In subsequent years, the electric power industry developed rapidly, power transmission lines (TL) were built. Simultaneously with hydraulic and thermal power plants, nuclear energy began to develop.
Thermal power plants(TPP). The main type of power plants in Russia are thermal, operating on fossil fuels (coal, fuel oil, gas, shale, peat). Among them, the main role is played by powerful (more than 2 million kW) GRES - state district power plants that meet the needs of the economic region, operating in energy systems.
The placement of thermal power plants is mainly influenced by fuel and consumer factors. The most powerful thermal power plants are located, as a rule, in places where fuel is extracted. Thermal power plants using local fuels (peat, oil shale, low-calorie and high-ash coals) are consumer-oriented and at the same time are located near sources of fuel resources. Consumer-oriented are power plants that use high-calorie fuel, which is economically profitable to transport. As for thermal power plants operating on fuel oil, they are located mainly in the centers of the oil refining industry.
Large thermal power plants are the coal fired power plant of the Kansko-Achinsk basin, Berezovskaya GRES-1 and GRES-2. Surgutskaya GRES-2, Urengoyskaya GRES (runs on gas).
A powerful territorial production complex is being created on the basis of the Kansk-Achinsk basin. The TPK project envisaged the creation of 10 unique super-powerful state district power plants of 6.4 million kW each on the territory of about 10 thousand km 2 around Krasnoyarsk. At present, the number of planned hydropower plants has been reduced to 8 so far (for environmental reasons - emissions into the atmosphere, accumulations of ash in huge quantities).
On the this moment the construction of only the 1st stage of the TPK has begun. In 1989, the 1st unit of Berezovskaya GRES-1 with a capacity of 800 thousand kW was put into operation, and the issue of building GRES-2 and GRES-3 of the same capacity (at a distance of only 9 km from each other) has already been resolved.
The advantages of thermal power plants in comparison with other types of power plants are as follows: relatively free location associated with the wide distribution of fuel resources in Russia; the ability to generate electricity without seasonal fluctuations (unlike GRES).
Disadvantages include: use of non-renewable fuel resources; low efficiency, extremely adverse effect on environment.
Thermal power plants all over the world emit into the atmosphere annually 200-250 million tons of ash and about 60 million tons of sulfur dioxide; they absorb a huge amount of oxygen from the air. To date, it has been established that the radioactive environment around coal-fired thermal power plants is on average (in the world) 100 times higher than near a nuclear power plant of the same capacity (since ordinary coal almost always contains uranium-238, thorium -232 and radioactive isotope carbon).
Thermal power plants of our country, unlike foreign ones, are still not equipped with any effective systems purification of flue gases from oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. True, thermal power plants running on natural gas are much cleaner than coal, fuel oil and shale ones, but the laying of gas pipelines causes enormous environmental damage to nature, especially in the northern regions.
Despite the shortcomings noted, in the short term (until 2000) the share of TPPs in the increase in electricity generation should be 78-88% (since the increase in production at nuclear power plants due to increased requirements and their safety will be very insignificant at best, the construction of hydroelectric power plants will limited to the construction of dams mainly in conditions with minimal flooding areas).
The fuel balance of thermal power plants in Russia is characterized by the predominance of gas and fuel oil. In the near future, it is planned to increase the share of gas in the fuel balance of power plants in the western regions, in regions with difficult environmental situation, especially in major cities. Thermal power plants eastern regions will be based mainly on coal, primarily cheap open-pit coal from the Kansk-Achinsk basin.
Hydraulic power plants (HPP). Hydroelectric power stations are in second place in terms of the amount of electricity generated (16.5% in 1991). Hydroelectric power plants are a very efficient source of energy, since they use renewable resources, are easy to manage (the number of personnel at hydroelectric power plants is 15-20 times less than at state district power plants) and have a high efficiency factor (more than 80%). As a result, the energy produced by hydroelectric power plants is the cheapest.
The great advantage of hydroelectric power plants is their high maneuverability, i.e., the possibility of almost instantaneous automatic start-up and shutdown of any required number of units. This makes it possible to use powerful HPPs either as the most flexible "peak" power plants that ensure the stable operation of large power systems, or during the period of daily peaks in the load of the electrical system, when the available capacities of TPPs are not enough. Naturally, only a powerful hydroelectric power station can do this.
But the construction of a hydroelectric power station requires a long time and large specific investments, leads to the loss of flat lands, and damages the fisheries. The share of HPPs in electricity generation is significantly less than their share in the installed capacity, which is explained by the fact that their full capacity is realized only in a short period of time, and only in high-water years. Therefore, despite the provision of Russia with hydropower resources, hydropower cannot serve as the basis for generating electricity in the country.
The most powerful HPPs were built in Siberia, where hydro resources are most effectively developed: specific capital investments are 2-3 times lower and the cost of electricity is 4-5 times lower than in the European part of the country.
Hydro construction in our country was characterized by the construction of cascades of hydroelectric power stations on rivers. A cascade is a group of hydroelectric power stations located in stages downstream water flow in order to consistently use its energy. At the same time, in addition to obtaining electricity, the problems of supplying the population and production with water, eliminating floods, and improving transport conditions are being solved. Unfortunately, the creation of cascades in the country led to extremely negative consequences: the loss of valuable agricultural land, especially floodplain land, ecological balance.
HPPs can be divided into two main groups; HPPs on large lowland rivers and HPPs on mountain rivers. In our country, most of the hydroelectric power plants were built on lowland rivers. Plain reservoirs are usually large in area and change natural conditions over large areas. The sanitary condition of water bodies is deteriorating. Sewage, which was previously carried out by rivers, accumulates in reservoirs, and special measures have to be taken to flush out riverbeds and reservoirs. The construction of hydroelectric power stations on lowland rivers is less profitable than on mountainous ones. But sometimes it is necessary to create normal navigation and irrigation.
Most large hydroelectric power plants in the country are part of the Angara-Yenisei cascade: Sayano-Shushenskaya, Krasnoyarskaya on the Yenisei, Irkutskaya, Bratskaya, Ust-Ilimskaya on the Angara, the Boguchanskaya HPP (4 million kW) is being built.
In the European part of the country, a large cascade of hydroelectric power plants was created on the Volga: Ivankovskaya, Uglichskaya, Rybinskaya, Gorkovskaya, Cheboksarskaya, Volzhskaya im. IN AND. Lenin, Saratov, Volga.
Very promising is the construction of pumped storage power plants - pumped storage power plants. Their action is based on the cyclic movement of the same volume of water between two pools: upper and lower. At night, when electricity is needed, little water is pumped from the lower reservoir to the upper basin, while consuming the excess energy produced at night by power plants.
During the day, when electricity consumption rises sharply, water is discharged from the upper pool down through the turbines, while generating energy. This is advantageous, since it is impossible to stop the HPP at night. Thus, the PSP allows solving the problems of peak loads, flexibility in the use of power grid capacities. In Russia, especially in the European part, there is an acute problem of creating maneuverable power plants, including pumped storage power plants (as well as CCGT, GTU). The Zagorskaya PSP (1.2 million kW) was built, the Central PSP (2.6 million kW) is under construction.
Nuclear power plants. The share of nuclear power plants in total electricity generation is about 12% (in the USA - 19.6%, in Great Britain - 18.9%, in Germany - 34%, in Belgium - 65%, in France - over 76%). It was planned that the share of nuclear power plants in the production of electricity in the USSR in 1990 would reach 20%; in fact, only 12.3% was achieved. The Chernobyl disaster caused a reduction in the nuclear construction program; since 1986, only 4 power units have been put into operation.
