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1. The concept of a systematic approach, its main features and principles
A systematic approach is an approach to the study of an object (problem, phenomenon, process) as a system in which elements, internal and external relations are identified that most significantly affect the results of its functioning, and the goals of each of the elements, based on the general purpose of the object .
It can also be said that a systematic approach is such a direction of methodology scientific knowledge and practical activities, which is based on the study of any object as a complex integral socio-economic system.
1. Integrity, which makes it possible to consider the system at the same time as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.
2. Hierarchical structure, i.e. the presence of a plurality (at least two) of elements located on the basis of the subordination of elements of a lower level to elements of a higher level. The implementation of this principle is clearly seen in the example of any specific organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: managing and managed. One is subordinate to the other.
3. Structurization, which allows you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of the system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of the structure itself.
4. Multiplicity, which allows using a variety of cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.
2. Modern idea of the systems approach
So, a systematic approach to management is based on the fact that any organization is a system consisting of parts, each of which has its own goals. The leader must proceed from the fact that in order to achieve the overall goals of the organization, it is necessary to consider it as single system. At the same time, strive to identify and evaluate the interaction of all its parts and combine them on such a basis that will allow the organization as a whole to effectively achieve its goals. (Achieving the goals of all subsystems of the organization is a desirable phenomenon, but almost always not real).
3. Differences between traditional and systemic approaches to management
Traditional and systemic approaches use both analysis (dismemberment of the whole into parts) and synthesis (combining parts into a whole) in the development of management decisions. The difference lies in the combination, sequence of these methods. Traditional thinking contains the following sequence of stages: 1) dismemberment (analysis) of what is to be explained; 2) an explanation of the behavior or properties of the parts taken individually; 3) unification (synthesis) of these explanations into an explanation of the whole. In the system approach, three stages can also be distinguished: 1) the definition of the whole (system), of which the object of interest to us is a part; 2) an explanation of the behavior or properties of this whole (system); 3) an explanation of the behavior or properties of the object of interest to us in terms of its functions in this whole, of which it is a part. Those. with a systematic approach, synthesis precedes analysis, and with a traditional one, vice versa.
In the analytical approach, the subject being explained is considered as a whole, which is to be decomposed into parts. With a systematic approach, the subject being explained is considered as part of a whole.
4. The value of a systematic approach to management
The value of a systems approach is that managers can more easily align their specific work with that of the organization as a whole if they understand the system and their role in it. This is especially important for CEO, because the systems approach encourages him to maintain the necessary balance between the needs of individual units and the goals of the entire organization. It makes him think about the flow of information going through the whole system and also emphasizes the importance of communication. A systems approach helps to identify the reasons for making ineffective decisions, it also provides tools and techniques for improving planning and control.
Undoubtedly, a modern leader must have systems thinking. Systems thinking not only contributed to the development of new ideas about the organization (in particular, special attention was paid to the integrated nature of the enterprise, as well as the paramount importance and importance of information systems), but also provided the development of useful mathematical tools and techniques that greatly facilitate managerial decision-making, the use of more advanced planning and control systems. Thus, a systematic approach allows us to comprehensively evaluate any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. This will help to analyze any situation within a single system, to identify the nature of the input, process and output problems. The application of a systematic approach allows the best way organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system.
Despite all the positive results, systems thinking has still not fulfilled its most important purpose. The claim that it will allow the application of the modern scientific method to management has not yet been realized. This is partly because large-scale systems are very complex. It is not easy to grasp the many ways in which the external environment influences the internal organization. The interaction of many subsystems within an organization is not fully understood. The boundaries of systems are very difficult to establish, too broad a definition will lead to the accumulation of costly and unusable data, and too narrow - to a partial solution of problems. It will not be easy to formulate the questions that will arise before the enterprise, to determine with accuracy the information needed in the future. Even if the best and most logical solution is found, it may not be feasible. However, a systems approach provides an opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of how an organization works.
5. Definition of the concept of "system analysis"
System analysis is a set of certain scientific methods and practices solving various problems that arise in all spheres of the purposeful activity of society, based on a systematic approach and presenting the object of study in the form of a system. Characteristic of system analysis is that the search for the best solution to the problem begins with the definition and ordering of the goals of the system, during the functioning of which the problem arose. This establishes a correspondence between these goals, possible ways problem solving and the resources required for this.
Systems analysis is characterized mainly by an ordered, logically based approach to the study of problems and the use of existing methods for solving them, which can be developed within other sciences.
The purpose of a system analysis is to fully and comprehensively check various options actions in terms of quantitative and qualitative comparison of the resources expended with the effect obtained.
System analysis, in essence, is a means of establishing a framework for the systematic and more effective use of knowledge, judgment and intuition of specialists; it obliges to a certain discipline of thinking.
