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Phraseological units and the word. Meaning of phraseological unit in the dictionary of linguistic terms

Modern linguistics is unthinkable without a comparison of the objects under study. Comparison and opposition of units, forms, categories, categories and other linguistic phenomena acts as a prerequisite for characterizing each of them. This fully applies to the study of phraseological units. The study of similarities and differences between specific phraseological units of several languages removes difficulties in translation, facilitates the perception and understanding of speech.

One of the brightest stylistic means of speech are phraseological phrases or phraseological units (from the Greek phrases - turn of speech, logos - teaching). Phraseologisms - a stable expression with independent value close to idiomatic. Phraseologisms present great difficulties for students English language. Ignorance of the semantics of phraseological units can lead to misunderstanding in the process of communication with native speakers and cause difficulties in translating fiction and scientific journalism.

The object of this study is the phraseological units of two languages: English and Russian. However, not the entire phraseological range of these languages is studied, but only somatic phraseological units with the keyword “head” - “head”.

Somatic phraseological units are such turns of speech that contain a component with the meaning of a body part. This lexical-semantic group was chosen due to its wide distribution, figurativeness and expressiveness.

The subject of this study is the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword “head”.

1. Definition of a phraseological unit and its main components.

The researchers of the phraseological composition of the compared languages have many opinions about what a phraseological unit is. The most well-known definitions of phraseological units are Kunin A. V., Chernysheva, I. I., Shansky N. M. The authors define the relation to phraseological units of various groups of phrases in different ways. So, for example, Shansky N. M. includes proverbs, sayings, sayings, winged words, aphorisms. The Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language (FSRYA) includes various descriptive and analytical phraseological units of the language, complex conjunctions, complex prepositions, compound terms, etc. In general, a phraseological unit is characterized as a “combination of words with a figurative meaning”, as a “stable phrase with idiomatic meaning" as "stable phrase". Phraseological units are characterized by metaphor, figurativeness, expressive and emotional coloring. Dictionary Russian language. Ozhegova S. I. and Shvedova N. Yu. gives the following definition of a phraseological unit - it is a stable expression with an independent meaning close to idiomatic. Phraseologism, phraseological unit, idiom, a stable combination of words, which is characterized by a constant lexical composition, grammatical structure and a meaning known to native speakers of a given language (in most cases, figuratively), not deduced from the meaning of the components of Ph. components. This meaning is reproduced in speech in accordance with historically established norms of use.

But in our opinion, the most complete is the definition of A. V. Kunin:

A phraseological unit is a stable combination of lexemes with a completely or partially rethought meaning.

Phraseological units consist of lexemes that have partially or completely lost their subject correlation. They cannot be distinguished as members of a sentence, since the phraseological unit itself is a member of the sentence.

Thus, phraseological units are understood as turns of speech, consisting of two or more words, having reproducibility, stability of composition and structure, as well as a holistic meaning.

1. 2. Types of phraseological units in terms of semantic stability (confluence) of their components

The classification of phraseological units in terms of the semantic unity of their components belongs to Academician V. V. Vinogradov. As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which is used in a figurative sense. Gradually, portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. Depending on how much the nominative meanings of the phraseological unit components are erased, how strongly they figurative meaning, Vinogradov V. V. divides them into four types: phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions. Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to the modern English language.

Phraseological fusions:

Phraseological fusions, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words: keep one`s head - to lose your head.

Phraseological fusions arose on the basis of the figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language.

Thus, in phraseological fusions, the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost, figurative for them has become the main one. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.

Phraseological units:

Phraseological units are such stable combinations of words in which, in the presence of a common figurative meaning, signs of the semantic separation of the components are clearly preserved: raise it's head - raise your head, perk up.

"Phraseological units are somewhat closer to phraseological fusions in their figurativeness, metaphor." But unlike phraseological fusions, in phraseological units figurativeness, transference is realized from the point of view of the modern language.

Phraseological combinations:

Phraseological combinations are stable turns, which include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: a wooden head is a dull head.

Unlike phraseological fusions and phraseological units that have a holistic indecomposable meaning, “phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability”. In this respect, they are close to free phrases.

Phraseological expressions:

Phraseological expressions include phraseological phrases that are stable in their composition and use, which entirely consist of words with “free nominative meaning and semantically articulated”. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Phraseological expressions include numerous English proverbs and proverbs used in direct meaning, do not have a figurative allegorical meaning: Better be the head of a dog than the tail of lion (it is better to be the first among the last than the last among the first).

Chapter 2. Characteristics of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head".

2. 1. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head" according to the method of formation.

Depending on the method of formation in our work, we consider two main types of phraseological units: continuous phrases and semantic blocks.

Fused phrases are formed by combining components, each of which has structural and systemic phrase-forming properties.

Semantic blocks are formed by transforming the meaning of the entire phrase as a whole.

English language Russian language

Fused phrases (phraseological units)

The first is the meaning of the original phrase, the second is the meaning of phraseological units.

(leading component highlighted)

Put one's head into the lion's mouth. Head (not) cooks

1. 1. Putting your head in the mouth of a lion Someone is either (not) smart

1. 2. Put yourself in danger or risk. Soap your head

Bury one's head in the sand. scold for something

2. 1. Bury your head in the sand

2. 2. Adhere to the ostrich policy, turn a blind eye to what is happening. 3. 1. Dedicate yourself entirely to something

Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion.

3. 1. Better to be the head of a dog than the tail of a lion.

3. 2. It is better to be the first among the common people than the last among the nobles.

