Russian philosophical thought of the XIX century. Essence and phenomenon. By the nature of the connection of parts, various wholes are divided into three main types

ESSAY

Philosophical thought of Russia

1. Formation and development of Russian philosophy.

An integral part of the world historical and philosophical process is the centuries-old history of philosophy in Russia.

The national philosophy, which has passed the original path of development, reflected the cultural and historical development of the country. Born later than in neighboring countries, the domestic philosophical thought experienced a strong influence, first by Byzantine and ancient thought, then by Western European philosophy.

Domestic philosophical thought has some common features.

At first , Russian philosophy is closely related to social and political activities, with artistic and religious creativity. Hence the journalistic nature of many philosophical works, the authors of which are public figures, writers, scientists.

Secondly , Russian philosophy is not specifically engaged in the development of theoretical and cognitive problems, cognition becomes a subject of study in connection with the problems of being - this is the ontologism of Russian philosophy.

Thirdly , special attention is paid to the problem of human existence; in this regard, domestic thought is anthropocentric.

Fourth , socio-historical problems are closely related to the problem of man: the problem of the meaning of history, the place of Russia in world history... Russian philosophy is historiosophical.

Fifth , Russian philosophical thought is ethically oriented, as evidenced by the moral and practical nature of the problems it solves, attention is paid to the inner world of man. In general, Russian philosophical thought is heterogeneous, these features are not equally represented in the teachings of various thinkers.

It should be borne in mind that some researchers distinguish, within the framework of Russian philosophy, the original Russian philosophy, in fact, religious and mystical. According to A.F. Losev, "Russian original philosophy is an ongoing struggle between the Western European ratio and the Eastern Christian, concrete, divine-human Logos."

There are several periods in the history of Russian philosophical thought: the first is the philosophical thought of Ancient Rus in the 10th - 17th centuries; the second is the philosophy of the Enlightenment (18th - early 19th centuries); the third is the development of the original Russian philosophy (the second third of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century); fourth - post-October period ( most of XX century).

With the adoption of Christianity in Russia (988), pagan mythology begins to be supplanted by the Christian worldview, which contributes to the emergence of philosophy and determines its character. The first period in the history of Russian philosophical thought is characterized by the complete predominance of religious thought. However, the formula of medieval Western thought "philosophy is the servant of theology" in Russia is of little use due to the underdevelopment of theology. The formation of thought in medieval Russia was significantly influenced by patristics, especially the teachings of the representatives of the Cappadocian school: V. the Great, G. Nyssa, G. Nazianzin. Translated literature played an important role in the formation of Russian philosophical thought. The work of the Byzantine thinker John Damascene (675 - 750) "The Source of Knowledge" (especially the first part of "Dialectics") was of great importance. The popular "Six Days" by John Exarch of Bulgaria is also a creative reworking of the work of V. the Great. The collections "Bee", "Dioptra", "Explanatory Paleya", "Izborniki" of 1073 and 1076 years have become widespread in Russia. Thus, the foundations were laid for the formation of ancient Russian philosophy.

In the 11th century, the chronicles "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Word of Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, and "The Teaching" by Vladimir Monomakh appeared. Of the works of the 12th century, the works of Kirill Turovsky should be noted. Metropolitan Hilarion presents a peculiar philosophy of history. He distinguishes two periods of law and grace, the first preparatory, the second - this is the era of freedom. Having adopted Christianity, Russia became the "people of God", before which there is a great future.

The formation and development of Russian philosophical thought was not interrupted during the years of the Mongol yoke, and in the XV - XVII centuries philosophical thought is on the rise. At this time, the influence of Orthodox, Byzantine and Western thought on her increased. An important component of the national culture of this period is hesychasm.

One of the largest representatives of hesychasm is Gregory Palamas, a Byzantine mystic of the 14th century. Opposing God and the world, hesychasm understood the world as uncreated energy. Faith in God must be supplemented with the comprehension of energy by mystical experience, the union of soul and energy. Hesychasm influenced the largest representative of the "non-possessors" movement, Nil Sorsky (1433 - 1508) and the 16th century philosopher Maxim the Greek (1470 - 1556). The influence of hesychasm can be traced in the subsequent development of Russian philosophical thought, in its tendency towards mystical-intuitive cognition.

V Russia XVI- In the 17th century, social and political thought also developed. First of all, this concept of Elder Philotheus "Moscow - the third Rome" (first half of the 16th century). In accordance with it, two "Romes" (Ancient Rome and Byzantium) fell, not accepting Christianity or betraying it. Moscow, the third and last Rome, became the bearer of the true faith. Hence the messianic role of Moscow. In the 17th century, Moscow became a center of attraction for thinkers from Slavic countries. Horvat Y. Krizhanich (17th century) put forward the idea of ​​an original Slavic world opposed to other cultures. Thus, in Ancient Rus, the foundations of a philosophical culture were laid, although the original philosophy had not yet received a developed systematic form.

2. Russian philosophy Xvii – XIX centuries

With the reforms of Peter I, the second period in the history of Russian philosophy begins. There is a process of demarcation of philosophy and theology. Secular, first of all, political thought is developing. Representatives of Peter's “learned squad” (Feofan Prokopovich, V. Tatishchev, etc.) theoretically substantiated the reforms of the state and the church, anticipating the ideas of future “Westernizers”. By the middle of the 18th century, the liberal (D.I.

The opening of Moscow University in 1755 was a significant event in the cultural life of Russia. MV Lomonosov (1711-1765) took the most active part in its creation. As a natural scientist, he made a great contribution to the development of science and the promotion of natural philosophy. The scientist considered the basis of natural phenomena to be matter, which he understood as elements and groups of elements - corpuscles. Everything is filled with matter, there is no emptiness. Changes in things are the essence of the movement of matter. Lomonosov distinguishes three types of motion: translational, rotational and oscillatory. Considering matter eternal, MV Lomonosov formulates the law of conservation of matter: “If a little matter diminishes, it will multiply in another place”. Nature, therefore, does not need divine intervention. Despite the fact that M.V. Lomonosov highly values ​​the dignity of reason, he separates the world of reason from the world of faith, although they are in agreement ("Truth and faith are two sisters"). M.V. Lomonosov is a deist. His teaching marks the emergence of secular natural philosophy in Russia.

The problem of man is in the center of attention of the writer and public-political figure A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802). Based on the ideas of the French enlighteners: the theory of social contract, natural law, priority of the law, A.N. Radishchev criticizes autocracy and serfdom. While in exile in Siberia, he wrote a treatise On Man, His Mortality and Immortality (1792). The position of A.N. Radishcheva in the treatise is ambiguous. On the one hand, he investigates the problem of the natural origin of man, his mortality, relying on contemporary philosophical and scientific concepts, on the other hand, he recognizes the immortality of the soul, failing to materialistically explain the origin of "thinking ability". In this regard, A.N. Radishchev supplements the materialistic teaching with the traditional religious and philosophical.

Thus, by the beginning of the 19th century, the main ideas of Western philosophy were assimilated, and a number of areas of philosophical knowledge were formed. At the same time, the process of the formation of the original Russian philosophy has not yet been completed. The decisive role here was played by German classical philosophy, primarily the teachings of F. Schelling, and later - G. Hegel, who penetrated into Russia in the first decades of the 19th century. It was the philosophy of F. Schelling that was one of the component parts creative synthesis, as a result of which begins the third, most productive period in the history of Russian philosophy.

The third period is associated with the formation of the first philosophical trends in Russia: Westernizers and Slavophiles. The difference between them is, first of all, on the issue of the paths of Russia's historical development: the Westernizers saw the future of Russia in following Western Europe, highly appreciated the activities of Peter I; Slavophiles, on the contrary, accused Peter of violating the organic development of Russia, which has a cultural identity. Domestic culture requires the creation of Orthodox philosophy. There are also differences on the issues of ontology and the theory of knowledge, but in the 30s and 40s the divergence was not yet deep.

The immediate reason for the controversy and the formation of directions was the "Philosophical Letters" by P.Ya. Chaadaev (1793-1856), in which the question of the place of Russia in history was raised. P.Ya. Chaadaev was a religious thinker who believed that history was guided by divine providence. Leadership role catholic church in line with providence, Western Europe has reached great success in the implementation of Christian principles. P.Ya. Chaadaev in this respect is a Westerner. Russia is neither a dynamic West, nor a sedentary East, it seems to have dropped out of world history, Providence left it. Russia exists as if to teach the world some serious lesson. Later P.Ya. Chaadaev changes his assessment of the historical role of Russia, but he formulated the first original theme of Russian philosophy.

The main themes and features of Russian philosophy. Philosophical thought in Russia has become a crystallization of the peculiarities of Russian culture as a whole, the uniqueness of the historical path of which at the same time determines the special originality and originality of Russian philosophy and the special demand for its study.

Let's note some features of Russian philosophy:

- strong susceptibility to religious influence, especially Orthodoxy and paganism;

- a specific form of expression of philosophical thoughts - artistic creativity, literary criticism, journalism, art;

- the big role of morality and ethics problems.

The period of the birth of ancient Russian philosophy and early Christian philosophy of Russia dates back to the 9th - 13th centuries. This was the period of the introduction of Russia to the world of Byzantine Eastern Christian culture, and the philosophical heritage of antiquity (Plato, Aristotle, etc.) also opened for it. Among the most prominent representatives of the philosophy of this period are:

– Hilarion (main work - "The Word of Law and Grace", in which Christianity is popularized and analyzed, its role in the present and future of Russia);

- Vladimir Monomakh (main work - "Instructions", a kind of philosophical moral and ethical code, where teachings are given to descendants, the problems of good and evil, courage, honesty, perseverance, as well as other moral and ethical issues are analyzed);

- Clement Smolyatich (main work - "Epistle to Presbyter Thomas", the main theme of philosophy is the problem of reason, cognition);

- Philip the Hermit (main work - "Cry", affecting the problems of the relationship between soul and body, carnal (material) and spiritual (ideal).

Further development of Russian philosophy is associated with the formation of the centralized Russian state (Muscovite Rus) (XIII-XVII centuries). Among the prominent philosophers of this period, it is necessary to highlight:

- Sergius of Radonezh (XIV century. - philosopher-theologian), whose main ideals were strength and power, universality and justice of Christianity; consolidation of the Russian people, overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke;

- Philotheus (XVI century)- also dealt with issues of Christian theology, defended the idea of ​​the continuity of Christianity ("Moscow - the Third Rome") along the line Rome - Constantinople - Moscow.