In other words, systems analysis is a systematic method of assisting a decision maker in choosing a course of action by examining the whole problem, determining the final goals and various ways to achieve them, taking into account possible consequences. To obtain a qualified judgment on problems, appropriate methods are used, if possible analytical.
System analysis is designed to solve primarily semi-structured problems, i.e. problems, the composition of the elements and relationships of which is only partially established, problems that arise, as a rule, in situations characterized by the presence of an uncertainty factor and containing non-formalizable elements that cannot be translated into the language of mathematics.
One of the tasks of systems analysis is to reveal the content of the problems facing decision makers so that they become aware of all the main consequences of decisions and can take them into account in their actions. System analysis helps the decision maker to take a more rigorous approach to the assessment options actions and choose the best of them, taking into account additional, non-formalizable factors and points that may be unknown to the specialists preparing the decision.
The object of system analysis in the theoretical aspect is the process of preparing and making decisions; in the applied aspect - various specific problems that arise in the creation and operation of systems.
In a theoretical aspect, these are, firstly, the general patterns of research aimed at finding best solutions various problems based on a systematic approach (the content of the individual stages of system analysis, the relationship that exists between them, etc.).
Secondly, specific scientific research methods are the definition of goals and their ranking, the disaggregation of problems (systems) into their constituent elements, the determination of the relationships that exist both between the elements of the system and between the system and the external environment, etc.
Thirdly, the principles of integrating various research methods and techniques (mathematical and heuristic) developed both within the framework of system analysis and within the framework of other scientific areas and disciplines into a coherent, interdependent set of methods of system analysis.
6. The concept of a system
In system analysis, studies are based on the use of the system category, which is understood as the unity of interrelated and mutually influencing elements located in a certain pattern in space and time, acting together to achieve a common goal. The system must meet two requirements:
1. The behavior of each element of the system affects the behavior of the system as a whole; the essential properties of a system are lost when it is dissected.
2. The behavior of the elements of the system and their impact on the whole are interdependent; the essential properties of the elements of the system are also lost when they are separated from the system. Hegel wrote that the hand, separated from the body, ceases to be a hand, because it is not alive.
Thus, the properties, behavior, or state that a system possesses differ from the properties, behavior, or state of its constituent elements (subsystems). A system is a whole that cannot be understood by analysis. A system is a set of elements that cannot be divided into independent parts.
The set of properties of the elements of the system is not common property system, but gives some new property. Any system is characterized by the presence of its own, specific laws of action, which cannot be derived directly from the modes of action of its constituent elements alone. Every system is developing system It has its beginning in the past and its continuation in the future.
The main parts of the system are input, operation and output.
For any system, the input consists of elements classified according to their role in the processes occurring in the system. The first entry element is the one on which some process or operation is performed. This input is or will be the "load" of the system (raw materials, materials, energy, information, etc.). The second element of the system input is the external (environment) environment, which is understood as a set of factors and phenomena that affect the processes of the system and are not amenable to direct control by its leaders.
External factors not controlled by systems can usually be divided into two categories: random, characterized by laws of distribution, unknown laws, or acting without any laws (for example, natural conditions); factors at the disposal of the system, which is external and actively, reasonably acting in relation to the system under consideration (for example, legal documents, targets).
The goals of the external system may be known, not known exactly, not known at all.
The third element of the input provides the placement and movement of system components, for example, various instructions, regulations, orders, that is, it sets the laws of its organization and functioning, goals, restrictive conditions, etc. Inputs are also classified by content: material, energy, information, or any combination of them.
The second part of the system is the operations, processes, or channels through which the entry elements pass. The system must be designed in such a way that the necessary processes (production, training, logistics, etc.) act according to a certain law on each input, at the appropriate time, to achieve the desired output.
The third part of the system is the output, which is the product or result of its activities. The system at its output must satisfy a number of criteria, the most important of which are stability and reliability. According to the output, the degree of achievement of the goals set for the system is judged.
According to the degree of connection with the external environment, systems are classified into open and closed.
Open systems are systems that exchange material and informational resources or energy with the environment in a regular and understandable way.
Closed systems are the opposite of open systems.
Closed systems operate with relatively little exchange of energy or materials with the environment. The closed system approach suggested what should be done to optimize the use of resources, taking into account only what is happening inside the organization.
According to the target features, they distinguish: single-purpose systems, that is, designed to solve one single target task and multi-purpose ones. In addition, functional systems can be distinguished that provide a solution or consideration of a particular side or aspect of the problem (planning, supply, etc.).