Semantic blocks (phraseological fusions)

(the first is the meaning of the original phrase, the second is the meaning of the phraseological unit)

1. Be head and ears in debt (be head over heels in debt). Head up

2. Go about with one's head in the air. (important). 1. 1. Feel confident

3. Have a bad head for smth. (be with a bad head). 2. Bow your head

4. Open one's head (to chat, chat). 1. 2. Reconcile

3. Head to toe

3. 1. Completely

Of the 68 English phraseological units that made up the card index of English phraseological units, 57 are semantic blocks, and 11 are fused phrases. And out of 33 Russian phraseological units that made up the card file of Russian card files, 24 are semantic blocks, and 9 are fused phrases.

Conclusion: After analyzing the data, we came to the conclusion that most often phraseological units, both English and Russian, are formed by rethinking free phrases, transforming the knowledge of the entire phrase as a whole.

1. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head" in structure.

Depending on the nature of the leading component, it is possible to distinguish both in English and in Russian phrases: substantive (the main component is a noun), adverbial (adverbial), verbal, adjectival.

English language Russian language

Substantive A good head

(Strong head) man)

A level head

(balanced person)

(smart enough)

Verbs: Hang one's head

(Hang your head, get upset) (Get very discouraged)

Lose one's head

(Lose your head, (Get very discouraged)

get confused)

Adjective: Out of one’s alone head There are no such phraseological units in the studied dictionaries

(fictitious)

Adverbial: Head first

(Swiftly, recklessly) (Quickly, recklessly)

One's head off

(as much as you like)

In the Russian card index of 33 phrases: substantive - 7, verbal - 22, adverbial - 4, no adjectives were found. In the English card index out of 68, substantive - 6, verbal - 42, adverbial - 6, adjective - 2. Thus, both in the English and Russian card index, verb combinations and adverbial combinations predominate, substantive ones are less common and adjective ones practically do not occur.

2. 3. Comparison of the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head" according to the syntactic function in speech.

Phraseological units can also be classified according to their syntactic function. In this case, it is possible to single out phraseological combinations that appear in the sentence as:

subject: Vanya, the head of the garden, got a deuce in class.

John, a swollen head, was a stubborn boy.

John, the smart guy, was very stubborn.

Predicate: They put their heads together and agreed upon

They immediately discussed everything and determined a plan of action.

Circumstance: They made head against the wind. He examined her from head to toe and decided to take her to

They walked and walked forward into the wind. yourself to work.

Extra: You are turn her head with flattery! I bow my head before you.

You will turn her head!

Having studied the syntactic functions of phraseological combinations, we noticed that both English and Russian phraseological units rarely act as a subject.

So, having compared the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units in terms of the method of formation and structural classification, we came to the conclusion that the structure of English and Russian phraseological units coincides in these parameters. This makes it possible to make an assumption about the relationship of these groups of phraseological units.

2. 4. Semantic features of phraseological units with the keyword "head" in English and Russian.

Native speakers use words that name their organs to describe the most different areas human life. This includes cognitive processes(sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination), volitional and emotional, as well as the manifestation of various mental properties of the individual. The bulk of phraseological units in both languages is based on metaphor.

The vast majority of phraseological units are anthropocentric in nature, that is, they refer to a person or to what is associated with him. These turnovers are estimated. Ratings can be either positive or negative.

After analyzing phraseological units with the keyword "head" in English and Russian, we divided them into three thematic groups:

1. Phraseological units denoting the mental abilities of a person.

2. Phraseological units denoting the emotional state of a person.

3. Phraseological units that characterize the behavior and actions of a person.

Group 1: Phraseological units denoting the mental abilities of a person.

English language Russian language

1. Have an old head on young shoulders1. Soft in the head

(be wise). (not all at home, idiot). dedicate yourself to something). easy to imagine).

2. Two heads are better than one 2. Have a head like a sieve (be 2. Raise your head 2. Head and two ears

(mind is good, but two is better). scattered). (Feel confident). (unintelligent person).

Group 2: Phraseological units denoting the emotional state of a person.

English language Russian language

1. Keep one’s head 1. Be not right in one’ head 1. Raise your head 1. Hang your head

(keep calm). (be out of your mind, go crazy). (to feel confident). (get discouraged).

2. Be head and ears in love 2. Have a bad head for heights. 2. Lose your head

(to the ears to be in love). (it’s bad to endure (not to know from excitement what to do, what height, to be afraid of height). to do).

Group 3: Phraseological units that characterize the behavior and actions of a person.

English language Russian language

1. Buy smth over smb’s head 1. Better one’s head against a brick 1. About two heads 1. Lather your head

(offer a better service). wall (recklessly bold). (to scold for something).

2. Knock smth on the head (to climb on the rampage). 2. Head over heels

(put an end to something). 2. Be head and ears in debt (be on (quickly).

ears in debt).

mental abilities +7; -2 +4; -7

emotional state +2; -11 +1; -3

behavior and actions +9; -14 +1; -eleven

As the analysis shows, the number of phraseological units with a positive estimated value, in each of the three groups presented, prevails in the English language.

Having carried out a meaningful analysis of phraseological units with the keyword head in the Russian language, we assumed that the presence of phraseological turns denoting daring, recklessness, recklessness reflect such feature characteristic of the Russian mentality as "maximalism". And vice versa, the presence in the English language of a large number of phraseological phrases with a positive evaluation of people's actions and their mental activity can be a confirmation of the presence in the English national character of such a feature as "clearness of mind, restraint, equanimity".

Conclusion.

In the first chapter of this work, the definition of "phraseological unit" is given, its main components are considered and the main characteristics of phraseological units are disclosed from the point of view of the semantic stability (fusion) of their components.

