excellent resistance to corrosion and oxidation, contains about 17-19% chromium and 8-13% nickel. But carbon is harmful to this steel: carbide-forming "inclinations" of chromium lead to the fact that large quantities of this element are bound into carbides, precipitated at the grain boundaries of steel, and the grains themselves are poor in chromium and cannot staunchly defend themselves against the onslaught of acids and oxygen. Therefore, the carbon content in stainless steel should be minimal (no more than 0.1%). high temperatures steel can be covered with scales. In some machines, parts heat up to hundreds of degrees. So that the steel from which these parts are made does not "suffer" from scale formation, 25-30% chromium is introduced into it. Such steel can withstand temperatures up to 1000 ° C! Chromium-nickel alloys - nichrome - are successfully used as heating elements. The addition of cobalt and molybdenum to chromium-nickel alloys gives the metal the ability to withstand heavy loads at 650-900 ° C. These alloys are used, for example, to make blades gas turbines... An alloy of cobalt, molybdenum and chromium ("comochrom") is harmless to human body and therefore is used in reconstructive surgery. An American firm has recently developed new materials whose magnetic properties change with temperature. These materials, which are based on compounds of manganese, chromium and antimony, according to scientists, will find application in various automatic devices sensitive to temperature fluctuations and can replace more expensive thermoelements.

Chromites are widely used in the refractory industry. Magnesite-chromite brick is an excellent refractory material for lining open-hearth furnaces and other metallurgical units. This material has high temperature resistance, it is not afraid of multiple drastic changes temperature. Chemists use chromites to produce potassium and sodium dichromates, as well as chromium alum, which are used to tan leather, giving it a beautiful shine and strength. Such leather is called "chrome", and boots made of it are "chrome". As if justifying its name, chromium takes an active part in the production of dyes for the glass, ceramic and textile industries. Chromium oxide has allowed tractor builders to significantly reduce engine break-in times. Usually this operation, during which all rubbing parts must "get used" to each other, lasted quite a long time and this, of course, did not suit the workers of the tractor plants very much. A way out was found when it was possible to develop a new fuel additive, which included chromium oxide. The secret of the additive's action is simple: during the combustion of fuel, the smallest abrasive particles of chromium oxide are formed, which, settling on the inner walls of the cylinders and other surfaces subject to friction, quickly eliminate roughness, polish and tightly fit the parts. This additive, combined with a new grade of oil, has reduced the break-in time by 30 times.

The largest chromium deposits are located in South Africa (1st place in the world), Kazakhstan, Russia, Zimbabwe, Madagascar. There are also deposits in Turkey, India, Armenia, Brazil, and the Philippines.

In 2012, according to the US Geological Survey, the world mined 24.0 million tons of chrome ore (chromites), which is 0.7 million tons more than a year earlier. Approximately 94% of the world's chromite production is destined for use in the metallurgical industry, for the production of ferrochromium, and the rest is used in the foundry, chemical and refractory sectors. World production of chromite ore therefore follows world production of ferrochrome. Approximately 70% of the world's chromite production is consumed domestically for ferrochrome production. Four countries currently dominate ferrochromium production - South Africa, Kazakhstan, India and China. In 2008 South Africa Kazakhstan and India accounted for approximately 67% of total world production, down from 70% in 2002. However, while the largest ferrochromium producers continue to dominate the market, Chinese production has begun to expand rapidly. Ferrochromium production in China grew at an average annual rate of 28% between 2002 and 2008 and in 2008 was 1.5 million tonnes. Despite rising oil prices and global events such as the earthquake in Japan and political unrest in the Middle East, global ferrochromium production remained at a very low high level in the first half of 2011. In the second half of 2011, the fall in nickel and chromium prices, fueled by renewed worries about the global debt crisis, began to erode confidence in the stainless steel market. World production ferrochromium rose in response to increased demand, reaching a record 9.4 million tonnes in 2011, 4% higher than in 2010. South African production increased in the first quarter of 2011, but South African production declined 9% overall for the year as a result of lower demand during the year and high winter electricity tariffs. In 2012, the volume of ferrochromium production in the world increased to 10.7 million tons. In response to strong demand and increased availability of chromite (chrome) ores, China's ferrochrome production increased 12% or 260,000 tonnes, to record production levels in 2010. Despite producing approximately 2.4 million tonnes of ferrochromium in 2011, China remained a net importer of ferrochromium, with imports of 1.8 million tonnes in 2011. Imports account for 44% of total Chinese consumption, with South Africa shipped 1.1 million tonnes to China in 2011, an 18% increase over the previous year. In 2012, China produced 2.7 million tonnes of ferrochrome. The Chinese chromite ore market continues to grow strongly. In 2011, the country imported 9.4 million tons, which is 9% more than in the previous year. South Africa supplied approximately 50% of the chromite imported to China. At the end of 2011, approximately 3.6 million tonnes of chromite ore were estimated to be held in Chinese ports.

on the application of the Classification of reserves

deposits and forecast resources

solid minerals

Chromium ore

Moscow, 2007

Developed by the Federal State Institution "State Commission for Mineral Reserves" (FGU GKZ) by order of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation and at the expense of the federal budget.