Although the main provisions of system analysis are common to all classes of systems, the specificity of their individual classes requires a special approach in their analysis. The pronounced specificity of socio-economic systems in relation to biological, and even more technical, is due primarily to the fact that an integral part of the former is a person. Therefore, in relation to this class of systems, the analysis should be carried out taking into account the needs, interests and behavior of a person.
With a systematic approach, the country's economy, individual organizations are considered as systems consisting of functionally and structurally separate subsystems that form a number of stable hierarchical levels of management to achieve the ultimate goal.
A consequence of the hierarchical organization is the presence of vertical and horizontal links. Vertical connections mediate the interaction of subsystems of different levels of the organization, horizontal ones of the same level. The principle of hierarchical organization is associated with the concept of relative isolation of subsystems different levels. Relative isolation means that such subsystems have some independence (autonomy) in relation to the higher and lower subsystems of the hierarchical series, and their interaction is carried out by inputs and outputs. Higher systems act by giving a signal to the input of the lower ones and monitor their state by output, in turn, the lower subsystems act on the higher ones, reacting to their signals.
Among the concepts on which important principles of systems management are based is the concept feedback. It was it that contributed to the establishment of fundamental analogies between the organization of management in such qualitatively various systems like machines, living organisms and collectives of people.
Feedback means the connection between the outputs and the input of the system, carried out either directly or through other elements of the system.
With the help of feedback, the signal (information) from the output of the system (control object) is transmitted to the control body. Here, this signal, containing information about the work performed by the control object, is compared with a signal that specifies the content and amount of work (for example, a plan). In the event of a discrepancy between the actual and planned state of work, measures are taken to eliminate it.
The system can be stable and unstable. The stability of a system is a state that means the invariance of its essential variables. Instability is expressed in the fact that a system organized to perform certain functions ceases to perform them under the influence of any reasons.
In a changing environment or under the influence of various "disturbances" that reach the threshold of stability, the system can cease to exist, turn into another system, or break up into constituent elements. For example, bankruptcy of enterprises.
systems traditional analysis approach
7. Rules for applying a systematic approach
So, from the above material it becomes clear that the system approach and system analysis are two interrelated concepts. Thus, a systematic approach is based on in-depth research causation and patterns of development of socio-economic processes. And since there are connections and patterns, then there are certain rules.
Rules for applying a systematic approach:
Rule 1. It is not the components themselves that constitute the essence of the whole (system), but, on the contrary, the whole as primary generates the components of the system during its division or formation.
Rule 2. The sum of properties (parameters) or an individual property of the system is not equal to the sum of the properties of its components, and it is impossible to derive the properties of its components from the properties of the system (the property of non-additivity of the system).
Rule 3. The number of system components that determine its size should be minimal, but sufficient to achieve the goals of the system. The structure of, for example, a production system is a combination of organizational and production structures.
Rule 4. To simplify the structure of the system, it is necessary to reduce the number of control levels, the number of links between the system components and the parameters of the control model, to automate the production and control processes.
Rule 5. The structure of the system must be flexible, with the least number of hard links, capable of quickly reconfiguring to perform new tasks, provide new services, etc. The mobility of the system is one of the conditions for its rapid adaptation to market requirements.
Rule 6. The structure of the system should be such that changes in the vertical connections of the system components have a minimal impact on the functioning of the system. To do this, it is necessary to justify the level of delegation of authority by the subjects of management, to ensure optimal autonomy and independence of management objects in socio-economic and production systems.
Rule 7. The horizontal isolation of the system, i.e. the number of horizontal connections between the components of the same level of the system should be minimal, but sufficient for the normal functioning of the system. Reducing the number of connections leads to an increase in the stability and efficiency of the system. On the other hand, the establishment of horizontal links allows the implementation of informal relations, promotes the transfer of knowledge and skills, and ensures the coordination of the actions of components of the same level to achieve the goals of the system.
Rule 8. The study of the hierarchy of the system and the process of its structuring should begin with the definition of higher-level systems (to whom the this system) and establishing its links with these systems.
When structuring the system, methods of analysis and synthesis should be used. First, one person (group) builds the structure of the system (analyzes, determines the intrasystem hierarchy), eliminates connections between components, and transfers the set with the names of the components to another person (group) to assemble the system (synthesis). If the results of analysis and synthesis coincide, i.e., after the assembly of the system there are no extra components left, and the system functions, then we can assume that the analysis and synthesis were performed correctly, the system was structured
Rule 9. Due to the complexity and multiplicity of the description of the system, one should not try to know all its properties and parameters. Everything must have a reasonable limit, an optimal limit.
Rule 10. When establishing the relationship and interaction of the system with the external environment, one should build a "black box" and first formulate the "output" parameters, then determine the impact of macro- and microenvironment factors, requirements for the "input", feedback channels and, last of all, design process parameters in the system.