The time of the emergence of philosophy in Russia in its modern sense can be considered 1755 - the year of foundation of Moscow University, i.e. the Age of Enlightenment . During this period, acts and M.V. Lomonosov(1711 - 1765), on the one hand, as a major scientist and natural philosopher, and on the other, as a poet and religious thinker. Also at this time such thinkers live and act, such as, M.M.Scherbatov, A.M. Radishchev, in whose works social and moral issues prevailed.

The formation of Russian philosophy proper dates back to the middle of the 19th century. Beginning with P.Ya. Chaadaeva, Russian philosophy initially declares itself as a philosophy of history with a central problem - « Russia-West ". By declaring the "dark past" of Russia, Chaadaev provoked a polemic between Westernizers and Slavophiles over the historical originality of Russia and its status in universal human culture.

Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, V.P. Botkin, K.D. Kavelin and others) called for the reform of Russia according to the Western model with the aim of liberalizing social relations, developing sciences and education as factors of progress.

Slavophiles (I. V. Kireevsky, A. S. Khomyakov, I. S. Aksakov, N. Ya. Danilevsky and others) idealizing Russian history, they believed that Russia, as the keeper of Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality, was called upon to show Europe and all mankind the path to salvation.

The line of religious philosophy in the second half of the nineteenth century is associated with the names of V.S.Soloviev, B.N. Chicherin, S.N. Trubetskoy and others. A key place in it belongs to the metaphysics of the unity of the great Russian thinker V.S. Soloviev. Dominant in Solovyov are two series of ideas: the doctrine of the Absolute and the doctrine of God-manhood.

The turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is characterized as the "golden age" of Russian philosophy, associated with the work of such outstanding philosophers as P.B. Struve, N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Frank, L.I. Shestov, N.O. Lossky, P. A. Florensky and others. The original trend of thought during this period was Russian cosmism (N.F. Fedorov, V.I. Vernadsky, K.I. Tsiolkovsky and others) and Russian Marxism (V. N. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin and etc.).

The development of Russian philosophy was interrupted by the events of 1917, after which philosophy was mainly subordinated to the ideology of Marxism. The modern stage is characterized by a return to the richest heritage of Russian thought.

Philosophical thought of Belarus. Philosophical thought in Belarus is a complex of ideas that have developed in the development of Belarus as a country, Belarusians as a nation, Belarusian culture as a unique integrity. The status and content specificity of Belarusian philosophy is determined by historical, geopolitical and socio-cultural factors:

- the absence in history of an independent national form of statehood (territorially Belarusian lands were part of other state systems- ON, Commonwealth, Russian Empire);

- borderland situation: Belarus is located in the space of civilizational, political, economic and cultural interaction between the West and the East;

- Difficulties in the national-cultural self-identification of thinkers, tk. some of them are equally from the cultures of other countries (for example, S. Budny, K. Lyshchinsky, S. Polotsky, G. Konissky, M. Smotritsky and others);

- impossibility of unambiguous correlation of philosophical texts with the national language, since for a long time they were written mainly in Latin or Polish;

- the absence of national themes for philosophical understanding, since only from the second half of the 19th century. the concepts of Belarusian nationality, national and cultural identity are being updated, attention to the status of the Belarusian language is increasing, etc.

Therefore, the concept of "Belarusian philosophy" to a certain extent reflects not so much national as geographic and territorial specifics of philosophizing.

- the sources of the philosophical thought of Belarus are seen in the culture of Kievan Rus during the period of adoption of Christianity (10-12 centuries). The iconic figures of this period are K. Smolyatich, K. Turovsky, E. Polotskaya, as they contributed to the dissemination of Christian ideas and principles, called for enlightenment and "book worship", which was supposed to provide a person with spiritual harmony and help in achieving happiness. The positive side of the adoption of Christianity is associated with the spread of education, the publication of handwritten books, the development of writing and literary creation... Along with the official Christian culture, a special merit is seen in folklore culture, which has had a noticeable impact on the spiritual life of people.

- an important stage - the humanistic and reformation movement (16th - first half of the 17th centuries), which is characterized by the formation of the Belarusian nationality and language . The formation of an original national philosophy is associated with the name of F. Skorina, a humanist and first printer of the 1st half of XVI v. His worldview was distinguished by religious tolerance and patriotism. Creativity belongs to the same historical period. S. Budny, A. Volan, N. Gusovsky, brothers Zizaniev, V. Tyapinsky. In the XVII century. philosophical searches were continued S. Polotsky, in the XVIII century. - G. Konissky. Distinctive feature philosophy of this time is the predominance in it of religious and ethical searches, combined with deep ethical and aesthetic reflections.

Within the framework of ontological problems at this time, the problem of the origin of the world, divine and natural, aroused great interest. In this respect, the rationalistic-theological concept is indicative. S. Budny, religious reformer, philologist, teacher, poet. Denying many dogmas of religion, he tended to interpret God as a cosmic root cause, rejected the Trinity as a fantastic entity: Spirit is not an equivalent substance, but an attribute of God, Jesus Christ is a man chosen by God for the salvation of mankind.

A special place is occupied by the stage of the dominance of the ideas of the Enlightenment in philosophical and socio-political thought (second half of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries). Belarusian thought moves in the mainstream of the European Enlightenment, which affirms the ideas of rationalistic philosophy with its principle of the sovereignty of reason, thanks to which it is possible not only to cognize, but also to transform the world. The Belarusian Enlightenment is associated with the functioning of secret student communities - physiocrats (supporters of various kinds of reforms), philomats(knowledge lovers), filarets(friends of virtue), who actualized socio-philosophical issues (human rights and freedoms, dialectics of personality and society, ways to restore statehood, etc.). These important topics for Belarusian thought were considered in the works of K. Narbut, I. Stroinovsky, J. Chechot, A. Narushevich, B. Dobshevich, A. Mitskevich, T. Zahn and others.

A significant stage - national-democratic ideas in Belarusian social thought (second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries). A distinctive feature is the emphasis on the problem of national revival and liberation of the Belarusian people, the status of the national culture and language, the awakening of national self-awareness. These ideas were considered in creativity F. Bogushevich, M. Bogdanovich, A. Pashkevich, Y. Kupala, Y. Kolas etc. The theme of national identity and national identity in work I. Abdiralovich "Advechnyi shlakham: dasleziny belarusskih svetoglyadu" and the philosophical essay of V. Samoila-Sulima "Gettym peramozhash!"

The development of philosophical thought in Belarus in the XIX-XX centuries. took place in close contact with the ideological and political processes in Russia. It was distinguished by the search for criteria for national identification and ways of developing national identity. Since the end of the 20s. XX century the era of Soviet philosophy began in Belarus.

1. Philosophical ideas of P.Ya. Chaadaeva

Petr Yakovlevich Chaadaev played an outstanding role in the development of Russian philosophy in the 19th century.

In the 1920s, traveling across Europe, P.Ya. Chaadaev met Schelling, whose philosophy, especially its religious motives, had a great influence on the formation of his worldview and philosophical convictions. In 1829-1831. he creates his main philosophical work "Letters on the Philosophy of History", better known as "Philosophical Letters".

As a rule, the "Philosophical Letters" is judged by the first of them, published in "Telescope", and therefore it is believed that Chaadaev reasoned in them, first of all, about the historical fate of Russia. However, only one of the eight letters is directly devoted to Russia. And in his "Philosophical Letters" Chaadaev is not concerned only with the fate of Russia, he builds a system of Christian philosophy of history, and, already proceeding from it, examines and interprets the history of Russia. Ideas associated with a mysterious meaning historical process, with the role of Russia in the destinies of all mankind, constitute the main pivot of the first letter. In the second letter, he unfolds the philosophical and scientific evidence of his main idea: "In the human spirit there is no other truth than that which God put into it with his own hand when he pulled it out of existence."

A significant part of the third philosophical letter is devoted to the consideration of the subordination of the human understanding of life to a higher principle, an external force.

In the fourth philosophical letter, moving on to the analysis of the motion of physical bodies, Chaadaev concludes that inexorable logic forces us to speak of it as a consequence of a source outside. And since movement is a universal form of existence of any phenomena in the world, then mental and moral movement also has an external stimulus.

The sixth and seventh philosophical letters deal with the movement and direction of the historical process. In the eighth, and last, philosophical letter, the author concludes: “Truth is one: the kingdom of God, heaven on earth, all the Gospel promises - all this is nothing but the insight and realization of the unification of all the thoughts of mankind in a single thought; and this single thought is the thought of God himself, in other words, an implemented moral law. "

The initial postulate of his philosophy is that God is the Absolute Mind, which, thanks to its universal ideal, spiritual essence, has in itself the beginning for all real existence. He is a self-consistent Universe: "Everything has a beginning in the perfect thought of God." The being of the world, the being of history and the being of man is the result of "the continuous action of God on the world," his triumphant procession. Man never "walked otherwise than with the radiance of divine light." The absolute oneness of God is manifested in the entire totality of human beings. The absolute unity of the Divine mind is most clearly manifested through revelation and providential action, creation and creation of good. Chaadaev seems to be inclined to think that the basis of the Divine mind is good.

Chaadaev believes that the Divine mind can be represented in three ways. First, he appears to us and appears as God the Father, in whom all contradiction disappears. He revealed himself to us (humanity) to the extent that it is necessary so that a person can seek him in this life and find him in another. God is absolute reality, absolute being. Secondly, God appears before us as the "Holy Spirit", spirit, mind, acting on the souls of people through their mind. In him (the Holy Spirit) are the sources and foundations of good, justice, truth. Thirdly, he appears to us and we represent him in the person of God the Son, Jesus Christ, in whom the human is inseparable from the Divine. Therefore, “if Jesus Christ had not come, the world would have become“ nothing ”.

For God to reveal himself to us, emphasizes Chaadaev, the creator, endowed man with the necessary abilities: faith and reason. Faith reveals to us the sphere of the Being of God in all three hypostases of his unity. It is a necessary prerequisite and condition for a person's relationship with God. Reason allows you to understand, comprehend the essence of God. Therefore, Faith and reason are indissoluble. To be a believer is to be reasonable. Moreover, "the divine tasks of the founder of Christianity have never been to impose a mute and short-sighted faith on the world." He agrees with the postulate of St. Augustine that faith without reason is blind. For blind faith is the faith of the crowd, not of the individual.