At present, the situation is changing, the government has adopted a special resolution that actually approved the program for the construction of new nuclear power plants until 2010. Its initial stage is the modernization of existing power units and the commissioning of new ones, which should replace the units of the Bilibino, Novovoronezh and Kola NPPs that are retired after 2000 .
Now there are 9 nuclear power plants in Russia with a total capacity of 20.2 million kW. Another 14 nuclear power plants and ACT (nuclear heat supply station) with a total capacity of 17.2 million kW are under design, construction or temporarily mothballed.
At present, the practice of international expertise of projects and operating NPPs has been introduced. As a result of the examination, 2 units of the Voronezh NPP were decommissioned, the Beloyarsk NPP is planned to be decommissioned, the first power unit of the Novovoronezh NPP was shut down, the almost finished Rostov NPP was mothballed, and a number of projects are being reviewed again. It was found that in a number of cases the locations of nuclear power plants were chosen poorly, and the quality of their construction and equipment did not always meet regulatory requirements.
The principles of NPP placement were revised. First of all, it is taken into account: the need of the region for electricity, natural conditions (in particular, a sufficient amount of water), population density, the possibility of ensuring the protection of people from unacceptable radiation exposure in certain emergency situations.
This takes into account the likelihood of earthquakes, floods, and the presence of nearby groundwater at the proposed site. Nuclear power plants should be located no closer than 25 km from cities with more than 100 thousand inhabitants, for ACT - no closer than 5 km. The total capacity of the power plant is limited: NPP - 8 million kW, ACT - 2 million kW.
New in the nuclear power industry is the creation of the APEC and ACT. At the CHPP, as well as at a conventional CHPP, both electrical and thermal energy are produced, and at ACT (nuclear heat supply stations) only thermal energy is produced. The Voronezh and Nizhny Novgorod ACTs are under construction. The ATEC operates in the village of Bilibino in Chukotka. The Leningrad and Beloyarsk NPPs also provide low-grade heat for heating needs. In Nizhny Novgorod, the decision to create ACT caused sharp protests from the population, so an examination was carried out by IAEA specialists, who gave a conclusion about the high quality of the project.
The advantages of nuclear power plants boil down to the following: you can build in any area, regardless of its energy resources; nuclear fuel is characterized by an unusually high energy content (in 1 kg of basic nuclear fuel- uranium - contains as much energy as 25,000 tons of coal: nuclear power plants do not emit emissions into the atmosphere in conditions of trouble-free operation (unlike thermal power plants), they do not absorb oxygen from the air.
The operation of nuclear power plants is accompanied by a number of negative consequences.
- Existing difficulties in the use of atomic energy - disposal of radioactive waste. For export from stations, containers with powerful protection and a cooling system are being built. Burial takes place in the ground great depths in geologically stable formations.
- The catastrophic consequences of accidents at our nuclear power plants are due to an imperfect protection system.
- Thermal pollution of reservoirs used by nuclear power plants. The functioning of nuclear power plants as objects of increased danger requires the participation government agencies authorities and management in the formation of development directions, the allocation of the necessary funds.
Increasing attention will be given in the future to the use of alternative sources energy - sun, wind, internal heat of the earth, sea tides. Experimental power plants have already been built at these non-traditional sources energy: on tidal waves on the Kola Peninsula Kislogubskaya and Mezenskaya, on thermal waters ah Kamchatka - power plants near the Pauzhetka River, etc. Wind power plants in residential villages of the Far North with a power of up to 4 kW are used to protect gas and oil pipelines from corrosion, and in offshore fields. Work is underway to involve such an energy source as biomass in the economic circulation.
For a more economical, rational and comprehensive use of the total potential of the power plant in our country, the Unified Energy System (UES) has been created, in which over 700 large power plants operate, with a total capacity of over 250 million kW (i.e. 84% of the capacity of all power plants in the country). The management of the UES is carried out from a single center equipped with electronic computers.
The economic advantages of the Unified Energy System are obvious. Powerful transmission lines significantly increase the reliability of electricity supply National economy, grow daily and annual schedules of electricity consumption, improve the economic performance of stations, create conditions for the full electrification of areas that still lack electricity.
As part of the EEC on the territory former USSR includes numerous power plants that operate in parallel in a single mode, concentrating 4/5 of the total power of the country's power plants. The UES extends its influence over an area of over 10 million km2 with a population of about 220 million people. In total, there are approximately 100 regional energy systems in the country. They form 11 unified energy systems. The largest of them are Southern, Central, Siberian, Ural.
The UES of the North-West, the Center, the Volga region, the South, the North Caucasus and the Urals are included in the UES of the European part. They are connected by such high-voltage lines as Samara - Moscow (500 kW), Samara - Chelyabinsk, Volgograd - Moscow (500 kW), Volgograd - Donbass (800 kW), Moscow - St. Petersburg (750 kW), etc.
Today, in the transition to a market economy, familiarization with the experience of coordinating the activities and competition of various owners in the electricity sector of Western countries can be useful for choosing the most rational principles. joint work owners of electric power facilities operating as part of the Unified Energy System.
A coordinating body has been created - the Electric Power Council of the CIS countries. The principles of joint operation of the unified energy systems of the CIS have been developed and agreed upon.
Development of the electric power industry in modern conditions must take into account the following principles:
- to build environmentally friendly power plants and transfer thermal power plants to a cleaner fuel - natural gas;
- create CHPPs for heating industries, agriculture and public utilities, which provides fuel savings and doubles the efficiency of power plants;
- build small-capacity power plants, taking into account the electricity needs of large regions;
- unite different types power plants into a single energy system;
- to build pumped-storage stations on small rivers, especially in regions of Russia with an acute shortage of energy;
- use non-traditional fuels, wind, solar, sea tide, geothermal water, etc. in obtaining electrical energy.
The need to develop a new energy policy in Russia is determined by a number of objective factors:
- the collapse of the USSR and the formation Russian Federation as a truly sovereign state;
- fundamental changes in the socio-political structure, economic and geopolitical position of the country, the adopted course for its integration into the world economic system;
- fundamental expansion of the rights of subjects of the Federation - republics, territories, regions, etc.;
- a fundamental change in the relationship between government and economic independent enterprises, rapid growth independent commercial structures;
- a deep crisis in the country's economy and energy, in overcoming which energy can play an important role;
- reorientation of the fuel and energy complex towards the priority solution of social problems of society, increased requirements for environmental protection.
Unlike the previous energy programs, which were created within the framework of the planned-administrative management system and directly determined the volumes of energy production and the resources allocated for this, the new energy policy has a completely different content.
The main instruments of the new energy policy should be:
- bringing, simultaneously with the convertibility of the ruble, energy prices in line with world prices with a gradual smoothing of price fluctuations in the domestic market;
- corporatization of enterprises of the fuel and energy complex with the involvement of Money population, foreign investors and domestic commercial structures;
- support for independent energy producers, primarily focused on the use of local and renewable energy resources.
Accepted legislative acts for the energy complex, the main objectives of which are:
- Preservation of the integrity of the electric power complex and the UES of Russia.
- Organization of a competitive electricity market as a tool for stabilizing energy prices and increasing the efficiency of the electric power industry.