Rule 11. The number of connections of the system with the external environment should be minimal, but sufficient for the normal functioning of the system. An excessive increase in the number of connections complicates the controllability of the system, and their insufficiency reduces the quality of control. In this case, the necessary independence of the system components must be ensured. To ensure the mobility and adaptability of the system, it must be able to quickly change its structure.
Rule 12. In the context of the development of global competition and international integration, one should strive to increase the degree of openness of the system, provided that its economic, technical, informational, and legal security is ensured.
Rule 13. In order to build, operate and develop a system in the context of expanding international integration and cooperation, it should be compatible with other systems in terms of legal, information, scientific, methodological and resource support based on country and international standardization. International standards have now been put into effect. on systems of measures and measurements, quality systems, certification, audit, financial reporting and statistics, etc.
Rule 14. To determine the strategy for the functioning and development of the system, a tree of goals should be built.
Rule 15. To increase the justification of investments in innovative and other projects, one should study the dominant (predominant, strongest) and recessive features of the system and invest in the development of the first, most effective ones.
Rule 16. Of all the goals of the first level listed in Rule 14, priority should be given to the quality of any objects of management as the basis for meeting market requirements, saving resources on a global scale, ensuring security, and improving the quality of life of the population.
Rule 17. When forming the mission and goals of the system, priority should be given to the interests of the higher-level system as a guarantee of solving global problems.
Rule 18. Of all the indicators of the quality of systems, priority should be given to their reliability as a combination of the manifested properties of reliability, durability, maintainability and persistence.
Rule 19. The effectiveness and prospects of the system is achieved by optimizing its goals, structure, management system and other parameters. Therefore, the strategy for the functioning and development of the system should be formed on the basis of optimization models.
Rule 20. When formulating the goals of the system, the uncertainty of information support should be taken into account. The probabilistic nature of situations and information at the stage of predicting goals reduces the real effectiveness of innovations.
Rule 21. When building a tree of goals and formulating a system strategy, it should be remembered that the goals of the system and its components in semantic and quantitative terms, as a rule, do not coincide. However, all components must perform a specific task to achieve the purpose of the system. If without any component it is possible to achieve the goal of the system, then this component is superfluous, contrived, or it is the result of poor-quality structuring of the system. This is a manifestation of the emergence property of the system.
Rule 22. When constructing a tree of system goals and optimizing its functioning, one should study the manifestation of the property of its multiplicativity. For example, the reliability of a system is determined not by adding, but by multiplying the reliability coefficients of its components.
Rule 23. When constructing the structure of the system and organizing its functioning, it should be taken into account that all processes are continuous and interdependent. The system functions and develops on the basis of contradictions, competition, a variety of forms of functioning and development, and the system's ability to learn. The system exists as long as it functions.
Rule 24. When forming the strategy of the system, alternative ways of its functioning and development should be provided on the basis of forecasting various situations. The most unpredictable fragments of the strategy should be planned according to several options, taking into account various situations.
Rule 25. When organizing the functioning of the system, it should be taken into account that its efficiency is not equal to the sum of the efficiency of the functioning of subsystems (components). When the components interact, a positive (additional) or negative synergy effect occurs. To obtain a positive synergy effect, it is necessary to have a high level of organization of the system.
Rule 26. To reduce the inertia of the functioning of the system, i.e., to increase the rate of change of output parameters when the input parameters or parameters of the functioning of the system change, production should be oriented towards integrated automated modules and systems that ensure the mobility of production and fast reaction for changes.
Rule 27 external environment the system must be able to quickly adapt to these changes. The most important tools for increasing the adaptability of the system functioning are the strategic segmentation of the market and the design of goods and technologies based on the principles of standardization and aggregation.
Rule 28. To improve the efficiency of the system, it is necessary to analyze and predict the parameters of its organization: indicators of proportionality, parallelism, continuity, direct flow, rhythm, etc., and ensure their optimal level.
Rule 29. The structure and content of the system are formed on the ideas and principles of standardization, without which it cannot function. Global competition is increasing the share of standardized systems and their components, especially on an international scale.
Rule 30. The only way to develop organizational, economic and production systems is innovative.
List of used literature
1. Bagrinovsky K.A. Modern methods management: Textbook. - M.: Infra - M, 2002.
2. Blauberg I. V., Godin E. G. Formation and essence of the system approach. Moscow: Nauka, 1973.
3. Vesnin V. R. Management: Textbook. - M.: Prospekt, 2004.
4. Vikhansky O. S. Management: Textbook. - M.: Economist, 2004.
5. Daft R. Management: Textbook. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.
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1. A systematic approach to management.