The human mind is a mode of the Divine mind. The Creator endowed man with it in order to be understood by him (man). Chaadaev distinguishes two properties, two foundations of the human mind. The first property of the human mind is its religiosity and morality. Therefore, “in order to reflect, to judge things, it is necessary to have an understanding of good and evil. Take it away from a person, and he will neither contemplate nor judge, he will not be a rational being ”. God endowed man with a moral reason by his will. This is the central thought of Chaadaev about the essence of the human mind, which manifests itself in the form of a "vague instinct of moral good", "an unformed concept without an obligatory thought", "an imperfect idea of ​​distinguishing between good and evil", incomprehensibly "embedded in our soul."

Another property of the human mind is expressed in its creative nature. The creative nature of human consciousness, according to P.Ya. Chaadaeva, allows people "to create life by themselves, instead of leaving it to their own course." Reason is not a dispassionate system, indifferently contemplating everything. Therefore, the repository of human intelligence is the heart - rational in nature and acting by its own power. "Those who create a head for themselves with their hearts succeed and do more, because there is much more reason in the feeling than in the mind of the senses." Man is something more than a purely rational being, P.Ya. Chaadaev. The focus of a person's rational-spiritual life, his "heartiness" is Christian love, which is "reason without egoism, reason that refuses the ability to relate everything to itself." Therefore, faith is nothing more than a moment human knowledge... "A necessary condition for the development of man and his mind is religious and moral education based on the obligatory dogma of the Trinity."

P.Ya. Chaadaev and the contradictory nature of human existence, since human existence is governed by two types of laws. As a living bodily being, a person obeys the law of self-preservation, which requires only personal, egoistic good, in which he (the person) sees his freedom. "The operation of this law is visible and eerie, egoistic self-assertion is revered as freedom, a person every time shakes the whole universe and this is how history moves." Earthly freedom is the freedom of the "wild colt", emphasizes P.Ya. Chaadaev. This is negative freedom.

Another law of human existence, the side of necessity, according to Chaadaev, is the Law of Divine Reason, which contains truth and good. It (Divine Reason) both manifests itself and acts as truth and good, acquiring the property of Providence. Therefore, the freedom of a person's existence acquires a genuine character when there is a “continuous external influence on the human mind” of God, which a person does not notice. God guides man on the path of true freedom, which consists in the combination of freedom and goodness. Therefore, a person, both in his being and in history, according to Chaadaev, is faced not so much with the contradiction of freedom and necessity, as with the contradiction of freedom and good, and the desire for the latter should become a necessity.

P.Ya. Chaadaev adheres to the providential concept of the world history of mankind: the meaning of history is determined by the Divine mind (who sees everything) and the Divine will (prescribing everything), which rules over the centuries and leads the human race to ultimate goals. Chaadaev believes that the subject of history is humanity or separate nation and in this regard assigns a special place and a special role to Russia in world human history.

On the one hand, Russia “does not belong ... either to the West or to the East, it has neither the one nor the other traditions. We stand, as it were, outside of time, the worldwide education of the human race has not spread to us. " On the other hand, "Russia is called to an immense intellectual work: its task is to give in due time the solution of all issues and inciting disputes in Europe." She must take the initiative to carry out all the generous thoughts of mankind, become an example for the moral improvement of mankind. Its mission is to overcome the human egoism that "conquered" Europe. The only drawback of Russia for fulfilling such a messianic role is the absence of freedom, republic and serfdom, P.Ya. Chaadaev.

From the philosophy of P.Ya. Chaadaev, two currents, two directions "grew" in Russian philosophy. "Slavophiles" who adopted Chaadaev's ideas about "the faith and conciliarity of the Russian people." Westerners stood under the banner of "reason" preached by Chaadaev. Both trends in Russian philosophy arose almost simultaneously and competed right up to late XIX- the beginning of the twentieth century.

2. Westernizers and Slavophiles on the ways of development of Russia

"Slavophiles" (Slavophilism) is a special trend in Russian philosophical thought. The central problem for Slavophiles is the fate and role of Russia, its special place in world human history. The leaders of Slavophilism - A.S. Khomyakov (1804-1860), I.V. Kireevsky (1806-1856), K.S. Aksakov (1817-1860), Yu.F. Samarin (1819-1876) - made a substantiation of the original path of development of Russia. They proceeded from the fact that Russia has its own special way, determined by its history, position in the world, the vastness of the territory and population, geographical location and especially the peculiar features of the Russian national character, the Russian “soul”. The Slavophiles considered Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality to be the three pillars of the special historical path of Russia,

One of the founders of Slavophilism is the Russian religious philosopher and publicist Kireevsky Ivan Vasilievich (1806-1856). The main goal of his philosophical views is to substantiate the peculiarity of the path of the historical development of Russia, which radically does not coincide and differs from the development of Europe. He sees the foundations of the development of Russia in Orthodoxy, the Orthodox Church, which have kept the original truth of Christianity, distorted by Catholicism, pure. In Orthodoxy and the Orthodox Church, he sees the foundations for preserving the spiritual integrity of both the individual and the people, the unity of cognitive and moral principles, which are inseparable from faith and religion. Therefore, philosophy must comprehend the fundamental foundations of Russian originality, due to which, in contrast to Western philosophy, it acquires concreteness, eliminating the abstractness of Western philosophy. He sees another basis for the originality of Russia in the communal character of social life, the communal spirit and self-consciousness of the Russian people, based on Orthodoxy. He puts forward the idea of ​​the “conciliarity” of the Russian people, and the Orthodox Church as an institution that actually realizes the idea of ​​conciliarity, since it personifies the purity of Christianity. Therefore, already with Kireevsky, patriotism comes to the fore in the moral and religious education of the people in its originality, requiring the individual to serve the goal of the unity of the people, its conciliarity. The value of the conciliar personality is higher and preferable to the idea of ​​an individual personality. As an educated and enlightened person, he understood the meaning of “European education” as “the mature fruit of all human development,” but it needs to be rethought and transformed on the basis of Orthodoxy, the unity of faith and religion, the unity of the individual and the Orthodox Church. Only in this case Russia will not only preserve its originality, but will also open the way for world history.

Another founder of "Slavophilism" was the Russian thinker, poet and publicist Aleksey Stepanovich Khomyakov (1804-1860). The main idea of ​​his fundamental work "Notes on World History" is the search and substantiation of the historical fate of Russia, its originality and its role in world history.

Considering being as the realization of the universe of God, which is an integral unity, Khomyakov believes that this universe of God is projected in a special way in human history. The basis of the unity of public life and history is "conciliarity" (gathering into a single whole not only the church, but also people). Faith is a necessary condition for such unity and conciliarity, which includes the diversity of the spiritual and spiritual forces of a person, of specific individuals. Moreover, “ true faith”, Which is manifested in its fullness in Orthodoxy. In addition to Orthodoxy, the basis of conciliarity is the Russian peasant community, which acts as a collective personality, a "living person" endowed with a unique character, soul, appearance and special historical vocation.

Khomyakov was characterized by the idealization of the pre-Petrine era, which bore within itself the true features of an original national culture and national identity.

Christian motives in the work of the Slavophiles had a great influence on the development of Russian religious and philosophical thought. Many Russian historians of philosophy at the beginning of the twentieth century regard Slavophilism as the beginning of the development of a distinctive and original Russian philosophy, which put forward a number of new, original ideas. The Slavophils did not deny the achievements of Western European culture. They highly appreciated the outward arrangement of Western life, and treated Western European science with deep respect. But their active rejection caused the domination of individualism, disunity, fragmentation, isolation the spiritual world people, the subordination of spiritual life to external circumstances, the domination of material interests over spiritual ones.

In the 40s of the XIX century, a special direction arose in Russian philosophical thought, which received the name "Westerners", "Westernism"... It arose in the course of polemics with the "Slavophiles". In contrast to the Slavophiles, the "Westernizers" defended the idea not of the originality and exclusiveness of the historical role and fate of Russia in world history, but the idea of ​​Russia being woven into a single evolutionary world process. And the development of Western Europe and America is a progressive expression of world history. Therefore, Russia should objectively "follow" the western path of development, and not isolate itself from it and not resist it. The development of capitalism, the establishment of the free development of the individual, the creation of a civil society and opposition to all kinds of despotism, the progressive development of science were characteristic of the "western" way of development. Freedom is understood as a necessary attribute of historical development. Representatives of "Westernism" believed that economic, political, social, industrial and technical transformations, which should be promoted, and not prevented, are naturally expected in Russia. The spirit of the socio-economic transformation of Russia took possession of the minds of people, and the essence of this transformation had to be comprehended philosophically.

The Westernizers considered the main obstacle to the progressive development of Russia to be the existence of serfdom and the absence of political and social freedoms personality. In this the representatives - "Westernizers" did not disagree. But they disagreed over the ways and means of transforming Russia and the future of Russia. As a single trend, "Westernism" survived until the end of the 1860s. The largest representatives of the "Westernizers" were A.I. Herzen, T.N. Granovsky, N.I. Ogarev, K. D. Kavelin and other philosophers and publicists. The ideas of "Westernism" were supported by V.G. Belinsky, I.S. Turgenev, P.V. Annenkov, I.I. Panaev. But the largest figure in the philosophical thought of Russia of this period was Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (1812-1870).

The formation of his philosophical views was greatly influenced by the philosophy of Hegel, especially his doctrine of dialectics, the materialist philosophy of L. Feuerbach.

A.I. Herzen develops his understanding of the development of history, the essence of the historical process. He notes that the development of history is based on the struggle of opposites. “At all times of the long life of mankind, two opposite movements are noticeable; the development of one causes the emergence of the other, at the same time the struggle and destruction of the first ”. The source of this struggle is the contradiction between the individual striving for monopoly and the masses, which seeks to "take the fruit of their labor, dissolve them in themselves." They are mutually exclusive and complementary at the same time. And “this polarity is one of the phenomena life development of humanity, a phenomenon like a pulse, with the difference that with each pulse of the pulse, humanity makes a step forward. " He emphasizes that this struggle in different epochs and in different countries proceeds in its own way, but it is a real source of universal development.