- Expansion of opportunities to attract investments for the development of the Unified Energy System of Russia and regional energy companies.
- Increasing the role of the subjects of the Federation (regions, territories, autonomies) in managing the development of the UES of the Russian Federation.
In the future, Russia should abandon the construction of new and large thermal and hydraulic stations, which require huge investments and create environmental tension. It is planned to build a thermal power plant of small and medium capacity and small nuclear power plants in remote northern and eastern regions. On the Far East the development of hydropower is envisaged through the construction of a cascade of medium and small hydropower plants.
New thermal power plants will be built on gas, and only in the Kansk-Achinsk basin is it planned to build powerful condensing power plants.
An important aspect of the expansion of the energy market is the possibility of increasing the export of fuel and energy from Russia.
Russia's energy strategy is based on the following three main goals:
- Curbing inflation through the presence of large reserves of energy resources, which should provide internal and external financing of the country.
- Ensuring the worthy role of energy as a factor in increasing labor productivity and improving the lives of the population.
- Reducing the technogenic load of the fuel and energy complex on the environment.
The highest priority of the energy strategy is to increase the efficiency of energy consumption and energy saving.
For the period of formation and development of market relations, a structural policy has been developed in the field of energy and fuel industry for the next 10-15 years.
It provides:
- improving the efficiency of use natural gas and its shares in domestic consumption and in exports;
- increase in deep processing and integrated use of hydrocarbon raw materials;
- improving the quality of coal products, stabilizing and increasing coal production (mainly open way) as environmentally acceptable technologies for its use are mastered;
- overcoming the recession and a moderate increase in oil production.
- intensification of local energy resources of hydropower, peat, a significant increase in the use of renewable energy resources - solar, wind, geothermal energy, coal mine methane, biogas, etc.;
- improving the reliability of nuclear power plants. Development of extremely safe and economical new reactors, including low-power ones
Location factors for power industry enterprises, leading factors: raw materials and consumer
Fuel and Energy Complex is the leading consumer factor
IES (condensation) - focused on sources of raw materials and consumers
NPP - for the consumer (uranium - cheap raw material)
HPP - orientation to large rivers (Volga, Yenisei)
Geothermal power plants - for raw materials
Helio ES - solar energy
Wind power plants - the presence of wind
Principles for the development of the electric power industry in Russia:
Concentration of electricity production through the construction of large power plants using cheap fuel and hydro energy resources
combined production email Heat energy.
Wide development of hydro energy resources, taking into account the complex solution of problems.
Development of nuclear energy.
Accounting for environmental requirements when creating electric power facilities
Creation of energy systems forming a single high-voltage network of the country.
The goals of creating en. systems:
Redistribution of the load, ensuring the economic mode of using email. Energy. En. system is interdependent within certain territory a combination of ES of different types operating for a common load.
There are 70 en districts in Russia. Systems, they form regional power systems (Central, Ural, Siberian)
Thermal power plants (TPP). The main type of power plants in Russia are thermal, operating on fossil fuels (coal, fuel oil, gas, shale, peat). Among them, the main role is played by powerful (more than 2 million kW) GRES - state district power plants that meet the needs of the economic region, operating in energy systems.
The placement of thermal power plants is mainly influenced by fuel and consumer factors. The most powerful thermal power plants are located, as a rule, in places where fuel is extracted. Thermal power plants using local fuels (peat, oil shale, low-calorie and high-ash coals) are consumer-oriented and at the same time are located near sources of fuel resources. Consumer-oriented are power plants that use high-calorie fuel, which is economically profitable to transport. As for thermal power plants operating on fuel oil, they are located mainly in the centers of the oil refining industry.
Large thermal power plants are the coal fired power plant of the Kansko-Achinsk basin, Berezovskaya GRES-1 and GRES-2. Surgutskaya GRES-2, Urengoyskaya GRES (runs on gas).
A powerful territorial production complex is being created on the basis of the Kansk-Achinsk basin. The TPK project envisaged the creation of 10 unique super-powerful state district power plants of 6.4 million kW each on the territory of about 10 thousand km 2 around Krasnoyarsk. At present, the number of planned hydropower plants has been reduced to 8 so far (for environmental reasons - emissions into the atmosphere, accumulations of ash in huge quantities).
Hydraulic power plants (HPP). Hydroelectric power stations are in second place in terms of the amount of electricity generated (16.5% in 1991). Hydroelectric power plants are a very efficient source of energy, since they use renewable resources, are easy to manage (the number of personnel at hydroelectric power plants is 15-20 times less than at state district power plants) and have a high efficiency factor (more than 80%). As a result, the energy produced by hydroelectric power plants is the cheapest.
The great advantage of hydroelectric power plants is their high maneuverability, i.e., the possibility of almost instantaneous automatic start-up and shutdown of any required number of units. This makes it possible to use powerful HPPs either as the most flexible "peak" power plants that ensure the stable operation of large power systems, or during the period of daily peaks in the load of the electrical system, when the available capacities of TPPs are not enough. Naturally, only a powerful hydroelectric power station can do this.
But the construction of a hydroelectric power station requires a long time and large specific investments, leads to the loss of flat lands, and damages the fisheries. The share of HPPs in electricity generation is significantly less than their share in the installed capacity, which is explained by the fact that their full capacity is realized only in a short period of time, and only in high-water years. Therefore, despite the provision of Russia with hydropower resources, hydropower cannot serve as the basis for generating electricity in the country.
The most powerful HPPs were built in Siberia, where hydro resources are most effectively developed: specific capital investments are 2-3 times lower and the cost of electricity is 4-5 times lower than in the European part of the country.
Hydro construction in our country was characterized by the construction of cascades of hydroelectric power stations on rivers. A cascade is a group of hydroelectric power stations located in stages along the water stream in order to consistently use its energy. At the same time, in addition to obtaining electricity, the problems of supplying the population and production with water, eliminating floods, and improving transport conditions are being solved. Unfortunately, the creation of cascades in the country led to extremely negative consequences: the loss of valuable agricultural land, especially floodplain land, and the disruption of the ecological balance.
HPPs can be divided into two main groups; HPPs on large lowland rivers and HPPs on mountain rivers. In our country, most of the hydroelectric power plants were built on lowland rivers. Plain reservoirs are usually large in area and change natural conditions over large areas. The sanitary condition of water bodies is deteriorating. Sewage, which was previously carried out by rivers, accumulates in reservoirs, and special measures have to be taken to flush out riverbeds and reservoirs. The construction of hydroelectric power stations on lowland rivers is less profitable than on mountainous ones. But sometimes it is necessary to create normal navigation and irrigation.
The largest HPPs in the country are part of the Angara-Yenisei cascade: Sayano-Shushenskaya, Krasnoyarskaya on the Yenisei, Irkutskaya, Bratskaya, Ust-Ilimskaya on the Angara, Boguchanskaya HPP (4 million kW) is being built.
In the European part of the country, a large cascade of hydroelectric power plants was created on the Volga: Ivankovskaya, Uglichskaya, Rybinskaya, Gorkovskaya, Cheboksarskaya, Volzhskaya im. IN AND. Lenin, Saratov, Volga.
Now there are 9 nuclear power plants in Russia with a total capacity of 20.2 million kW. Another 14 nuclear power plants and ACT (nuclear heat supply station) with a total capacity of 17.2 million kW are under design, construction or temporarily mothballed.