2. Situational approach as an advanced approach in management thought.
System approach in management
In the second half of the XX century. the school of social systems was fully formed. It is a set of sociological approaches that consider the organization as a social system. Their common name is a systematic approach. Its most famous representatives are Parsons, Merton, Forrester, Simon, March, Barnard, Etzioni and others. The formation of the school was significantly influenced by general systems theory (L. von Bertalanffy), cybernetics (G. Wiener), as well as social psychology.
A systematic approach to the organization considers it as a dynamic target multifunctional system consisting of heterogeneous interconnected elements (subsystems), i.e. as a multifaceted phenomenon that links into an organic whole the goals, resources and processes that take place in the organization and outside it.
Separate teachings about management single out some key direction (goals, external environment, structure, etc.), but they all proceed from the multidimensionality of the organization and its management, as well as from the need to take into account the influence and interaction of internal and external factors in management, affecting (directly and indirectly) the functioning of the organization. Another important feature management teachings of this direction is that they proceed from the presence of a systemic effect, expressed in the fact that the whole is always qualitatively different from the simple sum of its parts.
The term "general systems theory" was introduced into scientific circulation Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972)- a famous physicist and physiologist, by whom he designated the advanced them in 1937. in University of Chicago theory of "open systems and states of mobile equilibrium". From the sphere of biology, the principles of this theory were transferred to the solution of technical and managerial problems.
In 1948 Norbert Wiener in the book "Cybernetics" developed the theory of systems, which studies the system through analysis, design and operation. Any organization is formed as a result of the interaction of interrelated and interdependent units, parts, therefore, it has the criteria of a system and can be studied using the concepts and means of systems theory.
The first major specialist in the field of systems approach was Chester Barnard(1886-1961). He was interested in organizational structure and the application of sociological concepts in management. Barnard outlined his views on these issues in his book The Functions of the Leader (1938), in which he offered a comparative analysis of organizational structures. His main idea is that the organization is a system of consciously coordinated actions in which the leader is the most important strategic factor. Its task is to maintain a system of concerted effort in a formal organization.
Barnard sees the organization as a "communication system". The whole process is carried out through three control functions. The first is the creation and use of a communication system. This is the primary responsibility of leaders, and it is carried out through careful selection of leaders, the use of positive and negative sanctions, and the provision of informal organization.
The second function is the effective use of the employees of the organization and the stimulation of their career growth. This requires the selection of personnel and the development of an incentive program. The third function is the formulation of the goals and objectives of the organization. This requires skilled delegation of authority and the development of a communication system to exercise control over the entire plan.
More greater value for the activities of the organization Barnard attaches to the "decision-making system". Instead of individual decision making based on "unconscious and automatic response", he proposes "organizational decision making" based on rational analysis, reflection and calculation. Barnard notes that management decisions are always related to moral issues, but the most well-known and recognized moral principles, including Christian ethics, have little bearing on the moral issues of the business world. At that time, the problems of the morality of administrative behavior had not yet received the necessary development, and Barnard was one of the first to point out the importance of relevant research.
Barnard made a significant contribution to management theory. First, he described managerial functions in analytical and dynamic terms, in contrast to his predecessors, who gave descriptive characteristics.
Secondly, it stimulated interest in issues such as communication, motivation, decision making, goals, and relationships within the organization.
Thirdly, he developed the ideas of Fayol and other researchers about management, which they considered in terms of principles and functions. Barnard, drawing on his interest in the psychological and sociological aspects of management, expanded these ideas to include the interaction of people in the process of work.
In the early 1960s, another significant figure appeared - an American sociologist and political scientist. Amitai Etzioni (1929). Etzioni's main interest is organization. He characterizes the organization as a large, complex social aggregate in which many interact social groups. Although these groups have some common interests (the economic viability of the organization), they also have conflicting interests (profit sharing). They have the same attitude towards some values, especially national ones, the influence of which becomes evident in times of crisis, but disagree about other values, such as work in society.
Different groups may cooperate in some areas and compete in others. Etzioni notes that within the organization there are two groups whose interests often come into conflict - the administration and the workers, because the efforts of the management, aimed at making the worker work, basically alienate him. Etzioni proceeds from the fact that the right to property gives the right to power, that those who provide the funds determine their use. Thus, all workers in all organizations are dissatisfied, because they cannot decide what they will be used for, and do not own the tool necessary for independently performing the work that needs to be done.
Etzioni opposes school participation management " human relations» - conducting democratic discussions with the participation of employees of the organization, leading to the adoption of a joint decision, in fact, already adopted at the top. The real purpose of such procedures is to convince the lower strata to agree to this decision. Etzioni sees here the creation of a false sense of participation, which is deliberately evoked in order to get workers to cooperate in organizational activities and their commitment to contribute to the tasks of the organization.