A person, an individual, according to Herzen, is a participant and creator of his history and the history of mankind as a whole, after he left the animal world. He makes history as a social, social, not biological being. An attribute of a person's being, as a social, social being, is "freedom of the face", understood by him as a comprehensive manifestation of talents, his mind and his consciousness. Freedom itself is a manifestation of his consciousness and reason. By freedom, he understands "mastery of oneself." An indispensable condition for human freedom, according to Herzen, is the recognition of "personal autonomy", personal independence.

Philosophically comprehending the prospects for the development of human history, the internal motive of which is, in his opinion, the achievement of individual freedom, the liberation of a person from social oppression and the establishment of social justice, he is convinced of the justice of the ideas of socialism, the implementation of which will lead to the creation of a just society without human oppression. The era of bourgeois revolutions in the 19th century, which he witnessed, were, in his opinion, a natural stage in the movement towards socialism. He believes that Russia is also moving along this path. But disillusioned with the results of the bourgeois revolutions in Western Europe, he comes to the conclusion that the transition to socialism through the Russian peasant community is most organic for Russia. And the peasant is the social force capable of solving this historical problem. “The man of the future in Russia is a man,” A.I. Herzen. Why does he see in the Russian community the basis for the establishment of socialism in Russia? First, because the Russian peasant is instinctively inclined towards communist morality, which denies not only the injustice of the landlords and landlord power, but injustice, inequality as such. Secondly, the Russian community has historically justified the strength of its internal structure. "The community saved the Russian people from the Mongol barbarism ... She ..." resisted the intervention of the authorities; she happily lived to see the development of socialism in Europe. " Thirdly, since the creator of history is the people, and the majority of the people in Russia are the peasantry, the communal consciousness and psychology of the people most fully correspond to the affirmation of the principles of socialism in the organization of social life. In his opinion, the historical mission of Russia is expressed in the fact that it is capable of affirming socialism, which is an expression of the demands of world history itself. Ideas and philosophy of A.I. Herzen influenced the formation in Russia of such a political movement in the 19th century as the People's Will.

The representative of the liberal movement in "Westernism" was the Russian historian and philosopher, a prominent jurist Konstantin Dmitrievich Kavelin (1818-1885). For Westerners-liberals, the general principle is the recognition of human freedom and its realization as a universal driving force of historical development. From these positions, he demanded the abolition of serfdom as the main obstacle to the socio-economic progress of Russian society, preventing Russia from naturally joining in a single universal human process of civilized development. He considered the liberation of peasants with land for ransom as a necessary condition for the formation of a conservative "muzhik estate" endowed with the right of private property, as the social force that would ensure the socio-economic progress of Russia. He believed that the patriarchal foundations of economic relations and the exclusiveness of the national characteristics of Russia (for example, the religiosity of the Russian people) had exhausted themselves. Therefore, the historical prospects for the development of Russia are associated with the convergence of the development of Western Europe on the basis of the recognition of liberal individual freedoms and new social groups and classes emerging in Russia at that time. At the same time, he was a supporter of a compromise between the need for liberal socio-economic reforms and the preservation of autocracy based on liberal laws.

For all the differences between Westerners and Slavophiles, they had a lot in common. And that they had in common was love for freedom, love for Russia, humanism. They put spiritual values ​​in the first place on the scale of values, were deeply concerned with the problem of the moral growth of the individual, and hated the bourgeoisie.

Differences of views related primarily to such questions: what should be the form of government, laws; whether legal guarantees of personal freedom are needed; what are the optimal limits of personal autonomy; what place should be taken by religion; what is the significance of the national elements of culture, traditions, customs, rituals.

3. The philosophy of V.S. Solovyova and N.A. Berdyaeva

Vladimir Sergeevich Soloviev(1853-1900) played an outstanding role in the development of Russian philosophical thought in the 19th century. He created his own original philosophical system called "The Philosophy of All-Unity" and "The Teaching of God-manhood". She had a pronounced religious, mystical character.

The initial idea of ​​the doctrine of All-unity is the proposition that "God is everything, that is, that everything in a positive sense or the unity of all constitutes an object, its own content, an object or an objective essence." In other words, God is the Universe. In addition, God is the Absolute subject, creating everything from himself and giving content to the entire existing world, including the natural world. This is the unity of God.

The second postulate of his philosophy of "All-unity" is that God is the beginning. As the primary essence, God appears as the Father, which emphasizes his absolute expression as a subject. The Absolute of God as a subject (Father) is expressed in three ways:

1) he posits everything (creates), since he already possesses the content of this act of creation;

2) positing itself is the realization of the absolute content of God as a subject;

3) God as the Absolute preserves and asserts himself in this content, which is the result of the activity of God as a subject.

The all-unity of God in reality is manifested in the form of a trinity:

1) as the beginning of everything, he is God - the father;

2) God is the word by which Divine Wisdom is uttered, Sophia;

3) holy spirit (non-material essence of God.

All these three hypostases of God the Absolute (the All-unity of God in himself), and as his other, is manifested through the will as the driving force of God.

God as the Absolute All-Unity acquires a special form of being in the form of the World Soul, which is both active and independent, but does not have its own beginning in itself. But as soon as the World Soul tries to fall away from the Divine all-unity of being, it loses its freedom and its power over itself. "When it becomes isolated, it takes away itself from everything, it ceases to unite everyone." The soul of the world belongs important role- to unite everyone around the values ​​of the Absolute All-unity of God.

As a true philosopher V.S. Soloviev raises the question of the essence of the world process. In his opinion, “the gradual realization of the ideal all-unity is the meaning of the world process,” and nature is a necessary stage in this process. After the World Soul and the natural world united by it fell away from the Divine idea and its beginning, nature fell apart "into many warring elements." That is, it has lost its unity within itself and its unity with the Divine principle (All-unity). In order for the lost unity to be revived in the form of an absolute organism, three stages must and pass through the world natural process:

1) cosmic matter under the influence of gravitational forces is drawn into great cosmic bodies - the stellar or astral epoch;

2) when these bodies become the basis for the development of more complex forces (forms of the world process) - heat, light, magnetism, electricity, chemism. An integral harmonic system is created;

3) finally, the third stage, thanks to the all-pervading ether, as a pure environment of unity, takes the form of being in the form of the life of an organism (living nature).

This is a kind of natural philosophy of V.S. Solovyov, not devoid of evolutionary features. He was a supporter of the creation of the unity of the natural sciences (which he knew well), religion and philosophy, which in their own way reveal the Unity of the Divine principle in everything. But nature, including living nature, is only the beginning, an outer shell for the Divine idea of ​​total unity. Only in man, as a corporeal, rational, and spiritual being, is the World Soul for the first time inwardly united with the Divine Logos. And human consciousness is a sphere where nature outgrows itself and passes into the area of ​​the Absolute, possible achievement of the All-Unity. Why, then, it is in man and through man that the restoration of the lost All-Unity is possible? First of all, because "man is the image and likeness of God." Secondly, “the consciousness of a person carries an eternal divine idea”, “in an ideal consciousness, a person has the spirit of God. Man possesses the unconditional, but formal freedom of the infinite human "I", since he represents the likeness of God. " Thirdly, because "man has the same inner essence of life - all-unity, which God also has." But the most important thing is that man, as an active, acting being, is free to desire to have her as God. "He wants to master it himself or assimilate it." That is, a person as a consciously spiritual being can potentially revive all-unity in himself.

Man as a creation of God, the "first man" Adam, appears at first as an integral bodily and spiritually conscious being. But then he fell away from the Idea of ​​God, from God Himself, lost his original essence, and of his own free will. Falling away from God and his essence is sin. What are the temptations that the "first man" could not resist? The first temptation is material good, which he considers a goal and prefers to spiritual good. The second reason for the fall and evil was "the temptation to make his power, given to him by God, an instrument of self-affirmation as God." The third, last and most powerful temptation for the first man was the temptation to assert "his dominion over the world" at all costs. Achievement of this goal is possible by the only means - violence against the world and against other people. After this act of the Fall, realized through many separate, individual, personal acts, human life itself and human history itself acquired a tragic character. And the people themselves without new strength and the new "ideal of man" is not able to interrupt it, they cannot restore the All-unity with God.

And yet V.S. Soloviev believes in historical progress, the purpose of which is to restore and revive the lost All-unity with God, which is the true meaning and motive of all world history. But this task can be solved if new type man - "God-man", and humanity will become "God-manhood", the examples of which we find in the beginning and the appearance of Jesus Christ. This is how V.S. Solovyov's concept of "God-man" and "God-manhood".

According to the philosophical version of V.S. Solovyov Jesus Christ is a special person. He embodies both divine and human traits. He is the son of God, in whom the Divine spirit, Divine will, Divine Wisdom, Divine truth and the Word are embodied in a concrete, individual form. But, in addition, I. Christ and the Son of Man. He is also subject to temptation. But thanks to the Divine spirit and Divine will, he overcomes them. Each person can approach the ideal of the God-man, embodied in the face of I. Christ. V.S. Soloviev perceptively notes that this is achievable if a person transforms himself, not only freely accepts the ideas and teachings of I. Christ, but finds a place for the Divine principle in himself, in his soul.

V.S. Soloviev gives love, moreover, sexual love, a completely earthly human feeling. In his special work "The Meaning of Love" he reveals the connection of sexual love with the All-unity and God-manhood. Expanding the horizon of the action of love, V.S. Soloviev emphasizes that extending it to the sphere interpersonal relationships allows one to overcome atomism and individualism, and thus, the real realization of the All-unity is achieved. He universalizes love, giving it a cosmic character.

A special place in the embodiment of the idea of ​​All-Unity as the meaning of the historical process of V.S. Soloviev assigned churches. In it, he saw a special institution designed to help people find practical Unity. In the 1980s, he even advocated a union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Later, he departed from this idea, believing that only Orthodoxy, the Orthodox Church and the Russian people are capable of realizing the cause of All-Unity.

At the end of his life, he was more and more seized by doubts about the realizability of the practical ideas of the All-Unity and the “ideal of good in real life". “The point is not only that evil is a fact of human history, but also that good kind person does not make evil good. Actual beneficence increases good in good and evil in evil. " He even spoke of the Apocalypse as the end of world history.