At present, the practice of international expertise of projects and operating NPPs has been introduced. As a result of the examination, 2 units of the Voronezh NPP were decommissioned, the Beloyarsk NPP is planned to be decommissioned, the first power unit of the Novovoronezh NPP was shut down, the almost finished Rostov NPP was mothballed, and a number of projects are being reviewed again. It was found that in a number of cases the locations of nuclear power plants were chosen poorly, and the quality of their construction and equipment did not always meet regulatory requirements.
The principles of NPP placement were revised. First of all, it is taken into account: the need of the region for electricity, natural conditions (in particular, a sufficient amount of water), population density, the possibility of ensuring the protection of people from unacceptable radiation exposure in certain emergency situations.
This takes into account the likelihood of earthquakes, floods, and the presence of nearby groundwater at the proposed site. Nuclear power plants should be located no closer than 25 km from cities with more than 100 thousand inhabitants, for ACT - no closer than 5 km. The total capacity of the power plant is limited: NPP - 8 million kW, ACT - 2 million kW.
New in the nuclear power industry is the creation of the APEC and ACT. At the CHPP, as well as at a conventional CHPP, both electrical and thermal energy are produced, and at ACT (nuclear heat supply stations) only thermal energy is produced. The Voronezh and Nizhny Novgorod ACTs are under construction. The ATEC operates in the village of Bilibino in Chukotka. The Leningrad and Beloyarsk NPPs also provide low-grade heat for heating needs. In Nizhny Novgorod, the decision to create ACT caused sharp protests from the population, so an examination was carried out by IAEA specialists, who gave a conclusion about the high quality of the project. The advantages of nuclear power plants boil down to the following: you can build in any area, regardless of its energy resources; nuclear fuel is distinguished by an unusually high energy content (1 kg of the main nuclear fuel - uranium - contains as much energy as 25,000 tons of coal: nuclear power plants do not emit emissions into the atmosphere under conditions of trouble-free operation (unlike thermal power plants), do not absorb oxygen from air.
The operation of nuclear power plants is accompanied by a number of negative consequences:
1. Existing difficulties in the use of atomic energy - disposal of radioactive waste. For export from stations, containers with powerful protection and a cooling system are being built. Burial is carried out in the ground at great depths in geologically stable strata.
Advantages and disadvantages of TPPAdvantages: 1. The fuel used is quite cheap. 2. Require less investment. 3. Can be built anywhere regardless of fuel availability. 4. They occupy a smaller area compared to hydroelectric power plants. 5. The cost of generating electricity is less than that of diesel power plants.
Disadvantages: 1. Pollute the atmosphere. 2. Higher operating costs compared to hydroelectric power plants.
Advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric power plantsAdvantages:- use of renewable energy; - very cheap electricity; - operation is not accompanied by harmful emissions into the atmosphere; - quick (relative to CHP / TPP) access to the operating power output mode after the station is turned on.
Disadvantages:- flooding of arable land; - construction is carried out where there are large reserves of water energy; - on mountain rivers are dangerous due to the high seismicity of the areas.
Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power plantsAdvantages:- Absence of harmful emissions; - Emissions of radioactive substances are several times less than a coal-fired power plant of similar capacity; - A small amount of fuel used, the possibility of reusing it after processing; - High power: 1000-1600 MW per unit; - Low cost of energy, especially heat.
Disadvantages:- Irradiated fuel is dangerous, requires complex and expensive measures for processing and storage; - Undesirable mode of operation with variable power for reactors operating on thermal neutrons; - With a low probability of incidents, their consequences are extremely severe; - Large capital investment.
Advantages of PES is environmental friendliness and low cost of energy production. The disadvantages are the high cost of construction and the power changing during the day, because of which the PES can only work as part of a power system that has sufficient power of other types of power plants.
Virtuesgeothermal energy we can consider the practical inexhaustibility of resources, independence from external conditions, time of day and year, the possibility of the integrated use of thermal waters for the needs of thermal power and medicine. disadvantages it is the high mineralization of thermal waters of most deposits and the presence of toxic compounds and metals, which in most cases excludes the discharge of thermal waters into natural reservoirs.
Wind power plants (WPP)
WES advantages:- do not pollute the environment with harmful emissions; - wind energy, under certain conditions, can compete with non-renewable energy sources; - the source of wind energy - nature - is inexhaustible.
Disadvantages:- the wind is naturally unstable; - wind power plants create harmful noises in various sound spectra; - wind farms interfere with television and various communication systems; - Wind farms cause harm to birds if placed on migration and nesting routes.
Principles and factors of placement of electric power industry.
The principles of location of production are the initial scientific provisions that guide the state in its economic policy.
Basic principles for the development of the electric power industry. 1. Concentration of electricity generation through construction large district power plants using cheap fuel and water resources.
2. Combined production of electricity and heat (cogeneration of cities and industrial centers).
3. Widespread development of hydro resources, taking into account the integrated solution of the problems of the electric power industry, transport, and water supply.
4. Development of nuclear energy (especially in areas with a tense fuel and energy balance).
5. Creation of power systems, formation of high-voltage networks.
The electric power industry is characterized by rapid growth and high level centralization (regional power plants produce over 90% of electricity in the country). Energy and economic conditions influence the distribution of productive forces: the provision of the region with energy resources, the amount of reserves, quality and economic indicators. Placement factors are considered to be a set of conditions for the most rational choice of the location of an economic object, a group of objects, an industry or a specific territorial organization of the structure of the economy of the republic, economic region, TPK. A relatively small number of factors have a direct impact on the location of industry: raw materials, fuel and energy, water, work force, consumer and transport.
Factors Determining the Development and Location of the Russian Electric Power Industry The electric power industry of Russia includes thermal, nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants (including hydrostorage and tidal power plants), other power plants (wind and solar power plants, geothermal power plants), electric and heat networks, and independent boiler houses.Diagram #1
As diagram #1 shows, most of the power plants in Russia are thermal. The principle of operation of thermal power plants is based on the sequential conversion of the chemical energy of the fuel into heat and electrical energy for consumers. Thermal power plants operate on fossil fuels (coal, fuel oil, gas, shale, peat). Among them, the main role, it should be noted, is played by powerful (more than 2 million kW) GRES - state district power plants that meet the needs of the economic region, operating in energy systems. Thermal power plants have both advantages and disadvantages. Positive compared to other types of power plants is:
Relatively free deployment associated with the wide distribution of fuel resources in Russia;
Ability to generate electricity without seasonal fluctuations (unlike GRES)
The negative factors include:
TPP has a low coefficient useful action If we sequentially evaluate the various stages of energy conversion, it can be noted that no more than 32% of the fuel energy is converted into electrical energy.
The fuel resources of our planet are limited, so we need power plants that will not use fossil fuels. In addition, TPP has an extremely adverse impact on the environment. Thermal power plants all over the world, including Russia, annually emit 200-250 million tons of ash and about 60 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, they absorb a huge amount of oxygen.
Also, thermal power plants have high costs for the extraction, transportation, processing and disposal of fuel waste.