In the second chapter, an attempt was made to analyze the internal structure of English and Russian phraseological units with the keyword "head", to conduct a qualitative analysis of phraseological units in each of the studied groups, to draw conclusions on the topic. Comparison and analysis of phraseological units was carried out according to the following parameters: by the method of formation, by structure, by syntactic function in speech. A separate chapter is devoted to the semantic features of phraseological units with the keyword "head" in English and Russian. After analyzing the data, we came to the conclusion that most often word combinations in general, i.e., semantic blocks (phraseological fusions) predominate. In both languages, verb combinations predominate, substantive, adverbial are less common. In sentences, phraseological units with the keyword "head" most often act as an object, less often as a subject.

As the analysis of the semantic features of phraseological units shows, the number of them with a positive estimated value, in each of the three presented groups, prevails in the English language. This chapter presents us special interest, since in the future we will try to consider in more detail phraseological units with keywords"head", "eyes" and "hands" in terms of their semantic features in English and Russian. We believe that this comparison will help us more accurately understand the similarities and differences in features national character representatives of the two countries. In addition, knowledge of the semantics of phraseological units will help to correctly translate these constructions, correctly determining the desired meaning in this context.

Of course, the vocabulary of the language is subject to change. Phraseological composition changes, replenishes.

Phraseology. Basic concepts

Phraseology is a special branch of the science of language that studies the semantic and structural properties of phraseological units, studying the reasons for their occurrence in the language system and the features of use in speech.

The term "phraseology" is formed from two Greek words: phrase- "expression, turn of speech" and logos- "teaching".

Just as lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, phraseology studies its phraseological composition. If the unit of the language in its lexical system is a word, then in the phraseological system such a linguistic unit is a phraseological unit, or a phraseological unit.

Phraseological units- these are stable, constant in their component composition, reproducible units of the language that have a holistic single meaning.

Phraseological units, like words, denote a wide variety of concepts: guiding thread- "what helps to find the right path under certain conditions and circumstances": But from that instinctive feeling with which one person guesses the thoughts of another and which serves as a guiding thread of conversation, Katenka realized that her indifference hurt me.(L. Tolstoy); be born in a shirt- "to be lucky, happy, lucky in everything": He almost shouted to the whole house that Vera Pavlovna was born in a shirt ...(Pismsky); on a live thread- "quickly, for a short time, and therefore fragile": The water in Chusovaya was very low, and our boat, sewn on a living thread, constantly touched the pitfalls(Mamin-Sibiryak).

Tens of thousands of phraseological units, similar to those given above, form the phraseological composition of the language, which is the object of study of phraseology.

Classification of phraseological units according to the wall of semantic indivisibility of components Phraseological units of the language are very diverse and multifaceted in terms of the meanings they express, structure, degree of semantic indivisibility, functions in speech, etc. In this regard, the question of the classification of phraseological units is quite difficult and sometimes causes contradictory judgments.

Thus, the Swiss linguist Charles Bally is considered the founder of the doctrine of phraseological units, who for the first time in the history of linguistics described the specific features of phraseological units and outlined their classification, highlighting free combinations, phraseological groups and phraseological units in phraseology.

There are other principles of systematization of phraseological units.

An important role in the study of phraseology was played by the works of V.V. Vinogradov, in which he formulated the subject and tasks of phraseology, gave the lexical and semantic characteristics of phraseological units and proposed their classification .

V.V. Vinogradov defines three types of phraseological units, based on their distinction the degree of semantic indivisibility of the components. On this basis, he singled out three types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions, phraseological units and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological unions- these are such semantically indivisible and grammatically indecomposable stable combinations, the total meaning of which does not at all correspond to the sum of the meanings of the words that make them up.

Compare expression value to annoy the eyes - "annoy, annoy someone" with word meanings callous - "to rub calluses with long walking or work" and the eye is the organ of sight. Words in the composition of phraseological fusion, in fact, have lost their independent meanings.

The loss of independent meanings of words as part of phraseological fusions is reflected in the fact that they often contain obsolete, sometimes completely incomprehensible words and grammatical forms, for example: get into a mess (get into an awkward position), sharpen balusters (talk), beat the buckets (idle), without hesitation (without any hesitation, without hesitation); in expression the talk of the town (the subject of constant conversation) the old form of the local case of a noun, etc.

Phraseological fusions also include such expressions, all components of which are understandable, correspond to the morphological structure of the modern language, but the syntactic links between these components are unusual. For example: words in expressions are not syntactically divided joke to say (expression of surprise) how to drink give (mandatory), a little light (early) and etc.

Phraseological fusions are likened in function to non-derivative words in which the stem is not motivated by anything.

The adhesions are sometimes called idioms (Greek idioma - a peculiar expression), they have a high idiomatic coefficient and are difficult to translate into another language.

Phraseological units- these are such semantically indivisible stable combinations, the general meaning of which is the result of a figurative rethinking of the entire phrase and can be partially motivated by the semantics of the constituent components, i.e. the general meaning of phraseological units to some extent follows from the totality of the meanings of their constituent words. Yes, the expression callous tongue (talk) has the character of a transfer to the direct meanings of the words contained in them callous and language, and these meanings are still perceived to some extent as part of a phraseological unit (compare with the above expression an eyesore, in which the words that make it up are actually devoid of independent meanings).

The peculiarity of phraseological units in their figurativeness, metaphor, which, for example, is clearly perceived in expressions speak your teeth (distract attention), worthless (worth nothing), suck it out of your finger (invent, say without any reason), go with the flow (act passively, obeying the prevailing views, opinions, etc.).

Many phraseological units, unlike phraseological fusions, are not completely frozen in their composition of expression: they may have parts that can be replaced by other words: reverse side of the medal and the other side of the coin; bear stepped on the ear and elephant stepped on the ear and etc.