At its core, philosophy Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) is of a religious-existentialist nature, with clear signs anthropologism. In his work "My philosophical outlook" (1937), he characterizes the subject of his philosophy as follows: “At the center of my philosophical work is the problem of man. Therefore, my whole philosophy is highly anthropological. To pose the problem of man means at the same time to pose the problem of freedom, creativity, personality, spirit and history. My philosophy is of an existential type. " We can say that the subject of Berdyaev's philosophy is freedom, creativity as a condition and ways of life manifestation of a person as a person, the core of which is spiritual and religious life in its formation and manifestation. “Philosophy is the science of the spirit. However, the science of the spirit is, first of all, the science of human existence. " And if so, then philosophy has not only theoretical but also practical significance. It is in the practical application of philosophy that N.A. Berdyaev is her vocation: “A real, called-up philosopher wants not only knowledge of the world, but also change, improvement of the world. It cannot be otherwise, if philosophy is, first of all, a teaching about the meaning of human existence, about human destiny. " Therefore, philosophy is not only the love of wisdom, but wisdom itself. Philosophy participates in the mystery of human being and being. Unlike science, it cannot be purely rational, and unlike theology, it (philosophy) is alien to dogmatism. According to N.A. Berdyaev, it has a purifying significance for both science and religion. Due to this vocation and destiny, the philosopher by nature often turns out to be lonely and unrecognized, and only later does he receive public recognition.

Proceeding from such a definition of the subject and task of philosophy, he poses the question, which is eternally fundamental for philosophy: what precedes what - being to freedom or freedom to being? The initial postulate of the entire philosophy of N.A. Berdyaeva consists in the primacy of freedom in relation to being, to everything that exists: "The originality of my philosophical type, first of all, is that I have put at the foundation of philosophy not being, but freedom." “Freedom, according to N.A. Berdyaev, is not special along with divine being, freedom is that without which the existence of the world has no meaning for God, through which only God's plan for the world is justified. God created the world out of nothing, and therefore out of freedom. " Freedom is not only the fundamental principle of being, but the fundamental principle of life, and life is nothing more than a manifestation of the Spirit. "Freedom, according to Berdyaev, is self-determination from within, from the depths, and is opposite to any determination from the outside, which is a necessity." Therefore, freedom is initially ideally spiritual in nature, it is extra-natural. Freedom precedes the world, it is rooted in the original nothing. " That is why even God (the all-powerful spiritual essence) “is all-powerful over being, but not over freedom. There is no Being of God without freedom. " Freedom gives rise to everything in the world, including good and evil (which we will discuss in more detail below). Initially, freedom is necessary condition for the existence of a person, his formation as a person and for creativity. Through it, he (man) positively asserts himself. We can say that, according to Berdyaev, freedom is total in nature. Therefore, he connects the tragedy of man and history with the unfulfillment of freedom.

Freedom, according to N.A. Berdyaev, is most fully embodied in the spirit, in the spiritual life. “Spirit, according to Berdyaev, is a quality that stands outside of any utilitarianism that infects the life of the world ... Spirit is a force that liberates from the power of the elements, from the power of earth and blood ... rising above them, but not destroying them. The spirit is everywhere and in everything, but as an enlightening, transforming, liberating, and not compelling force. " "Spirit is creative activity, creating everything from itself."

Spirit is true and genuine reality, since it is truth, goodness, meaning, freedom. And God, as the highest embodiment of the Spirit, is a creative subject who creates the world from himself according to the laws of the freedom of the Spirit. Berdyaev calls nature a spiritless world, and due to its spiritlessness it is a fallen world and only an object. There is no freedom in this objectified world. The property of "fallenness" (a low, base world, since there is no spirit and meaning in it) Berdyaev also extends to the social, social world, if there is no freedom in it and the meaning of being is not affirmed. Therefore, the objectified world (natural and social) lies in sin, in evil. He is not a supporter of its destruction and cutting off, realizing that this is impossible, but a supporter of the enlightenment of the lower and its transformation into the higher. And this mission falls to the lot of a person when he becomes a God-human personality! The world is created by God, not by the subject, not by man. But man is “called to creativity in the world,” through man God continues his creation in the form of man's transformative, creative activity. Therefore, not only man needs God to be creative personality but God needs man.

ON. Berdyaev adheres to the established tradition in Christian theology and Christian-religious philosophy to regard man as the result of a creative act of God. He is the image and likeness of God - as a subject. Man, by nature, is a spiritual, bodily, and rational being. It is “in man that the mystery of being is hidden”, since there is a unity of the divine and the simply human in him. That is why he calls his philosophy anthropological.

The idea of ​​the "God-Man" is one of the central problems of the entire philosophy of N.A. Berdyaev. By the God-man, he does not mean the new Jesus Christ, but an ordinary person, but transformed, freed from sins and vices, who became a person who is motivated by love, goodness and truth and who in his spirit and soul fixes the ideal of I. Christ.

The first act that every person must perform in order to become a God-human person, that is a real person, is the deliverance from sin and sinfulness, into which the first man (Adam) fell, by his own will and from freedom. The source of the fall, according to Berdyaev, is egocentrism: "Egocentrism is isolation and hopelessness, suffocation, obsession with oneself," notes N.A. Berdyaev. The deepest source of the Fall is the fallen, objectified nature, the bodily substance of man. Atonement and overcoming sin and the fall is possible only through love, since God is love, spiritual love. For, notes Berdyaev, in Christianity the redemption of sinfulness is a matter of love, first of all, spiritual love, and not judicial justice.

ON. Berdyaev strongly emphasizes the difference between love and passion. The first comes from the Spirit, the second from the demands of the body. It is the latter that give rise to the power of enslavement, for behind them objectified nature is hidden. They are one of the sources of sin. They can be transformed only under the influence of spiritual love, so to speak, humanized. "Competition" between them is an integral part of human existence in life. Spiritual love leads to freedom, the latter does not. This is also the tragedy of human destiny.

To become a God-human being, that is, a true man, a person, one must go through the crucible of the struggle between good and evil. Good opens the way to the God-man for us, evil closes it. “Evil must first of all be seen in oneself, and not in another,” N.A. Berdyaev. The truly spiritual direction of the fight against evil consists in "faith in the power of good rather than in the power of evil."

A special place in his philosophy N.A. Berdyaev ascribes to the problem of loneliness in being, in the existence of a person. “The disease of loneliness is one of the main problems of the philosophy of human existence as a philosophy of human destiny,” he emphasizes.

List of used literature

philosophy chaadaev soloviev slavophil

1. World of Philosophy: Book for reading: In 2 hours - M .: IPL, 1991.

2. Novikova L., Sizemskaya I. Paradigm of Russian philosophy of history // Free thought - 1995. - №5.

3. Chaadaev P.Ya. Complete Works and Selected Letters: In 2 volumes - Moscow: Nauka, 1991.

4. Sukhanov K.N., Chuprov A.S. Famous philosophers of the XIX-XX centuries: Essays on ideas and biographies. - Chelyabinsk: Okolitsa, 2001.

5. Soloviev Vl. Reading about God-manhood (bow and arrow). - SPb .: Khudozhes Tvennaya Literature, 1994.

6. Berdyaev N.A. My philosophical outlook / N.A. Berdyaev on Russian philosophy. - Sverdlovsk: USU, 1991. - Part 1.

7. Berdyaev N.A. I and the world of objects / N.A. Berdyaev

8. Berdyaev N.A. Philosophy of a free spirit. - M .: Republic, 1994.

9. Berdyaev N.A. Spirit and reality / N.A. Berdyaev. Philosophy of a free spirit. - M .: Republic, 1994.

10. Chistov G.A. Philosophy. Historical and problematic aspect: Course of lectures. - Chelyabinsk: SUSU Publishing House, 2003. - Part II. - 106 p.

Similar documents

The main stages in the development of Russian philosophy. Slavophiles and Westernizers, materialism in Russian philosophy of the mid-19th century. Ideology and basic principles of the philosophy of Russian soil culture, conservatism and cosmism. The philosophy of all-unity of Vladimir Solovyov.

test, added 02/01/2011


Philosophical thought Russia XIX century, its directions and representatives: Slavophiles (I. Kireevsky), Westernizers (A. Herzen), populism (M. Bakunin), nihilism (D. Pisarev). The development of Russian religious thought, the works of F. Dostoevsky and V. Soloviev.

test, added 03/28/2009


The stages of development of Russian philosophy and their general characteristics... Historical orthodox monarchist philosophy of F.M. Dostoevsky, P. Ya. Chaadaeva, L.N. Tolstoy. Revolutionary democratic, religious and liberal philosophy. Westerners and Slavophiles.

test, added 05/21/2015


Russian philosophy as an integral part of the world historical and philosophical process. Chaadaev's philosophical ideas. Slavophilism and Westernism about the ways of development of Russia. The difference between the philosophy of man and philosophical anthropology according to Soloviev and Berdyaev.

abstract, added 09/22/2012


Religious and philosophical searches of Russian writers (F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy). Westerners and Slavophiles. The metaphysics of the all-unity of Vl. Solovyov. Materialistic and idealistic trends in Russian philosophy of the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

manual, added 06/16/2013


Formation and development of Russian philosophy. Russian philosophy of the 17th - 19th centuries Russian philosophy of the late XIX - early XX centuries. Philosophical system of Vladimir Soloviev. The idea of ​​total unity in the teachings of P. Florensky, S. Bulgakov, L. Karsavin. Russian cosmism.

abstract, added on 05/02/2007


The role of Russian religious philosophy of the XX century. Formation of Russian religious philosophy of the XX century. New religious consciousness. Religious and philosophical meetings. the same. Spiritual Renaissance at the beginning of the 20th century. Its essence and social meaning.

abstract, added 05/23/2003


Sociocultural development of Russia in period XIX v. Philosophical teachings of Westerners and Slavophiles. Historiosophy of Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev, its connection with anthropology. Philosophy of Vladimir Sergeevich Soloviev, its place in the Russian religious and philosophical tradition.

abstract, added 11/09/2010


The initial period of the formation of Russian philosophy: XI-XVII centuries. Features of Russian philosophy of the 18th century, the contribution of Lomonosov and Radishchev to its development. The philosophy of Russian revolutionary democrats. Russian religious philosophy as a specific worldview.

abstract, added 06/26/2009


Formation, features and stages of development of Russian philosophy and philosophy of the Russian Enlightenment of the 18th century. and the second half of the XIX - early XX centuries. Slavophiles and Westernizers, the philosophy of Russian cosmism. Discussions of materialism and idealism, philosophy of law.