Approved by the order of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia dated 05.06.2007 No. 37-r.

Designed for employees of enterprises and organizations operating in the field of subsoil use, regardless of their departmental affiliation and form of ownership. The application of these Methodological Recommendations will ensure the receipt of geological exploration information, the completeness and quality of which is sufficient for making decisions on further exploration work or on the involvement of reserves of explored deposits in industrial development, as well as on the design of new or reconstruction of existing enterprises for the extraction and processing of minerals.

1. General information

1. These Methodological Recommendations for the Application of the Classification of Reserves to Chromium Ore Deposits (hereinafter referred to as the Methodological Recommendations) have been developed in accordance with the Regulations on the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 370 dated July 22, 2004 (Collected Legislation of the Russian Federation, 2004, No. 31, Art. 3260; 2004, No. 32, Art. 3347; 2005, No. 52 (3 hours), Art. 5759; 2006, No. 52 (3 hours), 5597), Regulations on the Federal Agency for Subsoil Use, approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of June 17, 2004 No. 293 (Collected Legislation of the Russian Federation, 2004, No. 26, Art. 2669, 2006, No. 25, Art. 2723), the Classification of reserves of deposits and predicted resources of solid minerals, approved by order Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia dated December 11, 2006 No. 278, and contain recommendations on the application of the Classification of Reserves to chrome ore deposits.

2. Methodological recommendations are aimed at providing practical assistance to subsoil users and organizations preparing materials for calculating mineral reserves and submitting them for state expertise.

3. Chrom is a bluish-silvery shiny metal resistant to corrosion in air and water, with a density of 7.19 g / cm 3 (at a temperature of 20 ºС) and a melting point of 1890 ºС. At ordinary temperatures, chromium easily reacts with dilute acids - HCl and H 2 SO 4, but does not dissolve in HNO 3, H 3 PO 4 and HClO 4 due to the formation of a protective film. In compounds, the valence of chromium varies from two to six, trivalent compounds are stable, and hexavalent compounds are strong oxidizing agents. Forms alloys with a number of elements. The most common are iron-based alloys (ferrochrome), with carbon and cobalt or nickel (stellite), double chromium-nickel alloys (nichrome). Chromium-nickel steels and alloys are used in the construction of nuclear reactors. The main areas of consumption are ferroalloy production, refractory and chemical industries.

Modern production of high-strength structural, acid-resistant, stainless, heat-resistant, ball bearing steels, resistance alloys and cast irons with desired properties is based on the use of chromium in iron alloys. Metallic chrome is mainly used for chrome plating of steel products.

In the refractory industry, chrome ores are used for the manufacture of chrome-magnesite and other chromium-containing refractories and chrome concrete used for lining open-hearth and induction furnaces, converters, and rotary kilns in the cement industry.

The chemical industry consumes chromium ores mainly for the production of chromium peaks (dichromate salts of sodium and potassium) and other chromium compounds used as dyes, tanning agents, catalysts, mordants, etc. The radioactive isotope of chromium has found application in medicine.

4. Clarke of chromium (according to A.P. Vinogradov) is 0.0083%. Of the more than 20 chromium-containing minerals, only chrome spinels are industrially important, which currently serve as the only source for the production of metallic chromium and products of its chemical compounds.

In the group of Cr-spinels with the general formula (Mg, Fe) 2+ (Cr, Al, Fe) 2 3+ O 4, the following mineral species are of greatest interest: magnochromite (Mg, Fe) Cr 2 O 4, chromicotite (Mg, Fe) ( Cr, Al) 2 O 4, alumochromite (Fe, Mg) (Cr, Al) 2 O 4, subferrichromite (Mg, Fe) (Cr, Fe) 2 O 4 and, to a lesser extent, subferrial alumochromite (Mg, Fe) (Cr, Fe, Al) 2 O 4. The content of oxides in the varieties of Cr-spinels varies widely: Cr 2 O 3 2–67%, Al 2 O 3 2–65%, Fe 2 O 3 0–41%, FeO 10–30%, MgO 1–20%.

5. According to the conditions of formation, endogenous, exogenous and technogenic deposits of chromium ores are distinguished.