Phraseological combinations- these are such semantically indivisible stable combinations, the general meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of the constituent components, i.e. phraseological combinations are separable in meaning, their common meanings consist of the sum of the meanings of the words included in their composition. These phraseological units differ from fusions and unities primarily in that they contain words that have both free and non-free (phraseologically related) meanings, which are realized only under conditions of a certain lexical environment. For example, only in combination with the words case, matter, circumstance the meaning of the word becomes clear delicate (requiring great discretion, careful and tactful environment; delicate); with words boil, blaze, rage, reveals the meaning of the word annoyance (to be especially displeased, angry, torment and etc.).

Phraseological combinations almost do not have homonymous free combinations, but individual components can be replaced by synonyms. For example: sudden death - sudden death, bloody nose - break the nose, biting frost - severe frost, zero attention - no attention and etc.

Along with the considered types of phraseological units proper, the so-called phraseological expressions, "which are not only semantically distinct, but also consist entirely of words with free meanings" 1 . For example, Love for all ages; You will go through the world with unrighteousness, but you will not return back; Seven times measure cut once; Like a squirrel in a wheel; man in a case and others. As can be seen from the examples, phraseological expressions include both whole sentences and combinations of words.

Phraseological expressions differ from the units discussed above in that they perform not a nominative, but a communicative function, i.e. are complete units of communication - sentences, for example: Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees. (S. Yesenin); Yes, pitiful is the one in whom the conscience is unclean. (A. Pushkin); Signed, so off your shoulders! (A. Griboyedov)

Phraseological expressions are usually statements of an aphoristic type or moral and ethical edifications taken from fiction or folklore, for example: There is gunpowder in powder flasks. (N. Gogol); Yes, only things are still there. (I. Krylov); If you like to ride - love to carry sleds (Proverb).

Syntactically, they are ordinary sentences of various types and are parsed according to general rules selection and evaluation of their typological signs and structural parts.

On the issue of including or not including such combinations in phraseology, linguists do not have a unanimous opinion. A number of scientists - S.I. Ozhegov, N.N. Amosova, A.V. Kalinin and others, based on the fact that proverbs, sayings and many popular expressions are communicative units equal to a sentence, suggest not to include them in phraseology. Others, for example, N.M. Shansky, consider it possible to include these units in the phraseology. The basis for attributing proverbs and sayings to phraseology is the commonality of their characteristics: the stability of the component composition, structure and meaning, reproducibility in speech in ready-made, general use.

The considered classification of phraseological units is not exhaustive, does not cover the whole variety of phenomena of phraseology. Quite often it is not easy to establish to which of the considered types of phraseological units this or that set expression belongs.

Nevertheless, this classification of phraseological units, based on their structural and semantic features and taking into account the degree of grammatical and semantic fusion of words that make up set expressions, is of the greatest interest. Establishment of the main types of phraseological units in accordance with the classification of V.V. Vinogradov currently seems to be the most scientifically substantiated.

Classification of phraseological units in terms of their grammatical structure. The semantic solidarity of words in the composition of stable combinations leads to the fact that phraseological units turn out to be syntactically inseparable in the composition of a sentence in which they act as one member of the sentence. Yes, in suggestions. He arrived at the sceneto the hat phraseological unit to the hat is a matter of time (cf. late). As part of sentences, phraseological units can play the role of any member of the sentence.

By correlation with one or another part of speech and the similarity of syntactic functions in a sentence, the following lexical and grammatical categories of phraseological units can be distinguished:

1. Nominal phraseological units. The main component is a noun. Nominal phraseological units designate a person: blue stocking(dry pedant, devoid of femininity), Kazan orphan(about someone who pretends to be unhappy, miserable), grated roll(about an experienced person who has seen a lot), inky soul(of a clerk) erratic goal(about the poor); subject: Achilles' heel(book: the most vulnerable spot), the Forbidden fruit(about something tempting but forbidden) sword of Damocles(book: about the constantly threatening danger), etc. In the sentence, the named phraseological units are used in the syntactic function of the subject, object, nominal part compound predicate.

2. Verbs phraseological units – the most productive and numerous. The main component is a verb, a participle. Verbal phraseological units are united by the common meaning of the action. For example: get stuck(be in a quandary) lose one's head(lose self-control) to twist somebody around one's finger(smartly to deceive someone) jump into the bottle(get annoyed over trifles), etc. In a sentence, these phraseological units are usually used as a predicate.

3. Adjective(from lat. adjectivum - adjective) phraseological units denote a qualitative characteristic of a person ( ate little porridge- young, inexperienced or not strong enough; canny- secretive, cunning; not of this world- about a person not adapted to life) and a qualitative characteristic of the object ( with a needle- new, smart, just sewn; real jam- about something tasty, pleasant). In a sentence, these phraseological units can be used in the syntactic function of an inconsistent definition.

4. adverbial (from lat. adverbium - adverb) phraseological units have the meaning of a qualitative characteristic of an action ( tirelessly- diligently, tirelessly, without thinking about the consequences; with sin in half- with great difficulty, barely, somehow; what is the spirit- very fast; through the stump deck- bad, careless) or the degree of qualitative characteristics ( to the core- with the whole being, entirely, completely; one hundred percent complete, completed). In the sentence, these phraseological units act as various circumstances.

5. Interjection Phraseological units serve to express various feelings, emotions, volitional impulses. For example: well well!- colloquial, used when expressing surprise; hell!- colloquial, exclamation of surprise, annoyance or indignation; know ours!- razg. jokingly, about praising oneself; good time!- wish good luck; you are welcome - an expression of a polite invitation, etc.