13. Specificity of Russian philosophical thought.

Russian philosophy has a thousand years of its existence, ten centuries - from the tenth to the twentieth.

The development of world philosophy is a single process, the laws of which are determined by the course of history and are associated with the identification of new problems that require philosophical comprehension.

The historical and cultural development of Russia has always been characterized by unpredictability, did not fit into traditional patterns and patterns: very often long periods of decline and stagnation in its history were replaced by periods of economic, political and cultural flourishing.

This was reflected in the development of philosophy.

On the development of Russian socio-philosophical thought .(article by S. Frank "The Essence and Leading Motives of Russian Philosophy", first published in Germany in 1925.):

Russian philosophy is "a super-scientific intuitive teaching and worldview."

Therefore, Russian philosophy is also fiction, permeated with a deep philosophical perception of life (Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Tyutchev, Gogol), this is a freely written article on a philosophical topic,

Truth can be comprehended completely unnecessarily in "logical connections and good-looking systematicity."

Frank said bluntly: "Philosophy of history and social philosophy ... - these are the main themes of Russian philosophy."

Features of the national identity of Russian philosophical thought:

Interest in society and the person in it is organically inherent in Russian philosophy, moreover, in the very essence of the people's perception of the world.

In Russian philosophy, neither abstract logical constructions nor individualism were widely developed.

A very important distinguishing feature of Russian philosophy is the advancement of the moral assessment of people, their deeds, as well as events, including social and political ones, to the fore.

It is characteristic of Russian thinkers that in addition to the concept of "truth", which is in all languages, they also use such an untranslatable word as "truth." It contains the mystery and meaning of national Russian philosophy.

The Russian thinker is always looking for the "truth". After all, "truth" is not only truth, a theoretically correct image of the world. "Truth" is the moral foundations of life, it is the spiritual essence of being. "Truth" is sought not for the sake of abstract knowledge, but in order to "transform the world, purify and be saved."

The search for "truth-truth" also determined the forms in which Russian philosophical thought was denounced. It is always a dispute, a dialogue. It was in them that "truth-truth" was born. Indeed - non-possessors and Masons, materialists, Pushkin and Chaadaev, Slavophiles and Westernizers, Marxists and Narodniks - there was no end to disputes in Russian socio-philosophical thought.

Features of Russian philosophy

The main feature of Russian philosophy is its religious and mystical character, the intertwining and opposition of the pagan and Christian origins of Russian culture.

Russian philosophy, unlike Western European, did not have a pre-Christian period and, therefore, could not rely on the cultural heritage of antiquity. It took shape in pagan forms. (Targeting western culture determined only with the adoption of Christianity by Russia).

The ancient pagan admiration for nature, attachment to the current material existence combined with the Christian sensation of a higher (other) world, with the desire for direct union with God.

A similar thing was observed in the understanding of man. Russian man: on the one hand, directly belongs to material being; on the other, directly, spiritually connected with God (rooted in eternal, spiritual being).

Awareness of the inevitability of death prompted to think about the “meaning” of life, about the important and essential in it, about what will happen “after death” or “after life”.

Russian Philosophy is the striving of man, as a rational, thinking being, to overcome his finitude, his limitation and mortality, his imperfection, and to comprehend the absolute, "divine", perfect, eternal and infinite.

In Russia, in contrast to the advanced European countries, the emergence of a philosophy free of religion was delayed by 200-300 years. Philosophy penetrated into Russian educational institutions only in the 17th century, when the West already possessed full-blooded philosophical systems.

The separation of philosophy from religion and its establishment as a theoretical science began in the 18th century, thanks to the scientific achievements of M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), the founder of the materialist tradition in Russian philosophy. Russian philosophy split from religion in 1755 when Moscow University was opened, where the secular teaching of philosophy began.

As the second distinguishing feature of Russian philosophy, it is necessary to note the specificity of the Russian style of philosophizing.

Christianity came to Russia from Byzantium in its eastern version, in the form of Orthodoxy. (In this act, the desire was manifested to maintain a certain distance from Western Europe, from its cultural and religious traditions).

For several centuries Russia was fenced off from Western European countries by religious intolerance between the Western and Eastern churches.

Deepening ties with the West were also hampered by nearly 300 years of Tatar-Mongolian yoke, its negative consequences.

As a result, Russian thought up to the 17th century. developed in a closed manner.

In Western philosophy since the 17th century. a purely rationalistic, "scientific" method of presentation became dominant, reaching an apotheosis among the representatives of German classical philosophy.

In Russian philosophy, the rationalistic method has never been the main one; moreover, for many thinkers it seemed false, making it impossible to get to the essence of the main philosophical problems.

In Russian philosophy, the emotional-figurative, artistic style of philosophizing turned out to be the leading one, giving preference to vivid artistic images, intuitive insights, rather than strict logical reasoning.

The third, feature of Russian philosophy:

Russian philosophy is more inherent in communal consciousness, conciliarity, "sophianism" ("word-wisdom" is a deed "), which presupposes the posing of completely earthly, human questions.

In Russia, a philosophy detached from life, closed in speculative constructions, could not count on success.

Therefore, it was in Russia - earlier than anywhere else - that philosophy was subordinated to the solution of practical problems facing society.

Comparison of the conditions of Russian life with the life of the advanced European countries has given rise in our philosophy to one of the most acute problems of social thought - the relationship between Russia and the West.

Opposition "Russia - West". The search for Russian philosophical thought took place in a confrontation between two directions: 1) slavophiles , 2)Westerners .Slavophiles focused attention on the originality of Russian thought and associated this originality with the unique originality of Russian spiritual life. Westerners expressed the desire to fit Russia into the development of Western (European) culture. They believed that since Russia embarked on the path of development later than other European countries, it should learn from the West.

Russian philosophers persistently overcame the "inferiority complex" - the false belief that Russian philosophical thought was not independent, and defended its originality.

Russian philosophy - not a distant page of the distant past, which is already absorbed by the flow of time. This philosophy is a living thought. We find in the writings of Illarion Kievsky, Lomonosov, Slavophiles and Westernizers, in the philosophical searches of F.M.Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy, in the philosophical and historical concept of N. Ya.Danilevsky, in the socio-philosophical views of I.A. in the philosophical work of E. V. Ilyenkov answers to many modern questions.

Philosophy - this is what distinguishes a person from an animal. Animals do not philosophize. Like man, they are mortal, their idea of ​​the world is also imperfect, but they are not aware of this. They are unaware of their existence and their finitude. The ability to be aware of one's existence, one's finitude and one's imperfection is the basis and source of Russian philosophy.

Necessity and accident

philosophy dialectics necessity randomness

1. Specificity of Russian philosophy, its main forms and historical stages

Russian philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and culture. Russian philosophy addresses the same problems as Western European, although the approach to them, the ways of understanding them were deeply national character.

The famous historian of Russian philosophical thought V.V. Zenkovsky noted that philosophy found its own ways in Russia - "not alienating the West, even learning from it constantly and diligently, but still living with its inspirations, its problems ...". In the XIX century. "Russia has embarked on the path of independent philosophical thought." Further, he notes that Russian philosophy is not theocentric (although it has a strong religious principle) and is not cosmocentric (although it is not alien to natural-philosophical searches), but above all anthropocentric, historiosophical and committed to social problems: “it is most of all occupied with the topic of man, oh his fate and ways, about the meaning and goals of history. " The same features of Russian philosophical thought were noted by such researchers of Russian philosophy as A.I. Vvedensky, N.A. Berdyaev and others.

Despite the fact that Russian philosophical thought is represented by a variety of directions, orientations and schools, in solving philosophical problems, a pronounced moral attitude, a constant appeal to the historical fate of Russia, dominated in it. Therefore, without mastering the domestic spiritual heritage, it is impossible to understand the history and soul of the Russian people, to comprehend the place and role of Russia in world civilization.

Philosophy in Russia arose late in comparison with other countries. The reasons for this:

) The domination of pagan culture in Russia and fragmentation human communities, atomization of life.

) Lack of stable ties with established world cultures.

The formation of philosophical thought in Ancient Rus refers to the X-XII centuries - the time of profound socio-political and cultural changes in the life of the Eastern Slavs, caused by the formation of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus, the influence of Byzantine and Bulgarian cultures, the emergence of Slavic writing and the adoption of Christianity by Rus. These factors created favorable conditions for the birth of ancient Russian philosophy.

The initial stage in the development of Russian philosophical thought is associated with the appearance of the first literary works containing original philosophical ideas and concepts. The chronicles, "teachings", "words" and other monuments of Russian literature reflected the deep interest of Russian thinkers in historiosophical, anthropological, epistemological and moral problems. During this period, a peculiar way of philosophizing, conditioned by the type of philosophical tradition perceived together with Christianity, was formed, characterized by VV Zenkovsky as “mystical realism”. The most significant works of this period include Hilarion's "Word of Law and Grace", Nestor's "Tale of Bygone Years", Clement Smolyatich's "Epistle to Thomas", "The Word of Wisdom" and "The Parable of the Human Soul and Body" by Kirill Turovsky, " Lecture "by Vladimir Monomakh," Epistle to Vladimir Monomakh "by Metropolitan Nicephorus," Prayer "by Daniel the Zatochnik.

The next stage in the development of ancient Russian philosophy covers the XIII-XIV centuries - the time of the most severe trials caused by the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The enormous damage inflicted on Ancient Rus, however, did not interrupt the cultural tradition. The centers for the development of Russian thought remained monasteries, in which not only the traditions of the spiritual culture of Rus were preserved, but work continued on the translation and commentary of Byzantine philosophical works. Among the monuments of Russian thought of this period, the most significant in terms of ideological content are "The Word of the Death of the Russian Land", "The Legend of the City of Kitezh", "Words" by Serapion Vladimirsky, "Kiev-Pechersk Paterik". The most important for Russian thought of this period were the themes of spiritual stability and moral improvement.

New stage development of Russian philosophy covers the period from the end of the XIV to the XVI century, characterized by the rise of national consciousness, the formation of a centralized Russian state, strengthening ties with the Slavic south and the centers of Byzantine culture.