Thus, thermal power plants have both positive and negative aspects of their work, which have a great impact on the existence of the entire population of Russia. As for the territorial location of thermal power plants, it should be noted that location factors have a great influence, namely: the raw material factor and the consumer factor. Thermal power plants are built, as a rule, in areas where cheap fuel is extracted (low-quality coal) or in areas of significant energy consumption (fuel oil and gas). The main power plants are located near large industrial centers (Kanapovskaya TPP). Thermal power plants also include thermal power plants, which, unlike hydroelectric power plants, produce not only energy, but also steam, hot water. And since these products are often used in chemistry, petrochemistry, timber processing, industry, agriculture, this gives CHP significant advantages. The largest state district power plants in Russia are concentrated in the Center and in the Urals. The largest of them are Permskaya (4800 MW), Reftinskaya (3800 MW), Kostroma (3600 MW), Konakovskaya (2000 MW), Iriklinskaya (2000 MW). The largest state district power plant in Siberia is Surgutskaya-2 (4800 MW). All main indicators are presented in table No. 1
Table No. 1 GRES with a capacity of more than 2 million kW
| economic region | Subject of the federation | GRES | Power, million kW | Fuel |
| Northwestern | Leningrad region, Kirishi | Kirishskaya | 2,1 | fuel oil |
| Central | Kostroma region, settlement Volgorechensk Ryazan Oblast, settlement Novomichurinsk Tver region, Konakovo | Kostroma Ryazan Konakovskaya | 3,6 | Fuel oil, gas Coal, fuel oil Fuel oil, gas |
| North Caucasian | Stavropol Territory, pos. Solnechnodolsk | Stavropol | 2,4 | Fuel oil, gas |
| Volga region | Republic of Tatarstan, Zainek | Zainskaya | 2,4 | Gas |
| Ural | Sverdlovsk region, settlement Reftinsky Chelyabinsk region, Troitsk Orenburg region, village Energetik | Refty some Troitskaya Iriklinskaya | 3,8 | Coal Coal Fuel oil, gas |
| West Siberian | Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug - Yugra, g, Surgut | Surgutskaya Surgut GRES-2 | 3,1 | Gas |
| East Siberian | Krasnoyarsk region, Nazarovo Krasnoyarsk region, Berezovskoe | Nazarovskaya Berezovskaya | 6,0 | Coal Coal |
| Far Eastern | The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Neryungri | Neryungri | 2,1 | Coal |
Another important and effective direction of the electric power industry is hydropower. This industry is a key element in ensuring the system reliability of the country's Unified Energy System, having more than 90% of the regulation power reserve. Hydroelectric power plants are in second place in terms of the amount of electricity generated. Of all existing types It is hydroelectric power plants that are the most maneuverable and, if necessary, can significantly increase production volumes in a matter of minutes, covering peak loads (they have a high efficiency of more than 80%). The main advantage of this type of power plants is that they produce the cheapest electricity, but have a rather high construction cost. It was hydroelectric power stations that allowed the Soviet government in the first decades Soviet power make a breakthrough in the industry. Modern hydroelectric power plants can produce up to 7 million tons per year. kW of energy, which is two times higher than the current TPPs and NPPs, but the placement of HPPs in the European part of Russia is difficult due to the high cost of land and the impossibility of flooding large territories in this region.
Currently, there are more than 200 hydroelectric power stations in Russia. Their total capacity is estimated at 43 million kW. The largest hydroelectric power stations are concentrated in Siberia. These are Sayanskaya (6400 MW), Krasnoyarskaya (6000 MW), Bratskaya (4500 MW) and Ust-Ilimskaya (4200 MW) HPPs. The largest hydroelectric power stations in the European part of the country were built on the Volga in the form of a so-called cascade. These are Volzhskaya (2500 MW), Volgogradskaya (2400 MW) and Kuibyshevskaya (2300 MW) HPPs. Several HPPs have been built in the Far East, the largest of which are the Bureinskaya (up to 2,000 MW in the future) and the Zeya hydroelectric complex (1,000 MW). The table describes the main cascades of GRES in Russia.
Table number 2. Locations of the main HPP cascades
| economic region | Subject of the federation | hydroelectric power station | Power |
| million kW | |||
| East Siberian | The Republic of Khakassia, | ||
| (Angaro-Yenisei cascade) | settlement Maina on the river. Yenisei | Sayano-Shushenskaya | 6,4 |
| Krasnoyarsk region, | |||
| Divnogorsk on the river. Yenisei | Krasnoyarsk | 6,0 | |
| Irkutsk region, | |||
| Bratsk on the river. Angara | Fraternal | 4,5 | |
| Irkutsk region, | |||
| Ust-Ilimsk on the river. Angara | Ust-Ilimskaya | 4,3 | |
| Irkutsk region, | |||
| Irkutsk on the river. Angara | Irkutsk | 4,1 | |
| Krasnoyarsk region, | |||
| Boguchany on the river. Angara | Boguchanskaya | 4,0 | |
| Volga region | |||
| (Volga-Kama cascade, | |||
| total includes | Volgograd region, | Volzhskaya | |
| 13 hydro units with a capacity | Volgograd on the river. Volga | (Volgograd) | 2,5 |
| 11.5 million kW) | Samara Region, | ||
| Samara on the river. Volga | Volzhskaya (Samara) | 2,3 | |
| Saratov region, | |||
| Balakovo on the river. Volga | Saratov | 1,4 | |
| Chuvash Republic, | |||
| Novocheboksarsk on the river. Volga | Cheboksary | 1,4 | |
| Republic of Udmurtia, | |||
| Votkinsk on the river. Kama | Botkinskaya | 1,0 |
As you know, a cascade is a group of hydroelectric power stations located in steps along the water flow for the consistent use of energy. At the same time, in addition to obtaining electricity, the problems of supplying the population and production with water, eliminating floods, and improving transport conditions are being solved. But the creation of cascades led to the violation of the ecological balance. The positive properties of HPPs include: - higher maneuverability and reliability of equipment operation; - high labor productivity; - renewable energy sources; - no costs for the extraction, transportation and disposal of waste fuel; - low cost. Negative properties HPP: - the possibility of flooding settlements, farmland and communications; - negative impact on flora, fauna; - high cost of construction.
As for the territorial location of HPPs, it should be noted that Eastern Siberia and the Far East are considered the most promising regions of Russia. 1/3 of the potential of Russia's energy resources is concentrated in Eastern Siberia. Therefore, in previous years, it was planned to build about 40 power plants in the Yenisei basin. The Far East region was also considered promising, since only 3% of the available potential of hydropower resources out of 1/4 available are used here. In the Western zone, new construction was considered on a much smaller scale.
The construction of pumped storage power plants (PSPP) is promising. Their action is based on the cyclic movement of the same volume of water between two basins (upper and lower) connected by conduits. At night, due to the surplus of electricity generated at constantly operating thermal power plants and hydroelectric power plants, water from the lower basin is pumped into the upper basin through conduits that work like pumps. During the hours of daily peak loads, when there is not enough energy in the network, water from the upper pool is discharged through conduits, which are already operating as turbines, into the lower pool with energy generation. This is one of the few ways to accumulate electricity, so pumped storage power plants are built in areas of its greatest consumption. The Zagorskaya PSP operates in Russia, with a capacity of 1.2 million kW.