To analyze organizations, A. Etzioni uses the term "complex organization" or " modern organization”, identifying these concepts with an integrated, comprehensive approach. In his interpretation, an organization is a multi-factorial and multi-purpose entity, and an organization that implements several goals in parallel is much more effective than an organization whose goals are strictly specialized.
Entioni's main work is The Active Society: A Theory of Social and Political Processes (1968). It attempts to create such a scheme of social structure in which universal human values would be best realized. The key parameters of such a society are responsiveness (sensitivity of the ruling elite to the needs of members of the lower levels of the social hierarchy) and authenticity (the authenticity of human needs themselves, common to all members of society, regardless of their cultural affiliation).
One way to increase the activity of an industrial society is to increase centralized control over the functioning of the system. Unlike Parsons, Etzioni, speaking of control, does not mean normative regulation, but the complex interaction of power and information. In later works, he gives great attention consideration of specific social problems and, in particular, the creation of a system of social indicators that make it possible to outline and solve these problems.
In the second half of the 20th century, American specialists in systems theory made a significant contribution to the sociology of management. Mikhailo Mesarovic, D. Mako and Yasuhiko Takahara.
Based on the principles system approach, according to which no action is carried out in isolation from another, they identified 3 levels of functioning of control systems:
1) single-level and single-purpose;
2) single-level multi-purpose;
3) multi-level multi-purpose. The latter are the most difficult.
Multi-level and multi-purpose management systems are hierarchies, each of which includes a number or set of structural components and corresponding levels of management. In such a system (corporation, large firm), in order to ensure its effective functioning, management activities are usually distributed according to content and levels. At the horizontal level, the heads of specific departments are placed.
Deputies for production, marketing, finance, personnel, etc. are subordinate to the general director, each of which performs management functions of different content, but at the same level of management (in terms of rights and responsibilities, means of administration, etc.). Horizontal management is complemented by vertical differentiation.
Its essence is that some managers of the highest level of management have to coordinate the work of other managers who are at a lower level of management, and for those, the work of managers is even more low level, and thus - the work of non-managerial personnel - performers. Such a vertical branching of managerial work forms a certain, sometimes very complex, hierarchical system of management levels in complex multi-level and multi-purpose systems.
The totality of these ideas of different authors relates to management within the framework of microeconomic systems - enterprises, corporations. Simultaneously with them, the second direction of research in the field of theory and practice is developing. social management. These ideas concerned the management of production and economic processes, but not on the scale of microsystems, but on the scale of the country's economy as a whole. The first in this regard was the theory John Maynard Keynes , who substantiated the necessity and methods of state intervention in the economy while maintaining the principles of market self-regulation as defining ones.
The application of systems theory to management has made it easier for managers to see the organization they manage in the unity of its constituent parts, which not only interact with each other, but also inextricably intersect with the outside world. After all, all organizations - large and small, simple and complex - are systems. There are people in them, their social interactions performed by them social roles are the constituent components (social components), which, together with the technique and technology used to perform a certain work (technical components), form a socio-technical system. With the exception of the entire Universe, the systems in it are simultaneously subsystems. In other words, systems most often have subsystems and at the same time act as the main parts of a supersystem.
The head is part of the system (university, sports organization, bank) in which he works, but this system includes many logistical, financial, social, psychological elements. Directing their main goals to work with people, i.e. on the social and psychological elements of the system, it simultaneously constantly interacts with other elements, such as, in particular, money, materials, equipment, etc. It is quite obvious that any person interested in management cannot fail to notice that management has the character of an open system, i.e. interacts dynamically with the environment.
Neither goals, objectives, nor action plans can be set and implemented in a vacuum closed company. Markets for goods, services and knowledge, government agencies, competitors, technology and many other elements of the environment that surrounds the organization (enterprise) affect the goals and plans, methods and effectiveness of their implementation, and they cannot be neglected. It is equally obvious that no manager with even a little experience in working with people can ignore the fact that they are products of their sociocultural environment and are affected by it.
The constructive role of a systematic approach to management, as well as to any management problem as a system, is that it allows you to see the possibilities and prospects, as well as the features of their interaction with each other.
In general, the systematic approach made it possible to look at the organization as a socio-technical system in which there are at least two obligatory interconnected and interdependent subsystems: technical and technological (basic, providing the organization of the second necessary subsystem) and social (secondary in relation to the technical and technological, but providing regulation behavior of members of the organization responsible for the function of connecting technology and man).
Thus, representatives of the systematic approach:
1) considered the controlled system not autonomously, but in its interdependence with the environment;
2) studied methods of adapting the system to changing external conditions;
3) introduced the concept of a subsystem as a component of a complex system - an important methodological achievement;
4) substantiated the main tasks of the analysis: the motives of human behavior, the identification of its target orientation, incentive systems;
5) proved that the analysis of social processes is based on economic and mathematical methods, game theory, information theory, etc.