A number of phraseological units of the Russian language are used in the sentence as addresses or introductory words, i.e. without communication with the members of these proposals. Appeals-phraseological units always have a pronounced evaluative coloring. For example: Understand,oak head , what have you done?(stupid, stupid person); Understand,crazy head , what have you done?(crazy, eccentric person)

Examples of phraseological units - introductory words can be stable combinations: no matter how!(expression of disagreement, objection, refusal); joke to say(expression of surprise at the significance of something).

Lexicology(from Greek lexikós ‘related to the word’ (lexis - ‘word’) and logos ‘word, doctrine’) is a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary (vocabulary) of the language and the word as a unit of vocabulary. One of the main tasks of lexicology is the study of the meanings of words and phraseological units, the study of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and other relationships between the meanings of words. The scope of lexicology also includes changes in the vocabulary of the language, reflection in the vocabulary of social, territorial, professional characteristics of people who speak the language (they are usually called native speakers). Within the framework of lexicology, layers of words are studied, distinguished for various reasons: by origin (original and borrowed vocabulary), by historical perspective (obsolete words and neologisms), by sphere of use (popular, special, colloquial, etc.), by stylistic coloring (interstyle and stylistically colored vocabulary).

Dictionary types:

1) dictionaries that include all the words of a given language (the so-called dictionaries thesaurus (gr.) - treasury, repository); 2) dictionaries of the modern literary language (the most common type of explanatory dictionary, see below); 3) dictionaries of individual dialects or their groups (regional dictionaries, for example, the Don dictionary); 4) dictionaries of the language of a particular writer; 5) dictionaries of the language of a separate work; 6) historical dictionaries, including words of a certain period in the history of the language; 7) etymological dictionaries explaining the origin of individual words; 8) dictionaries of synonyms; 9) phraseological dictionaries; 10) dictionaries of irregularities, including words in the use, pronunciation or spelling of which deviations from the literary norm are often observed; 11) dictionaries of foreign words; 12) spelling dictionaries; 13) orthoepic dictionaries (dictionaries of literary pronunciation and stress); 14) word-building dictionaries; 15) reverse dictionaries; 16) frequency dictionaries; 17) dictionaries of abbreviations; 18) jargon dictionaries, etc.

In modern linguistics, two directions of research have clearly emerged. First direction The starting point is the recognition that a phraseological unit is such a unit of language that consists of words, that is, by its nature, a phrase. At the same time, some scientists express the idea that the object of phraseology is everything that is really possible in given language specific phrases, regardless of the qualitative differences between them. So, for example, Kopylenko says the following: “Phraseology covers all combinations of lexemes that exist in a given language, including the so-called “free” phrases. On the other hand, only certain categories and groups of phrases are recognized as an object of phraseology within the boundaries of this direction, which stand out from all those possible in speech with a special originality. Depending on what signs are taken into account when highlighting such phrases, the composition of such units in the language is determined. Only these "special" phrases can be called phraseological units.

Despite the conventions of concepts and the associated distinction, it is usually said that phraseology can be represented:

1) as a phraseology of the language in the "broad" sense of the word, including in its composition both phrases that are completely rethought, and phrases that have non-rethought word components. An example of such a “broad” understanding of the scope and composition of phraseology is the point of view of V.L. Arkhangelsky, O.S. Akhmanova, N.M. Shansky.
2) as the phraseology of the language in the “narrow” sense of the word, which includes only phrases that have been completely rethought. Among the works reflecting such an understanding of the volume and composition of the phraseology of the Russian language are, for example, articles by V.P. Zhukov. In both cases, the verbal nature of the phraseological unit, as well as the lexeme nature of its components, is not questioned. Phraseologism is recommended to be considered as a contamination of the features of a word and a phrase, the homonymy of a phraseological unit and a phrase correlated with it in structure is emphasized.

Representatives second direction they proceed from the fact that a phraseological unit is not a phrase (neither in form nor in content), it is a unit of language that does not consist of words. The object of phraseology are expressions that are only the genetic essence of the phrase. “They are decomposable only etymologically, that is, outside the system of the modern language, in historical terms” . These expressions are opposed to phrases that are not homonymous, since they are qualitatively different from them. The main thing in the study of phraseological units is not the semantic and formal characteristics of the components that form it, and not the connections between the components, but the phraseological unit itself as a whole, as a unit of language that has a certain form, content and features of use in speech. The composition of phraseology is formed from categorically similar units. The history and etymology of each phraseological unit is studied outside rectilinear dependence from some “universal” schemes for rethinking phrases, the degree of semantic fusion of components and the desemantization of words in phrases.

So, "phraseologism is a stable combination of words with complicated semantics that are not formed according to generating structural-semantic models of variable combinations", that is, it is a stable expression or combination of words that is introduced into speech in finished form and cannot be used in an independent meaning.

The stability of a phraseological unit is understood as a measure, the degree of semantic unity, indecomposability of the components. According to Zhukov, sustainability at least, in the semantic plan, is organically connected with idiomaticity, that is, with the semantic indecomposability of a phraseological unit. Stability is a degree, a measure of the semantic indecomposability of the components within a particular phraseological unit. It is a form of manifestation of idiomaticity in relation to a particular phraseological unit. In other words, sustainability is a measure of idiomaticity.

Many scientists worked on the problem of phraseological units. The founder of the theory of phraseology is the Swiss linguist Charles Balli, who first defined phraseology as an independent section of lexicology. A number of classifications of phraseological units have been proposed. Depending on how the nominative meanings of the components of a phraseological unit are erased, how strongly the figurative meaning is in them, V.V. Vinogradov divides them into three types: phraseological fusions, phraseological units and phraseological combinations. Kunin distinguishes idioms, phraseomatisms and idiophraseisms. Amosova divides all phraseological units into phrasemes and idioms.

The absence of at least one of these features excludes the named unit from the phraseological composition of the language.