Nuclear energy of the Russian Federation. The next important branch of the electric power industry in Russia is nuclear energy. Back in the Soviet period, a course was taken to develop nuclear power. An example of the accelerated development of this industry for Russia has always been France and Japan, which have long experienced a shortage of organic fuel. The development of nuclear energy in the USSR proceeded at a rather rapid pace until Chernobyl disaster, the consequences of which affected 11 regions of the former USSR with a population of over 17 million people. But the development of nuclear energy in Russia is inevitable, and the majority of the population understands this, and the very rejection of nuclear energy will lead to enormous costs. So, for example, if the nuclear power plant is stopped today, an additional 100 million tons of reference fuel will be required. For this period of development, there are 10 operating nuclear power plants in Russia, where 30 power units operate.
Table No. 3 Nuclear power plants.
| economic region | City, subject of the Federation | nuclear plant | Reactor type | Power |
| Northwestern | Sosnovy Bor Leningrad region | Leningradskaya | RBMK | 4 million kW |
| Central Black Earth | Kurchatov, Kursk region | Kursk | RBMK | 4 million kW |
| Volga region | Balakovo, Saratov region | Balakovskaya | VVER | 4 million kW |
| Central | Roslavl, Smolensk region | Smolensk | RBMK | 3 million kW |
| Central | Udomlya, Tver region | Kalininskaya | VVER | 2 million kW |
| Central Black Earth | Novovoronezh, Voronezh region | Novovoronezhskaya | VVER | 1.8 million kW |
| Northern | Kandalaksha, Murmansk region | Kola | VVER | 1.8 million kW |
| Ural | Zarechny Sverdlovsk region | Beloyarskaya | BN-600 | 600 MW |
| Far Eastern | Bilibino, Chukotka Autonomous Region | Bilibinskaya | EGP-6 | 48 MW |
| North Caucasian | Volgodonsk, Rostov region | Volgodonskaya | VVER | 1 million kW |
Balakovo nuclear power plant.
In 1985-1993 on the banks of the Saratov reservoir. Volga, four power units with modernized VVER-1000 reactors were built. Each of the power units with an electric capacity of 1000 MW consists of a reactor, four steam generators, one turbine and one turbogenerator. Balakovo NPP is the youngest plant with new generation power units.
Kursk nuclear power plant.
The station was built in 1976-1985. in the very center of the European part of the country, 40 km southwest of the city of Kursk on the banks of the river. Seim. There are four power units with high power uranium-graphite boiling reactors (RBMK) with electric power of 1000 MW each in operation. The power units are gradually and consistently working to improve their safety level.
Leningrad nuclear power plant.
The construction of the nuclear power plant began in 1970 on the coast of the Gulf of Finland southwest of Leningrad in the town of Sosnovy Bor. Since 1981, four power units with RBMK-1000 reactors have been in operation. With the launch of the Leningrad NPP, the construction of plants with reactors of this type began. Successful operation of the plant's power units is a convincing proof of the operability and reliability of nuclear power plants with RBMK reactors. Since 1992, Leningrad NPP has been an independent operating organization that performs all tasks to ensure safe operation power units of a nuclear power plant.
Main positive properties NUCLEAR PLANT:
They can be built in any area, regardless of its energy resources;
Nuclear fuel has a high energy content;
NPPs do not emit emissions into the atmosphere under conditions of trouble-free operation;
They do not absorb oxygen.
Negative properties of nuclear power plants:
There are difficulties in the disposal of radioactive waste. For their removal from the stations, containers with powerful protection and a cooling system are being built. Burial is carried out in the earth at great depths in geologically stable layers;
Catastrophic consequences of accidents at nuclear power plants due to an imperfect protection system;
Thermal pollution of reservoirs used by nuclear power plants.
The most important problem of modern nuclear energy is controlled thermonuclear fusion. They began to seriously engage in at least 40 years ago. And, starting from the mid-1970s, the transition to the construction of a semi-industrial plant was announced several times. The last time it was said that this could happen by the year 2000. If this happens, then humanity will have an almost inexhaustible source of energy. But until this happens, attempts are being made, more and more active every year, to use the so-called non-traditional and renewable energy sources. The most important such sources include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal and biomass energy.
Alternative energy. Solar energy. Despite the fact that Russia is still in the sixth ten countries of the world in terms of the degree of use of the so-called non-traditional and renewable types of energy, the development of this direction has great importance especially given the size of the country.
The most traditional source of "non-traditional" energy is considered to be solar energy. The total amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface is 6.7 times the global fossil fuel resource potential. The use of only 0.5% of this reserve could completely cover the world's energy needs for millennia. On Sev. The technical potential of solar energy in Russia (2.3 billion tons of conventional fuel per year) is approximately 2 times higher than today's fuel consumption.
The problem of utilization of environmentally friendly and, moreover, free solar energy has been of concern to mankind since time immemorial, but only recently, progress in this direction has allowed us to begin to form a real, developing market for solar energy. To date, the main methods of direct utilization of solar energy are its conversion into electrical and thermal energy. Devices that convert solar energy into electrical energy are called photovoltaic or photovoltaic, and devices that convert solar energy into thermal energy are called thermal. There are two main directions in the development of solar energy: the solution of the global issue of energy supply and the creation of solar converters designed to perform specific local tasks. These converters, in turn, are also divided into two groups; high temperature and low temperature. In the converters of the first type, the sun's rays are concentrated on a small area, the temperature of which rises to 3000°C. Such facilities already exist. They are used, for example, for melting metals.
The most numerous part of solar converters operates at much lower temperatures - about 100-200°C. With their help, water is heated, desalinated, lifted from wells. Food is cooked in sunny kitchens. Vegetables, fruits are dried with concentrated solar heat, and even food is frozen. Solar energy can be stored during the day to heat houses and greenhouses at night. Solar installations require virtually no operating costs, do not need to be repaired and require only construction and maintenance costs. They can work indefinitely.
But due to the scattering of sunlight by the earth's surface, for the construction of a power station comparable in power to modern nuclear power plants, solar panels with an area of 8 km 2 would be needed, collecting sunlight. The high cost of stations, the need for large areas and the high proportion of cloudy days in the vast majority of Russian regions, apparently, will not allow us to talk about a significant contribution of solar energy to the Russian energy industry. Wind energy.
Various types of non-traditional forms of energy are at various stages of development. Paradoxically, the most variable and fickle form of energy, the wind, has received the greatest use. Wind energy is developing especially actively - 24% per year. It is now the fastest growing sector of the energy industry in the world.
At the beginning of the 20th century, interest in propellers and wind turbines was not isolated from the general trends of the time - to use the wind wherever possible. Initially most widespread wind turbines received in agriculture. In Russia, by the beginning of the 20th century, about 2,500 thousand windmills with a total capacity of one million kilowatts were rotating. After 1917, the mills were left without owners and gradually collapsed. True, attempts were made to use wind energy already in scientific and state basis. In 1931, the largest at that time was built near Yalta. wind turbine with a capacity of 100 kW, and later a project for a 5000 kW unit was developed. But it was not possible to implement it, since the Institute of Wind Energy, which dealt with this problem, was closed.
A significant disadvantage of wind energy is its variability over time, but it can be compensated for by the location of wind turbines. If, under conditions of complete autonomy, several dozen large wind turbines are combined, then their average power will be constant. In the presence of other sources of energy, the wind generator can supplement the existing ones. And, finally, mechanical energy can be directly obtained from the wind turbine. The principle of operation of all wind turbines is the same: under the pressure of the wind, a wind wheel with blades rotates, transmitting torque through the transmission system to the shaft of the generator that generates electricity, to the water pump. The larger the diameter of the wind wheel, the more air flow it captures and the more energy the unit generates. The use of wind energy is effective in areas with an average annual wind speed of more than 5 m/s. In Russia, this is the coast of the Arctic Ocean and Primorye. It is most promising to install wind turbines here to generate electricity for local autonomous consumers. Unfortunately, powerful wind systems have an undesirable impact on the environment. They are unattractive in appearance, occupy large areas, create a lot of noise, and in the event of an accident are very dangerous. In addition, the cost of building such systems along the coasts to generate electricity is so high that the energy they receive is several times more expensive than energy from conventional sources.