6. Endogenous deposits of chromium ores belong to the group of magmatic formations, spatially and genetically related to hyperbasic intrusions of two formations: peridotite-pyroxenite-gabbronorite layered (stratiform) massifs and dunite-harzburgite alpine massifs.

7. Early magmatic segregation deposits chrome ores were formed at an early stage of the formation of ultrabasic intrusions and are associated with differentiated (stratiform) layered platform massifs. Chromium ores occur in the lower horizons of massifs composed of dunites, peridotites, pyroxenites. The ore-bearing horizon has a thickness of a few meters to several hundred meters, within which a number of ore zones are possible. Ore bodies of sheet-like form are usually developed over the entire area of ​​the intrusion. The thickness of the ore bodies is consistent and, as a rule, is small (the first meters), however, the length reaches many tens of kilometers, therefore, even thin bodies can have significant reserves. The ores are predominantly solid and densely disseminated, medium chromium, high iron content, usually refer to refractory grades, and only the richest ones meet the requirements of metallurgy. This type includes the Bushveld (South Africa), Great Dyke (Zimbabwe), Kemi (Finland), Stillwater (USA) deposits, and Indian deposits.

8. Late magmatic chromium ore deposits are formed in the late stage of the formation of ultrabasic intrusions of the dunite-harzburgite formation of eugeosynclines. Ore bodies occur among the dunites and have the shape of lenses, pillars, and veins. The thickness of large bodies reaches 250 m, the length is 1550 m, and the width is 330 m. Deposits usually consist of a series of close bodies, the number of which can reach several dozen.

Chromium spinels are high-Mg varieties with varying chromium and aluminum contents. Deposits of this type are the main source of high-chromium metallurgical and high-alumina refractory ores. These include the deposits of the South Kempirsay group (Kazakhstan), Gulemen (Turkey), etc.

The manifestations of associated minerals are associated with late magmatic chromite deposits:

high-quality (non-serpentized) dunites, which are a rare and scarce raw material for the production of non-fired foundry-molding mixtures, forsterite refractories and heat-insulating liners;

noble corundum and ruby;

metals of the platinum group in the form of microinclusions of independent minerals in the grains of Cr-spinels.

Deposits of chrome ores in Russia are subdivided into industrial types, given in table. 1.

Being in nature

There is quite a lot of chromium in the earth's crust - 0.02%. The main mineral from which the industry obtains chromium is chromium spinel of variable composition with the general formula (Mg, Fe) O · (Cr, Al, Fe) 2 O 3. Chromium ore is called chromite or chromium iron ore (because it almost always contains iron).

Chromites are dark or almost black in color, have a metallic luster, and usually occur in solid massifs. Chromite deposits are of magmatic origin. Its revealed resources are estimated in 47 countries of the world and amount to 15 billion tons. The first place in terms of chromite reserves is occupied by South Africa (76% of the world's proven reserves), where greatest value has a group of Bushveld deposits, the content of chrome ore in which is 1 billion tons.

The second place in the world in terms of chromite resources is occupied by Kazakhstan (9% of world reserves), chrome ores there are very High Quality... All chromite resources in Kazakhstan are concentrated in the Aktobe region (Kempirsay massif with reserves of 300 million tons); deposits have been developed since the late 1930s. The third place is occupied by Zimbabwe (6% of world reserves). In addition, the USA, India, the Philippines, Turkey, Madagascar, and Brazil have significant resources of chromite. In Russia, fairly large deposits of chromite are found in the Urals (Saranovskoye, Verblyuzhiegorskoye, Alapaevskoye, Monetnaya dacha, Khalilovskoye and other deposits).

Chromium is probably more characteristic of the Earth's mantle, since ultrabasic rocks, which are believed to be the closest in composition to the Earth's mantle, are enriched in chromium (2 · 10 -4%). Chromium forms massive and disseminated ores in ultrabasic rocks; associated with them the formation of the largest deposits of chromium. In basic rocks, the chromium content reaches only 2 · 10 -2%, in acidic rocks - 2.5 · 10 -3%, in sedimentary rocks (sandstones) - 3.5 · 10 -3%, shales - 9 · 10 -3 %. Chromium is a relatively weak water migrant; Chromium content in seawater 0.00005 mg / l.

In general, chromium is a metal of the deep zones of the Earth; stone meteorites (analogs of the mantle) are also enriched in chromium (2.7 · 10 -1%). More than 20 chromium minerals are known. Only chrome spinels (up to 54% Cr) are of industrial importance; in addition, chromium is contained in a number of other minerals that often accompany chromium ores, but themselves are not of practical value (uvarovite, volkonskoite, kemerite, fuchsite).