The word is the main, but not the only means of nomination in the language system. In speech, it tends to appear in combinations with other words, and the principle of organizing them into phrases is regulated syntactic norms and rules. Such combinations are created according to the models existing in the language. For example, model A+N, reflecting the fundamental possibility of combining an adjective and a noun, can be filled with an infinite number of components that meet the requirements of the model, and the result of such an operation is quite predictable: the resulting combination will denote something that has a certain attribute. In identical situations, identical phrases are often used: May I come in? Knock at the doors, etc. This combination of words is usually used in a fixed form and is reproduced in speech as a ready-made block. Such combinations are stable, but they belong to the general, and not to the phraseological fund of the vocabulary. The point is that there are no semantic changes in the components of such combinations; they retain their meaning, sometimes only changing the function, as in the set expression Good morning the nominative function - a description of the time of day - is replaced by a contact - a greeting. If the stability of the expression is supplemented by a semantic change in the component or components, we are dealing with a phraseological unit. Despite the fact that phraseological units are combinations of words, they are considered by linguists from the standpoint not of syntax, as free combinations, but of lexicology. There are several reasons for this.

First of all, in a free phrase created according to the model, it is possible to replace any of the components within the framework of this model. Yes, adjective red can be used in combination with a huge variety of nouns ( red frock, red banner, red strip, red hair,etc.), keeping its color value. Similarly, any noun denoting an object potentially capable of having a feature will, according to the same model, be combined with an infinite number of adjectives that convey this feature ( red frock, dirty frock, new frock, expensive frock, etc.). In a phraseological combination, the connection between the components is rigid and the replacement of any of them is impossible without destroying the meaning of the whole unit. For example, a combination black sheep (= the worst member), although it is built according to the regular model A+N, cannot be reproduced with the same meaning even with minimal substitutions ( black ram or gray sheep). Formally corresponding to the language model, phraseological units are not modeled, i.e. they represent a single use of the language model to convey any semantic structure in a constant context.

Another reason why phraseological units are referred to as objects of lexicological research is that such a combination has common features with the word. Like a word, phraseological units are not created in the process of speech from units more low level, but are reproduced as a ready block. This feature indicates that in the phraseological unit, as in the word, there is a single lexical meaning; the ability to correlate with any part of speech and act as a single member of a sentence for the entire combination indicates that the phraseological unit has a grammatical meaning. So, in the example " Instead of taking urgent measures the government chose sitting on the fence» phraseological unit « sit on the fence» has a single lexical meaning « waiting" and performs the general grammatical function of the nominal part of the compound predicate (and not the predicate and the circumstance of place, as it would be in the case of a free combination of the type ... chose sitting in the pub).

There are cases when, like a word, phraseological units are subject to rethinking with the subsequent development of polysemy. An example of such a phraseological unit is the expression " to place oneself on record", which has two meanings: 1. to do smth noteworthy and 2. to say smth. in public.

The ability of phraseological units to rethink is also reflected in the stylistic component of its meaning. For example, the stable combination " wear and tear" can be applied both to the description of the physical wear and tear of something ( breaking down) and emotional state (overstrain). In the latter case, the expression is rather rigidly assigned to the colloquial stylistic layer, while the first meaning can be used even in a terminological function.

The solidity of a phraseological unit allows it to undergo word-formation processes, such as affixation. So, from the phraseological unit brain trust adding a suffix er unit formed brain-truster, but from single-rhyme - single-rhymer.

However, unlike a word, a phraseological unit in speech can vary more, allowing grammatical changes in the components within the frozen form. This is especially clear when there is a verb component in phraseological units :I ground my teeth; he was grinding his teeth; let her grind her teeth then, etc. Changes are also possible in adjective components, although they are less common and bring additional expressiveness to phraseological units: You are the coolest cucumber I "ve ever met. Thus, phraseological units are functionally and semantically similar to a word, although formally they are phrases.

So, a phraseological unit is a non-modeled phrase connected by semantic unity. In speech, such unity is not created, but reproduced in finished form (not modeled) and functions as a single member of the sentence. Small variations in the structure of a phraseological unit do not affect these main features.

Despite their non-modeling, phraseological units are quite clearly distributed according to the types of structures of their constituents. First of all, these are phraseological units that coincide in form with the corresponding free phrases ( take silk; break the ice, etc.). The second group is composed of compositional structures (pick and choose; lick and promise; rain or shine; light to darkness; for love or money; by hook or by crook; etc.). The third group consists of phraseological units with a predicative structure (as the matter stands; before you could say Jack Robinson; as the crow flies). It is adjoined by phraseological units in the form of the imperative mood, which are interjectional in nature ( take it easy! Draw it mild! Bless my soul! take your time; etc.), as well as comparative units (as dead as a door-nail; as mad as a hatter; etc.). Somewhat apart are single-node structures consisting of one full-valued and one or more service words (behind the scenes; in the blood; for good), and verb-postpositive phraseological units located on the border of the phraseological fund ( to bear up; to give in; etc.).

According to the proposal by A.V. Kunin classification, phraseological units form two main groups in accordance with the nature of their functioning in speech. Nominative units name objects, phenomena, signs and may have a different structure ( a bitter pill to swallow; a wolf in sheep "s clothing; a cock-and-bull story; to stir up a hornets" nest; much cry and little wool; to call a spade a spade; etc.). Nominative-communicative phraseological units perform the functions of amplifying speech and are often close to interjections, despite the variety of structural types ( as hell; birds of a feather; this cat won "t jump; the fat" s in the fire; etc.)

The concept of phraseology.

Phraseologism (phraseological turn) is a stable combination of words with a holistic generalized figurative meaning that arose on the basis of a figurative rethinking (semantic transformation) of the verbal complex. (Malt).