In Russia, the gross potential of wind energy is 80 trillion. kW / h per year, and in the North Caucasus - 200 billion kW / h (62 million tons of conventional fuel). (I,6) These values are significantly greater than the corresponding values of the organic fuel technical potential.
So the capacity solar radiation and wind energy, in principle, is sufficient for the needs of energy consumption, both in the country and in the regions. The disadvantages of these types of energy include instability, cyclicality and uneven distribution over the territory; therefore, the use of solar and wind energy requires, as a rule, the accumulation of thermal, electrical or chemical. However, it is possible to create a complex of power plants that would supply energy directly to a single energy system, which would provide huge reserves for continuous energy consumption.
Tidal power plants.
Experiments with the use of tidal energy on the Kola Peninsula (Kislogubskaya TPP) were completed several years ago due to the termination of funding for the pilot plant. Nevertheless, the accumulated experience in the disposal of ebbs and flows has shown that this is not at all a problem-free enterprise. For effective work the station requires a tidal wave height of more than 5 m. Unfortunately, almost everywhere the tides have a height of about 2 m, and only about 30 places on Earth meet the specified requirements. In Russia, these are the White Sea and the Gizhiginskaya Bay in the Far East. Tide stations may be of great local importance in the future, as they are one of the energy systems that operate without serious environmental damage.
geothermal energy.
The most stable source can be geothermal energy. Gross global geothermal energy potential in earth's crust at a depth of up to 10 km is estimated at 18,000 trillion. t conv. fuel, which is 1700 times more than the world's geological reserves of fossil fuels. In Russia, the resources of geothermal energy only in the upper layer of the crust, 3 km deep, amount to 180 trillion. t conv. fuel. Using only about 0.2% of this potential could cover the country's energy needs. The only question is the rational, cost-effective and environmentally sound use of these resources. It is precisely because these conditions have not yet been observed in attempts to create pilot plants for the use of geothermal energy in the country that today we cannot industrially master such vast reserves of energy. Geothermal energy involves the use of thermal water for heating and hot water supply and steam-water mixture in the construction of geothermal power plants. Estimated reserves of the steam-water mixture, concentrated mainly in the Kuril-Kamchatka zone, can ensure the operation of a geothermal power plant with a capacity of up to 1000 MW, which exceeds the installed capacity of the Kamchatka and Sakhalin energy systems combined. Currently, the Pauzhetskaya geothermal power plant operates in Kamchatka, using underground heat to generate electricity. It operates in automatic mode and is characterized by a low cost of electricity supplied. It is assumed that geothermal energy, like the energy of the tides, will have a purely local significance and will not play a big role on a global scale. Experience has shown that no more than 1% of the thermal energy of a geothermal pool can be efficiently extracted.
It should be noted that the majority of renewable energy sources in the conditions of economic instability in Russia are uncompetitive in comparison with traditional power plants due to the high unit cost of electricity.
Thus, attempts to use non-traditional and renewable energy sources in Russia are of an experimental and semi-experimental nature, or at best, such sources play the role of local, strictly local energy producers. The latter also applies to the use of wind energy. This is because Russia does not yet experience a shortage of traditional energy sources and its reserves of organic fuel and nuclear fuel are still quite large. However, even today in remote or hard-to-reach regions of Russia, where there is no need to build a large power plant, and there is often no one to serve it, "non-traditional" sources of electricity - best solution Problems.
Characteristics of placement by territory
The system of the Russian electric power industry is characterized by rather strong regional fragmentation due to state of the art high voltage lines. At present, the energy system of the Far East region is not connected to the rest of Russia and operates independently. Connecting the energy systems of Siberia and the European part of Russia is also very limited. The power systems of five European regions of Russia (North-Western, Central, Volga, Ural and North Caucasus) are interconnected, but the transmission capacity here is much less than within the regions themselves. The energy systems of these five regions, as well as Siberia and the Far East, are considered in Russia as separate regional unified energy systems. They link 68 of the 77 existing regional energy systems within the country. The remaining 9 power systems are completely isolated.
If we talk about the territorial location of thermal power plants, it turns out that thermal power plants are built, as a rule, in areas where cheap fuel is produced (low-quality coal) or in areas of significant energy consumption (fuel oil and gas). The main power plants are located near large industrial centers (Kanapovskaya TPP). The largest state district power plants in Russia are concentrated in the Center and in the Urals. Powerful thermal power plants are located, as a rule, in places where fuel is extracted. The larger the power plant, the farther it can transmit energy. Thermal power plants using local fuels are consumer-oriented and at the same time are located at sources of fuel resources.
As for the territorial location of HPPs, Eastern Siberia and the Far East are considered the most promising regions of Russia. 1/3 of the potential of Russia's energy resources is concentrated in Eastern Siberia. Therefore, in previous years, it was planned to build about 40 power plants in the Yenisei basin. The Far East region was also considered promising, since only 3% of the available potential of hydropower resources out of 1/4 available are used here. In the Western zone, new construction was considered on a much smaller scale. At the moment, the largest HPPs include Bratskaya on the Angara River, Sayano-Shushenskaya on the Yenisei River, Krasnoyarsk on the Yenisei River.
Nuclear power plants benefit from the fact that they can be built in any area, regardless of its energy resources. Thus, the largest nuclear power plants were built in the Saratov region - Balakovo NPP, in the Leningrad region - Leningradskaya, in the Kursk region - Kursk.
Temporal aspect of energy development in Russia.
In my opinion, the development of the energy system as a whole is inextricably linked with the prosperity of the entire economy of the country. At the same time, all ups and downs in the development of the electric power industry depend on the structure and state of the economy in Russia. Thus, electricity production in the Russian Federation was constantly growing until 1990, but in subsequent years it decreased. This was primarily due to the inflationary crisis. Since the end of 1991 in the programs economic policy For Russia, quite rightly, the task of getting out of this crisis has become a top priority. But the situation was too neglected, and the ongoing measures to curb inflation had no effect. Obviously, we had to put up with high inflation rates in 1993. A realistic goal was a gradual transition to moderate inflation in 1994. The macroeconomic model "Kasandra" showed that in 1993 the decline in production continued. The volume of the gross national product, compared with its value in 1987, decreased by more than 40%. (II,8) Only in 1996 one could expect stabilization and then rise in production. The crisis in production is accompanied by a sharp reduction in investment and production potential. This is not so noticeable during the crisis and during the period of economic recovery, but in the future it will become a strong deterrent to its development. As a result, it was only after 2000 that the Russian economy was almost able to reach a balanced sustainable course of development.
Thus, the crisis situation in the Russian energy sector after 1990 - This is a consequence of the general economic crisis in the country, the loss of controllability and the imbalance of the economy.