Hesychasm, a mystical trend in Orthodox theology that arose on Athos in the 13th-14th centuries, rooted in the moral and ascetic teaching of Christian ascetics of the 4th-7th centuries, had a significant impact on Russian philosophical thought of this period. The hesychast tradition in Russian thought is represented by the teachings and activities of Nil Sorsky, Maxim the Greek and their followers.

An important place in the spiritual life of Muscovite Rus was occupied by the polemics of the Josephites and the non-possessors. First of all, the ideological struggle of their spiritual leaders - Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky, which covered such deep moral, political, theological and philosophical problems as social service and vocation of the church, ways of spiritual and moral transformation of the personality, attitude towards heretics, the problem of royal power and its divine nature.

One of the central places in Russian thought of the 15th-16th centuries. occupied the problem of state, power and law. The view of the Moscow Orthodox kingdom - Holy Russia - as the successor of Byzantium, called upon to fulfill a special historical mission, was reflected in the historiosophical concept “Moscow is the third Rome” formulated by Elder Philotheus. The problems of power and law were the leading ones in the polemics of Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky, they are devoted to the works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov, who defended the idea of ​​strengthening autocratic rule. The problems of man, moral improvement, the choice of ways of personal and social salvation were in the center of attention of the outstanding Byzantine humanist-educator Maxim the Greek, whose philosophical work became the greatest achievement of Russian medieval philosophy.

Heretical teachings associated with the European reformation-humanist movement exerted a significant influence on the spiritual life of Russian society in the 15th-16th centuries. The most prominent representatives of Russian free-thinking were Fyodor Kuritsin, Matvey Bashkin, Feodosia Kosoy.

The final stage development of Russian medieval philosophy is characterized by contradictory processes of formation of the foundations of a new world outlook, the clash of traditional spiritual culture with the growing influence of Western European science and education. The most significant figures of Russian thought of this period - Archpriest Avvakum - the successor and strict adherent of the spiritual traditions of ancient Russian culture, and opposing him Simeon Polotsky and Yuri Krizhanich - the conductors of Western European education and culture. The most important topics their thoughts were a man, his spiritual essence and moral duty, knowledge and place of philosophy in him, the problem of power and the role of various social strata in political life society. A significant role in the dissemination of philosophical knowledge was played by the largest centers of education and culture - the Kiev-Mohyla and Slavic-Greek-Latin academies, in which a number of philosophical disciplines were taught.

The beginning of the 18th century became the final period in the history of Russian medieval philosophy and the time when the prerequisites for its secularization and professionalization were born, which laid the foundations for a new stage in the development of Russian thought.

When characterizing the features of the development of philosophy in Russia, it is necessary first of all to take into account the conditions of its existence, which were extremely unfavorable in comparison with Western European ones. At a time when I. Kant, W. Schelling, G. Hegel and other thinkers freely expounded their philosophical systems in the universities of Germany, the teaching of philosophy in Russia was under the strictest state control, who did not allow any philosophical free-thinking in purely political reasons... The attitude of state power to philosophy is clearly expressed in famous saying trustee educational institutions Prince Shirinsky-Shikhmatov "The benefits of philosophy have not been proven, but harm is possible."

Until the second half of the 19th century. philosophical problems were mastered in Russia mainly in philosophical and literary circles outside the official structures of education, which had two kinds of consequences.

On the one hand, the formation of Russian philosophy took place in the course of searching for answers to the questions that were posed by Russian reality itself. Therefore, it is difficult to find a thinker in the history of Russian philosophy who would engage in pure theorizing and would not respond to burning problems.

On the other hand, the same conditions led to such an abnormal state for philosophy itself, when, in the perception of philosophical teachings, political attitudes acquired a dominant significance and these teachings themselves were evaluated primarily from the point of view of their “progressiveness” or “reactionary”, “usefulness” or “ uselessness "for solving social problems... Therefore, those teachings that, although they did not differ in philosophical depth, but responded to the spite of the day, were widely known. Others, who later compiled the classics of Russian philosophy, such as the teachings of K. Leont'ev, N. Danilevsky, Vl. Solovyov, N. Fedorova and others, did not find a response from their contemporaries and were known only to a narrow circle of people.

When characterizing the features of Russian philosophy, one must also take into account the cultural and historical background on which it was formed. In Russia, in the course of its history, there was a kind of interweaving of two different types of cultures and, accordingly, types of philosophizing: rationalistic, Western European and Eastern, Byzantine with its intuitive perception of the world and lively contemplation, included in Russian self-awareness through Orthodoxy. This combination of two different types of thinking runs through the entire history of Russian philosophy.

Existence at the crossroads different cultures largely determined the form of philosophizing and the problems of Russian philosophy. As for the form of philosophizing, its specificity has been successfully defined by A.F. Losev, who showed that Russian philosophy, in contrast to Western European philosophy, is alien to the desire for an abstract, purely rational systematics of ideas. For the most part, it "represents a purely internal, intuitive, purely mystical knowledge of things."

From the content side, Russian philosophy also has its own characteristics. It presents, to one degree or another, all the main directions of philosophical thinking: ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, philosophy of history, etc. However, there are also leading themes for her. One of them, which determined the very specificity of Russian philosophy, was the theme of Russia, comprehending the meaning of its existence in history. The formation of Russian philosophical thought began with this theme, and it remained relevant throughout its development.

Another leading theme was the theme of man, his fate and the meaning of life. The increased attention to the problem of man determined the moral and practical orientation of Russian philosophy. A feature of Russian philosophical thinking was not just a deep interest in moral issues, but the dominance of a moral attitude in the analysis of many other problems.

The original Russian philosophy in its innovative quests was closely connected with the religious world outlook, behind which stood centuries of the spiritual experience of Russia. And not just with a religious, but with an Orthodox world outlook. Speaking about this, V.V. Zenkovsky notes that “Russian thought has always (and forever) remained connected with its religious element, with its religious soil.

Is currently priceless spiritual experience, obtained by Russian philosophy, acts as a necessary basis for spiritual rebirth and the construction of a moral, humanistic world.

Thus, the main stages in the development of Russian philosophy:

) 10-17 centuries. - the period is characterized by ethical philosophy. Philosophical moral teachings. Philosophy of Unity. Philosophy reflects the connection between secular and spiritual life.

) 18th - mid 19th centuries. - this period is characterized by attempts to borrow from Western philosophy and at the same time the emergence of the natures of philosophy (philosophy of nature) in the person of Lomonosov.

) The middle of the 19th and the first 3 decades of the 20th century. This period is characterized by the highest development of Russian philosophy ("golden age").

Let us briefly formulate the general formal features of Russian philosophy:

Russian philosophy, in contrast to European, and most of all German philosophy, is alien to the desire for an abstract, purely intellectual systematization of views. It represents a purely internal, intuitive, purely mystical knowledge of existence, its hidden depths, which can be comprehended not by reduction to logical concepts and definitions, but only in a symbol, in an image through the power of imagination and internal life mobility.

Russian philosophy is inextricably linked with real life, therefore it often appears in the form of journalism, which originates in the general spirit of the time, with all its positive and negative sides, with all his joys and sufferings, with all his order and chaos.

In connection with this "liveliness" of Russian philosophical thought, there is the fact that fiction is a treasure trove of original Russian philosophy. In the prose works of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Maxim Gorky, the main philosophical problems are often developed, of course in their specifically Russian, extremely practical, life-oriented form. And these problems are resolved here in such a way that an open-minded and knowledgeable judge will call these decisions not just "literary" or "artistic", but philosophical and ingenious.

The basis of Western European philosophy is ratio. Russian philosophical thought, which developed on the basis of Greek-Orthodox ideas, in turn borrowed in many ways from antiquity, lays the Logos at the foundation of everything. there is a human property and peculiarity; The Logos is metaphysical and divine.

So, Russian original philosophy is an incessant struggle between the Western European abstract ratio and the Eastern Christian, concrete, divine-human Logos and is an incessant, constantly rising new step comprehension of the irrational and secret depths of the cosmos with a concrete and living mind.

Russian original philosophy gave Russia genius thinkers, in Russian philosophy, which is under Western influence and is characterized by extreme sterility (it almost does not go beyond the theory of knowledge), there are also many gifted individuals. It is to be hoped that the representatives of the borrowed philosophy will say goodbye to abstractness and sterility and recognize the great Russian problem of the Logos.

The most prominent representatives in Russian philosophy were:

within the framework of religious idealism: Vladimir Soloviev, Sergei Bulgakov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev;

within the framework of cosmism: Tsiolkovsky, Fedorov;

within the framework of mysticism: Shestov;

within the philosophy of freedom: Berdyaev;

within the social-critical: Kropotkin and M. Bakunin;

Thus, the Russian philosophy of this period was quite diverse and mostly idealistic in various forms.

Dialectics - the doctrine of universal communication

Dialectics (Greek dialektike techne - the art of conversation) is the theory and method of cognizing reality, the doctrine of universal connection and development.

Initially, the term dialectics was revealed as "the art of arguing." Socrates' dialogue was built on the principle of dialectics. Already in antiquity, a dialectical approach to the world took shape.

The modern content of dialectics is not limited to its original meaning, but is revealed as a doctrine of development and universal connections; reflects the subsequent stages of development of ideas about the development of the world.

Empirical observations of the ancients revealed one of the essential characteristics of the world - contradiction.

It was noticed that in the process of development, objects and phenomena turn into their opposite, which testified to the presence in them of opposite, mutually exclusive, multidirectional tendencies of development. The contradiction in the subject itself was viewed as a source of movement, development.

These ideas are most clearly and fully expressed in the philosophy of Heraclitus. An essential role in the development of dialectical views was played by Zeno of Elea, who deeply understood the contradictory nature of movement through the relationship between discontinuous and continuous, finite and infinite (Zeno's aporia). Plato views dialectics as a method of cognition, which, through the separation and combination of concepts (analysis, synthesis), helps to comprehend ideas, advances thought from lower concepts to higher ones. Despite the fact that Aristotle associated only hypothetical, probabilistic knowledge with dialectics, his theory of the interaction of form and matter largely contributed to the further development of ideas of development.

On the whole, the ancient Greek thinkers managed to rise to the realization of the universal inconsistency of being as single and multiple, constant and changing.

The solution of this problem on the basis of dialectics became one of the main tasks of ancient philosophy.