Modern management is based on a fairly wide range of teachings and approaches to management. For more than a hundred years, entrepreneurs have created many theories that are constantly being tested in practice. And this wealth of alternatives often confuses managers: they do not know what management approach to use in various situations.
Basic control systems
Modern theorists and practitioners distinguish three main management systems: process approach, systemic and situational. All the rest, upon closer examination, turn out to be derivatives of one of these methods.
What is the difference? Approaches to the management process are based on different attitude to the organization itself, to the time and moment of application of the control action and to pressure from environment. Thus, the process system considers management as an endless chain of interrelated management functions. The system option focuses on the fact that the organization consists of many departments, one way or another interacting with each other. A situational approach to management focuses on momentary decision-making based on events taking place in the market.
Management is a process
The process approach to management was proposed by representatives of the administrative school of management theory. He considers the manager's functions as a single interconnected system. Achieving the goals of the company, according to this doctrine, is a consistent solution of small tasks. In itself, each such decision does not play a role in the company's activities, but, being a link in the chain, is an integral element in achieving success.
The process approach to management is provided by the performance of four major functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. Each of them also represents a system. Therefore, the success of the organization is considered as the sum of all management decisions made at all levels of the hierarchical ladder of the enterprise.
In addition, so-called linking processes are necessary to unite the activities of all elements of the company. Or communication.
Management functions
Planning is considered the first function. At this stage, the management is engaged in setting goals and objectives and determines the direction of the company's divisions. We can say that planning allows you to develop a unified system of actions for the elements of the organization to achieve the goals.
Planning is a constant activity of the leader. The fact is that both the external environment and internal variables constantly make adjustments to the chosen strategy. Therefore, the manager should constantly monitor the compliance of current activities with the goals.
The function of the organization provides for the development of the organizational structure of the enterprise, the development of an algorithm for interaction and transfer of information between various departments. Another task of the organization is to create a hierarchy of subordination. The manager not only selects personnel to perform specific work, but also delegates part of the responsibility and authority to him.
But for successful activity one delegation of authority is not enough. It is necessary to find an approach to each employee in order to increase labor productivity. If earlier it was believed that it was enough to promise material rewards to all employees, now researchers argue that there are many different motivators. And the task of the manager is to choose the right one for each employee.
Modern management theory has developed several approaches to personnel management. One of them invites the manager to determine the true needs of employees in order to find a worthy motivating effect.
Any force majeure situation may affect the adherence to the planned course. That is why the control function is considered as continuous. The sooner a deviation is detected, the faster and with less losses it will be possible to restore the company's activities. Three types of control are considered the most common. The first is the development of standards. All plans of the company are carefully developed and established exact dates tasks. The second is measurement. It is assumed that the result of activity obtained for a certain period of time is compared with the expected (planned) result. And finally, the third stage of control is adjustment. Amendments are made to the work of the enterprise according to the received new data on the environment or on internal violations.
The market situation dictates the conditions
The situational approach to management assumes that decision-making should be based on an analysis of the current state of affairs in the market. Only by examining a specific set of conditions for a given moment can one accept the unique the right decision. Theorists of this school do not consider all other methods of management to be incorrect or erroneous. On the contrary, they try to integrate the partial approaches of other teachings. The most promising in this regard is a systematic approach to management.
Management of an enterprise based on an analysis of the market situation implies that the manager has situational thinking - the ability to concentrate on specific tasks and search for their solution. At the same time, the manager must not harm the fulfillment of the strategic goals of the company. This unites the situational and systemic approaches to enterprise management.
Surprising is also the fact that management theorists back in the 20s of the XX century said that the situation controls everything. And the well-known adherent and creator of the theory of organizations, Mary Parker Follet, argued that "different situations require different knowledge."
Methodology of situational management
Specialists in the field of situational management consider the accumulated experience and the effectiveness of decision-making by other managers in similar conditions. The methodology itself is a four-step process.
First, the manager must be familiar with effective means management. He needs to understand the theory of behavior of subordinates and consumers, know the basics of system analysis, be able to identify the most significant factors (both inside the company and outside it), control the progress of the tasks.
Secondly, the manager needs to be able to predict the development of the situation depending on the decision made and be able to consider several alternative solutions at the same time. Since all modern approaches to management have positive and negative sides, this skill is the most valuable for a leader.
Thirdly, it is necessary to be able to correctly identify causal relationships between events. Only an adequate assessment of the situation will make it possible to make the right managerial decision. Unfortunately, this skill only comes with experience.
And, finally, fourthly, this approach to management requires the ability to link various methods of influencing the activities of the enterprise. It is necessary to build such an action program that would have a minimal negative effect (that is, would not entail negative changes in other factors) in the existing circumstances.