The main factors of the crisis are:
1. The presence of a large proportion of physically and morally obsolete equipment. About one fifth production assets in the electric power industry are close to or have exceeded the design life and require reconstruction or replacement. Equipment is being upgraded at an unacceptably slow pace and in a clearly insufficient volume.
2. An increase in the share of worn-out funds leads to an increase in accidents, frequent repairs and a decrease in the reliability of energy supply, which is exacerbated by excessive utilization of production capacities and insufficient reserves.
3. Increased with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the difficulties in the supply of equipment for the power industry.
4. The opposition of the public and local authorities to the placement of energy facilities due to their extremely low environmental friendliness and safety.
All these factors undoubtedly influenced the development of the Russian electric power industry in the 1990s. Electricity consumption in Russia after the decline of 1990-1998 in 2000-2005 increased steadily and in 2005 reached the level of 1993. At the same time, the peak load in the unified energy system of Russia in the winter of 2006 exceeded the figures for 1993 and amounted to 153.1 GW. (II.10). Thus, these tables show the amount of energy produced and consumed from 2001 to 2005.
Table No. 4
In accordance with the main parameters of the forecast balance of the electric power industry and RAO UES of Russia for 2006-2010, power consumption in Russia will grow to 1,045 billion kWh by 2010 compared to 939 billion kWh in 2005. Accordingly, , the annual growth rate of electricity consumption is projected at 2.2%. The average annual rate of increase in the winter maximum load is projected at the level of 2.5%. As a result, by 2010 this figure may increase by 18 GW - from 143.5 GW in 2005 to 160 GW in 2010. In case of repetition temperature regime winters of 2005-2006, an additional increase in load by 2010 will be 3.2 GW. Thus, according to OAO RAO UES of Russia, the total demand for installed capacity of power plants in Russia by 2010 will increase by 24.9 GW to 221.2 GW. At the same time, the increase in the need for reserve capacity in the period from 2005 to 2010 will be 3 GW, and the need for power plant capacity to ensure export deliveries in 2010 will be 5.6 GW, an increase compared to 2005 by 3.4 GW. . At the same time, due to the dismantling of equipment, the installed capacity of Russian power plants will decrease over the period 2006-2010. by 4.2 GW, and the total reduction in the installed capacity of power plants in the zone of centralized power supply in 2005-2010. forecast at 5.9 GW, from 210.5 GW to 204.6 GW. The shortage of electric power in Russia may occur already in 2008, and it will amount to 1.55 GW, and by 2009 it will increase to 4.7 GW.
For accommodation various kinds power plants are influenced by various factors. The placement of thermal power plants is mainly influenced by fuel and consumer factors. The most powerful thermal power plants are located, as a rule, in places where fuel is extracted, the larger the power plant, the farther it can transmit electricity. Thermal power plants using local fuels are consumer-oriented and at the same time are located at sources of fuel resources. Consumer-oriented are power plants that use high-calorie fuel, which is economically profitable to transport. Power plants operating on fuel oil are located mainly in the centers of the oil refining industry.
Most of the thermal power plants are located in the European part of the country and in the Urals. However, only one tenth of the fuel - energy resources is located on this territory. Until recently, the European part of the country managed with its own fuel. Donbass provided most of the required coal. Now the situation has changed. The extraction of own coals has decreased, as the mining and geological conditions of extraction have deteriorated sharply.
The situation with the fuel-energy resources of Siberia is different. High-calorific coals occur in Kuzbass. They are mined from depths 3-5 times smaller than in the Donbass, and even by open pit mining from the surface. In the other richest Kamsko-Achinsk deposit, the thickness of coal seams reaches 100 m, they lie at a shallow depth, their extraction is carried out by an open method, the cost of mining one ton is 5-6 times less than in the mines of the European part.
A powerful fuel-energy complex (KATEK) is being created on the basis of the Kama-Aga basin. According to the KATEK project, it was supposed to create ten unique super-powerful state district power plants of 6.4 million kW each on the territory of about 10 thousand km 2 around Krasnoyarsk. At present, the number of planned hydroelectric power stations has so far decreased to eight (for environmental reasons - emissions into the atmosphere, accumulations of ash in huge quantities). Currently, the construction of only the first stage of KATEK has begun. In 1989, the first unit of Berezovskaya GRES-1 with a capacity of 800 thousand kW was put into operation, and the issue of building GRES-2 and GRES-3 of the same capacity (at a distance of 9 km from one another) has already been resolved.
Berezovskaya GRES-1 and GRES-2, Surgutskaya GRES-2, Urengoyskaya GRES are large thermal power plants burning coals from the Kama-Achinsk basin.
Since hydraulic power plants use the power of falling water to generate electricity, they are accordingly focused on hydropower resources. Russia's vast hydropower resources are unevenly distributed. In the Far East and Siberia they account for 66% of the total. Therefore, it is natural that the most powerful HPPs were built in Siberia, where the development of hydro resources is most efficient: specific capital investments are 2–3 times lower and the cost of electricity is 4–5 times lower than in the European part of the country.
Hydro construction in our country was characterized by the construction of cascades of hydroelectric power stations on rivers. A cascade group of thermal power plants arranged in steps downstream of a water stream for the consistent use of its energy. At the same time, in addition to obtaining electricity, the problems of supplying the population and production with water, eliminating floods, and improving transport conditions are being solved. Unfortunately, the creation of cascades in the country led to extremely negative consequences: the loss of valuable agricultural land, the violation of the ecological balance.
HPPs can be divided into two main groups: HPPs on large lowland rivers and HPPs on mountain rivers. In our country, most of the hydroelectric power plants were built on lowland rivers. Plain reservoirs are usually large in area and change the natural conditions in large areas. The sanitary condition of water bodies is deteriorating: sewage, which was previously carried out by rivers, accumulates in reservoirs, special measures have to be taken to flush river beds and reservoirs. The construction of hydroelectric power stations on lowland rivers is less profitable than on mountain rivers, but sometimes it is necessary, for example, to create normal navigation and irrigation.
The largest HPPs in the country are part of the Angara-Yenisei cascade: Sayano-Shushenskaya, Krasnoyarskaya - on the Yenisei, Irkutskaya, Bratskaya, Ust-Ilimskaya - on the Angara, Boguchanskaya HPP. In the European part of the country, the largest cascade of hydroelectric power stations on the Volga has been created. It includes: Ivankovskaya, Rybinskaya, Uglichskaya, Gorodetskaya, Cheboksary, Volzhskaya (near Samara), Saratovskaya, Volzhskaya (near Volgograd).
Nuclear power plants can be built in any area, regardless of its energy resources: nuclear fuel has a high energy content (1 kg of the main nuclear fuel - uranium - contains as much energy as 2500 tons of coal). In the conditions of trouble-free operation, nuclear power plants do not emit emissions into the atmosphere, therefore they are harmless to the consumer. IN Lately ATES and AST are being created. at the CHPP, as well as at a conventional CHPP, both electrical and thermal energy are produced, and at the AST. only thermal. Voronezh and Gorkovskaya AST are under construction. The ATEC operates in the village of Bilibino in Chukotka. The Leningrad and Beloyarsk nuclear power plants also provide low-potential heat for heating needs. In Nizhny Novgorod, the decision to create an AST caused sharp protests from the population, therefore, an examination was carried out by IATNTE specialists, who came to the conclusion that the project was completed at the highest level.
Each region practically has some kind of “non-traditional” energy and in the short term can make a significant contribution to the fuel-energy balance of Russia.