Phraseologism- these are stable combinations of words, that is, separately formed formations with completely or partially rethought components, phraseological meanings. Phraseological units are characterized not by stability in general, but by stability at the phraseological level, regular dependencies of verbal components and structural-semantic non-modeling (Kunin).

Classification of phraseological units of the Russian language, proposed by V.V. Vinogradov and subsequently applied also to other languages, provides, in addition to free combinations, three main types of phraseological units in descending order of the degree of closeness of the connection between the components:

phraseological fusions;

phraseological units;

phraseological (non-free, otherwise stable) combinations.

Phraseological fusions (idioms)

Phraseological fusion (idiom) is a long-established in the language, usually emotionally colored, frozen figure of speech. The main feature of phraseological unions, in contrast to combinations and unities, is that their general meaning is not motivated by the meaning of the constituent elements and cannot be derived from them. The words that are part of the fusion have completely lost their semantic independence and their meanings, therefore, do not explain the meaning of the entire turnover as a whole. For example:

“A skeleton in the cupboard” - “family secret; a nuisance hidden from strangers”; "Grin like a Cheshire ca" t - "grin from ear to ear"

Phraseological units

Phraseological units- these are phraseological units, the integral generalized figurative meaning of which can be figuratively motivated on the basis of the LZ components included in their composition. For example:

“to pour oil on the flame (s)” - “pour oil on the fire”, “to tear one's hair” - “tear one's hair”, “(to live) a cat and dog life” - “live like a cat with dog."

Their high connotation is due to the phraseological image, or internal form, i.e. visual representation, that “picture”, on the basis of which the integral generalized figurative meaning itself is comprehended and perceived. Theoretically, the presence of identical in their values and internal forms phraseological units can be explained by a certain commonality of figurative-conceptual associations that arise in different languages and different peoples as a result of the similarity of their life experiences; cultural realities, to some extent reflecting the common paths of development of these peoples, can play an important role in this.

The following phraseological units can serve as illustrative examples: “to carry coals to Newcastle” - “to engage in useless and unnecessary business” - is semantically identical with phraseological units in Russian - “to travel to Tula with your samovar”; “when pigs fly” - “literally, when the pigs fly i.e. never" - is semantically identical with the phraseological unit in Russian - "when the crayfish whistles on the mountain (and the fish sings)".

Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are a mobile semantic complex, the components of which retain their basic meaning, but come into combination only with certain words. For example:

“to keep one’s distance” - “know your place; stay away; stay away; keep a respectful distance"; "to keep one's ears open" - "keep an eye out, be on guard, alert"; “to keep oneself to oneself” - “to be closed, unsociable, prefer loneliness; keep aloof, avoid people, withdraw into yourself.

In the above examples, the word to keep cannot be replaced by any other word that is close in meaning. this will lead to incompatibility of words and distortion of the meaning of the phraseological unit.

Idioms, winged expressions, proverbs and sayings make up a huge layer in any language, thanks to which speech becomes richer and brighter. Otherwise they are called phraseological units. What is it and what they are, we will consider in this article.

Definition

Phraseology is the study of the vocabulary under consideration. A phraseological unit is a stable one in a language, the meaning of which is clear to all its speakers. Synonyms of this concept are the words phraseme, phraseologism.

Functions

A phraseological unit can perform the functions of different parts of speech. For example, it could be:

noun (Kazan orphan, dog in the manger);
verb (beat the buckets, drink up to the green serpent);
adjective (drunk as an insole);
adverb (head-on, tirelessly).

Like any linguistic phenomenon, phrasemes have their own characteristics.

Reproducibility. This sign shows that the phraseological unit is familiar to most native speakers, and it is not invented anew each time. For example, “beat the buckets” means “to mess around”.
Semantic integrity, which is understood as a complete or partial rethinking of the words that make up the phrase. For example, the expression “he ate a dog” means “experienced”, and not the fact that someone ate a dog.
Separate design means the presence of two or more words in a phrase that have a different meaning outside of it.
Stability is a sign showing the possibility or impossibility of changing the component composition by reducing, expanding or replacing its constituent words. An unstable phraseological unit can be changed using:

vocabulary, when one word is replaced by another;
grammar, when the expression is subjected to grammatical changes without changing the meaning;
quantitative, when the phraseologism changes due to the expansion or reduction of components;
positions when components are swapped.

Overview of classifications

Many linguists tried to classify phraseological units, and the approaches were different. Some relied on grammar and structure, others on style, and still others on meaning and theme. Each classification has a right to exist, and below we will consider the most important ones.

The first classification of phraseological units was proposed by L.P. Smith, in which the latter were grouped according to their theme. For example, " human activity”, “ natural phenomena”. Main disadvantage given typology - ignoring the linguistic criterion.
Unlike its predecessor, the linguistic principle was included in the classification developed by V. V. Vinogradov. The types of phraseological units proposed by him were divided according to semantic fusion - unity, combination and fusion.
N. M. Shansky proposed, in addition to phraseological units, to single out a separate classification for expressions (sayings, proverbs and popular expressions).
The classification proposed by A. I. Smirnitsky was based on the structural and grammatical principle.
The basis of the classification of N. N. Amosova was the meaning of phraseological units and the analysis of their context.
S. G. Gavrin approached the classification from the side of their functional and semantic complexity.
A. V. Kunin supplemented the classification of V. V. Vinogradov.

Classification by V. V. Vinogradov

In unity, the word (phraseological unit) coincides with its components, that is, from what has been said it is clear what is being said. For example, pulling a strap means doing something for a long time.

Splices - the value does not match its constituent components. For example, to mess around. In some fusions there are words that have lost their original meaning and are no longer used in modern Russian. For example, baklushi are chocks that were used in the manufacture of wooden spoons.