The dialectical ideas of Hellas were perceived by the thinkers of the Middle Ages. The concepts of Plato (neoplatonism), Aristotle, revised in accordance with the principles and postulates of monotheistic religions, played a significant role in the further development of dialectics. During this period, the main attention was paid to the formal meaning of dialectics, it performed the function of operating with concepts, it was actually ousted from the sphere of being.

Subsequent philosophical eras contributed to the development of dialectics. In the works of N. Kuzansky, J. Bruno, R. Descartes, G. Leibniz, B. Spinoza, J. Zh. Rousseau, D. Diderot, the ideas of the unity and struggle of opposites, the development of the world, the relationship of necessity and freedom, the universal and necessary connection of matter and motion, the integrity of the Universe, and others developed.

A new stage in the development of dialectics is associated with German classical philosophy and, mainly, with the teachings of Hegel, who created one of the first classical models of dialectics of modern times. Hegel developed the basic laws and categories of dialectics from an idealistic point of view.

The middle of the 19th century was marked by such discoveries in the field of natural science, which made it possible to view the world dialectically. Nature is the stone of dialectics.

The Hegelian doctrine of development and interconnection was inherited by dialectical materialism. From the point of view of materialistic dialectics, it is not concepts that develop, but surrounding a person peace. Concepts are a reflection of the world, without being independent.

The basic principles of materialist dialectics:

the principle of development - consists in such an approach to the world in which it is considered as a system in a state of constant development

the principle of universal connection - there are no phenomena and processes in the world that would not be connected with each other, and this connection can be of a different nature.

The founders of materialist dialectics, Marx and Engels, saw the true significance of Hegelian philosophy in the fact that it fundamentally denied the final nature of the results of thinking and human activity. Truth was presented not as a system of invariable dogmatic statements, but, on the contrary, it reflected a long historical path of development of knowledge.

Similarly, according to the philosopher, the situation is in the field of practical action. Each stage in the development of society is determined by the era and the conditions to which it owes its origin. But each state of society gradually generates new conditions leading to further social transformations.

For dialectical philosophy, there is nothing unconditional, established once and for all. On everything, she sees the stamp of inevitable death in the continuous process of destruction and emergence, endless ascent from lower levels to higher ones.

The classics of dialectical materialism, having studied the teachings of Hegel, formulated the doctrine of laws and categories.

They began to express not the self-development of the Absolute Spirit, but the development processes taking place in various spheres of the material and spiritual world.

Law is a reflection of a certain connection between phenomena, objects, processes. The connection is internal, essential, repetitive, necessary connection between phenomena and objects of the material world. Laws can be very different. Private (specific) laws are used in a limited area of ​​activity. The sphere of application of the laws of dialectics is practically limitless. They are manifested in nature, society, human consciousness.

Consider the Laws of Dialectics:

The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals the problem of the source, the reasons for development. There was a theory of the first idea, the first impulse, but in the end these ideas led to God. Dialectics recognizes self-development and self-movement, i.e. each object of the world develops not due to any external reasons, but due to the presence of opposite processes in itself.

The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes reveals the mechanism of dialectical development, that is, it answers the question: how, how development occurs in nature and in human consciousness. According to this law, development occurs through gradual quantitative changes, and then an abrupt transition to a new quality.

The law of negation - shows the direction of development. According to this law, development is a process of endless denials, as a result of which progressive development occurs from simple to complex, from lower to higher.

These three laws of dialectics sufficiently reveal the principle of dialectical development, covering it from all sides. Each of the laws is formulated through a number of categories. To understand the law means to reveal the concept of those categories through which this law is revealed.

First Law: Identity, Difference, Contradiction, Opposition.

Identity is the coincidence, the similarity of one object to another, or the states of the same object in relation to each other. There is identity, which always includes the development of identity, brings it into a state of opposition. The relationship between them constitutes a dialectical contradiction.

Dialectical contradiction is a relationship of opposing moments within a system that makes it (the system) self-propelled and which manifests itself through the interdependence of these moments and at the same time their mutual denial.

The unity of opposites, as a rule, is temporary, transient, and the struggle of opposites is absolute in the sense that new opposites arise in relation to each other.

The world is woven from opposites. Let's highlight the stages of development of dialectical contradiction:

the emergence of a difference between opposites;

deployment of opposites. Polarization of the parties within a single whole;

his permission.

The second law: quality, quantity, measure, leap - a form of transition from one quality to another.

The third law: It is necessary to find out the very essence of dialectical negation

A special place in dialectics is occupied by the so-called. paired categories, which, as it were, complement the basic principles of dialectics, concretize these principles. Such categories: individual and general, cause and effect, content and form, essence and phenomenon, necessary and accidental, possible and real. These concepts do not belong to the sphere of the concept of the world, but to the world itself.

By virtue of its universality, the dialectical method is applicable not only in scientific knowledge. He also works at an ordinary, everyday level. Let us recall the popular saying of Heraclitus: "It would not be better for people if all their desires were fulfilled." And in fact, imagine yourself for a second in the place of Dunno in the Sunny City with a magic wand in your hands. How long would we enjoy such power? Probably not. And then we will certainly be overcome by mortal melancholy - there will be simply no need to live, all desires and aspirations will lose all meaning. Life is only where there is a tension of contradiction between desires and the possibilities of their fulfillment, i.e. the same dialectic.

Thus, dialectics is a deep and heuristic way of describing and studying reality. Its initial postulate - the recognition of the self-development of the material world as a consequence of the formation and resolution of contradictions - received in the second half of the 20th century, serious reinforcement and concretization in the ideas of synergetics - the theory of self-organization of complex systems.

Necessity and accident

Necessity and chance, correlative philosophical categories that express the types of communication that are determined by essential and incidental factors.

Need:

thing, phenomenon in their universal lawful connection; reflection of predominantly internal, stable, repetitive, universal relations of reality, the main directions of its development:

the expression of such a step in the movement of knowledge into the depths of an object, when its essence, law is revealed;

a way of converting a possibility into reality, in which in a certain object under given conditions there is only one possibility, which turns into reality.

Accident:

reflection mainly of external, insignificant, unstable, single connections of reality;

expression of the starting point of the object's cognition;

the result of the intersection of independent causal processes, events;

form of manifestation of necessity and addition to it.

Necessity is expressed by the main, regular causes of the process, is completely determined by them in this respect, is characterized by strict unambiguity and certainty, often inevitability, prepared by the entire preceding course of development of phenomena. Necessity is not limited to inevitability. The latter is only one of the stages of its development, one of the forms of its implementation.

Accident is just as causally conditioned as necessity, but it differs from it in the peculiarity of its causes. It appears as a result of the action of distant, irregular, unstable, insignificant, small causes or the simultaneous action of a complex of complex causes, characterized by ambiguity, uncertainty of its course.

One and the same set of causes can determine the necessary processes at one structural level of matter, in one system of connections, and at the same time cause accidents at another level or in another system of connections.

These or those phenomena, being the realization and development of the essence, are necessary, but in their singularity, uniqueness appear as accidental. In other words, necessity is what must necessarily happen in the given conditions, while chance has its basis not in the essence of the phenomenon, but in the influence of other phenomena on it, this is what may or may not be, can happen like this, and it can happen otherwise.

With a metaphysical, rational-empirical approach to the interaction of phenomena, their development, a person is faced with an insoluble contradiction. On the one hand, all phenomena, events, etc. arise under the influence of some reason, and, therefore, they could not but arise. On the other hand, their appearance depends on an infinite number of different conditions under which a given cause acts, and their unpredictable combination makes such an appearance unnecessary, accidental.

Unable to resolve this contradiction, metaphysical thinking comes either to fatalism, in which any event is initially predetermined, or to relativism and indeterminism (Determinism and indeterminism), in which events ultimately turn into a chaos of chances. In either case, purposeful human activity turns out to be meaningless.

To comprehend the necessity and randomness in their internal relationship it is possible only on the path of a dialectical understanding of the development process as becoming in unique forms of single events on the basis of a certain way of resolving the initial contradiction. Any process is a resolution in space and time of some previously overdue contradiction.

The contradiction, since it is ripe, must be resolved with necessity, but the form of this process can be different and in its uniqueness is random, because at the moment and under the given conditions, many are taking part in it. events and phenomena born on a broader or other basis. Thus, the necessity, i.e. the method of inevitable resolution of the contradiction, makes its way through chance, and chance turns out to be a "supplement and form of manifestation" of necessity (K. Marx, F. Engels. Collected works. vol. 39, p. 175).

The task of purposeful human activity is in this case to correlate the various individual, random events, circumstances with their common basis and, highlighting the ways of resolving contradictions, change these circumstances. Marxist philosophy proceeds from the premise that essential (necessary) and insignificant (random) properties can be distinguished in any event.

Necessity and chance are dialectical opposites that do not exist without each other. Chance always hides a necessity, a necessary basis for phenomena, which determines the course of development in nature and society.

The task of science is to reveal the necessary basis in the random connections of phenomena. Science, says Marx, stops where the necessary connection loses its strength. No matter how complex this or that phenomenon, no matter how many accidents its development depends on, it is ultimately governed by objective laws, inevitability. Dialectical materialism helps to understand not only the connection, but also the mutual transitions of necessity and chance. Thus, Marx revealed this side of the dialectic of necessity and chance, showing the development of forms of value in Capital.

Modern science enriches dialectical-materialistic conclusions about the essence of necessity and randomness with new data, for example, the theory of Probabilities, statistical and dynamic regularity.

Bibliography

1.Alekseev P.V. Philosophy: textbook / P.V. Alekseev, A.V. Panin. - M .: TK Welby, 2005 .-- 608 p.

.Zenkovsky V.V. History of Russian Philosophy. Vol. 1. Part 1. / V.V. Zenkovsky. - M .: Phoenix, 2004 .-- 544 p.

.Losev A.F. Russian philosophy: Essays on the history of Russian philosophy / A.F. Losev. - Sverdlovsk: Publishing house of the Ural. University, 1991. - S. 67-71.

.Philosophical Dictionary / Ed. I.T.Frolov. - M .: Politizdat, 1981 .-- 445 p.

.Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary/ Ed. L.F. Ilyichev, P.N. Fedoseev, S.M. Kovalev and others - M .: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1983 .-- 840 p.

Tutoring

Need help exploring a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Send a request with the indication of the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.