In combinations, the meaning of a phraseological unit is made up of components, one of which has a linking function, in which one of the components of a phraseological unit is combined with some words, but not combined with others. For example, you can say "fear takes", "sadness takes" in the sense of "scary" or "sad", but you cannot say that "joy takes" in the meaning of "fun".

Classification by A. I. Smirnitsky

This classification divided phraseological units into idioms, phrasal verbs and proper phraseological units. Both the first and second were divided into 2 groups, which, in turn, were divided into subgroups:

a) one-sided:

verbal-adverbial (by hook or by crook);
equivalent to verbs, the semantic core of which is in the second component (easy and simple to do);
prepositional-substantive, equivalent to adverbs or predicatives (brothers in mind);

b) two- and multi-vertex:

attributive-substantive, the equivalent of which is a noun (dark horse, gray cardinal);
verb-substantive, the equivalent of which is a verb (take a word);
repetitions are equivalents of an adverb.
adverbial multi-apex.

Classification by N. N. Amosova

In the typology of N. N. Amosova, phraseological units are divided into idioms and phrasemes, the approach to classifying which is based on context analysis. Analysis is understood as a combination of a semantically realizable word with a demonstrative minimum. Such a context may be fixed or variable. With a constant context, the index minimum is constant and the only one possible for given value semantically realizable word. For example, "white lie", "leave in English".

In a variable context, the words in the index minimum may change, but the meaning will remain the same. For example, with the word "dark" you can use the words "horse" and "man" - man "in the meaning of" secret, secretive ".

Phraseological units with constant context are divided into phrasemes and idioms.

Classification by S. G. Gavrin

S. G. Gavrin classified phraseological units from the side of functional and semantic complexity. Thus, his classification of phraseological units included stable and variable-stable combinations of words. The studies of S. G. Gavrin in the field of phraseology were based on the works of V. V. Vinogradov and N. M. Shansky and continued the development of 4 types of phraseological units.

Classification by A. V. Kunin

The classification of phraseological units, compiled by A. V. Kunin, supplemented the classification of V. V. Vinogradov. It included phraseological units:

Single-vertex from one significant and two or more non-significant lexemes.
With the structure of a coordinating or subordinating phrase.
With a partially predicative structure.
With a verb in the infinitive or in the passive voice.
With the structure of a simple or complex sentence.

From the point of view of semantics, A. V. Kunin divides the above phraseological units into four groups:

with a component, that is, denoting an object, a phenomenon - they are called nominative; this group includes 1, 2, 3 and 5 types of phraseological units, except for complex ones;
without subject-logical meaning, expressing emotions - such phrasemes are called interjectional and modal;
with a sentence structure, which are called communicative - this group includes sayings, proverbs and catch phrases;
The 4th group refers to the nominative-communicative.

Sources of phrases in Russian

Phraseological units of the Russian language can be:

originally Russian;
borrowed.

The origin of native Russians is connected with life, dialects and professional activities.

Examples of phraseological units:

household - a goal like a falcon, hang your nose, take it for a living;
dialectal - peak position, smoke yoke;
professional - (carpenter), pull the gimp (weaving), play the first violin (musician).

Borrowed phraseological units came into Russian from Old Slavonic, ancient mythology and other languages.

Examples of borrowings from:

Old Slavonic - forbidden fruit, dark water in the clouds;
ancient mythology - the sword of Damocles, the flour of Tantalus, Pandora's box, the apple of discord, sink into oblivion;
other languages - blue stocking (English), in a big way ( German), not at ease (French).

Their meaning does not always coincide with the meaning of the words included in them and sometimes requires more knowledge, in addition to understanding the meaning of lexemes.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions and phraseological units of the language are united by the fact that they are set expressions, and the speaker can easily reproduce them. But in the first place, the components of expressions can be used independently and as part of other phrases. For example, in the expressions “love is submissive to all ages”, “seriously and for a long time”, “wholesale and retail”, all words can be used separately.

It should be noted that not all linguists who study phraseological units with a component considered it possible to include them in the phraseological dictionary.

Catchwords are expressions borrowed from literature, cinema, theatrical performances, and other forms of verbal art. They are often used in modern speech both orally and in writing. For example, "happy hours are not observed", "all ages are submissive to love."

Proverbs and sayings are holistic expressions that have elements of instructiveness and can be applied in a variety of situations. Unlike popular expressions, they do not have an author, since they were created by the people for many centuries and passed from mouth to mouth, and have reached our time in their primary form. For example, “Chickens are counted in the fall” means that the results of a business can be judged after its completion.

B is a figurative, emotionally colored expression. For example, the saying “When cancer whistles on the mountain” means that some deed is unlikely to be done.

Proverbs and sayings are a vivid reflection of the values and spiritual development of the people. Through them it is easy to see what people love and approve of, and what not. For example, “Without labor you can’t even pull a fish out of a pond”, “Labor feeds a person, but laziness spoils”, they talk about the importance of labor.

Development trends

Today, the lexical composition of the Russian language is experiencing a neological boom. Why?

The first reason is the social, economic, political and spiritual changes in Russia in the 1990s. The second is the activity of the media and the Internet, which led to freedom of speech and a large number of foreign borrowings. Third - fast development technologies that contribute to the emergence of new information and words. Such a situation cannot but affect the meaning of words - they either lose their original meaning, or acquire another one. The boundaries of the literary language are also expanding - today it is open to colloquial, colloquial, slang words and phraseological units. Speaking of the latter, it is worth noting that the peculiarity of modern phraseological units is not the meaning of words, but their combination. For example, "wild market", "shock therapy", "near abroad countries", "cool outfit", "commercial break".