Variables
This approach to management is effective only when the manager is able to correctly and quickly identify and evaluate the variables of the current situation and the degree of their impact on the enterprise. If the situation lends itself to analysis, then there is very little room for all sorts of conjectures and the use of the “trial and error” method.
That is why the theorists of this technique single out the length of service and experience of the head as the most important elements of the company's success. Only in last years the conducted research allowed to identify some situational variables that significantly affect the adoption of managerial decisions.
However, it is impossible to determine all the variables (and especially the degree of their impact on the situation). Everything, starting with the temperament and mood of each employee of the company and ending with geopolitical changes in the world, can, to one degree or another, affect the correctness of the decision made. Experienced experts consider two categories of factors:
1) having a direct impact on the company;
2) potential.
System management
All approaches to managing an organization focus on one aspect of performance. And this is their shortcoming. After all, the effectiveness of management depends on many factors. The development of all management schools has allowed managers to be convinced of the integrity of the organizational system, the importance of the relationship between individual departments and the unity of the enterprise and the outside world.
That is why theorists system management seek to integrate elements different approaches to management. For the first time, the need to consider management as a single continuous process was discussed in the middle of the 20th century. And since then, a systematic approach to management has become more popular every year.
Concept
The idea of looking at the organization as a system came to management from exact sciences. To understand the main ideas of this school, it is necessary to define what a system is in general.
The system is something whole, consisting of unequal, but interconnected elements; each such element contributes to the description and properties of the whole. Organizations, too, are systems made up of people (staff), technology, equipment, finance, etc. Due to the interaction between people and machines, firms are classified as sociotechnical systems. In this case, approaches to personnel management should be developed by each organization independently, since the psychological compatibility of employees is as important as the availability of expensive equipment or modern technology.
Types of systems
The theory distinguishes two different kind systems - open and closed. Closed is strictly limited and practically independent of the outside world. A prime example such a system is clockwork. There are practically no completely closed systems among enterprises.
More often we are faced with open systems. They are characterized by the fact that they actively interact with the world. Such systems need energy, information, materials and resources (both physical and financial and human). All this is found in the external environment. In addition, open systems are able to adapt to constantly changing conditions. This is a prerequisite for the long life of an open system.
Subsystem
We already remember that the system consists of elements. Most often, each such component is itself a system. For ease of understanding, they are called subsystems. The division of the organization into such sections is very important, especially when it is necessary to develop approaches to quality management. After all, a failure in the operation of some subsystem will lead to the adoption of erroneous decisions in the system itself. Therefore, malfunctions in the operation of even the smallest structure can affect the result of all production activities.
It is the understanding that the enterprise is a complex component open system, allows us to explain why it is impossible to unconditionally apply the postulates of any one school of management for effective management. After all, each of them concentrated on a single subsystem. Thus, the school of scientific management studies the technical subsystems, and behaviorism deals with the social side of the question of how the organization works.
Modern researchers argue that the success of the company is determined by environmental factors. They predetermine the conditions and opportunities for the functioning of the company. And only after studying the state of affairs in the external environment, the manager can choose the most rational and effective solution to the problem.
Organization is an open system
An organization can be viewed as a kind of machine or combine. By selecting and mixing components (environmental information, technology, personnel, equipment, etc.), the enterprise processes them into the final product and releases it to the market. Actually information, people, capital and materials are called the inputs of the organization. And the goods and services produced are called the output of the organization.
If the process of enterprise management is organized correctly, then additional value is formed during the processing of resources. As a result, in addition to goods at the output of the organization, there are profits, market growth, production growth (due to increased sales).
This is what modern basic approaches to management look like. Let's repeat once again: there is no single correct management style, just as there cannot be the only correct decision of the manager. The pace of information transfer and the development of the modern environment is so great that the manager can only look for the least "harmful" solutions. That is, those that do not entail serious fluctuations in the states of the external and internal environment enterprises.
CHAPTER 1. SYSTEM APPROACH TO ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT
1.1 General characteristics of the systems approach 7
1.2 Management decision making 10
1.3 System analysis 13
CHAPTER 2
2.1 General characteristics Pension Fund 18
2.2 Systematic approach to Pension Fund Management 20
CONCLUSION 28
Glossary 29
Bibliography. 31
1 .1 General characteristics of the systems approach
A systematic approach is a methodology for considering various kinds of complexes, which allows a deeper and better understanding of their essence (structure, organization and other features) (and to find the best ways and methods of influencing the development of such complexes and their management system.
The systems approach is necessary condition use of mathematical methods, but its significance goes beyond this. The systems approach is a comprehensive integrated approach. It involves a comprehensive consideration of the specific characteristics of the relevant object, which determine its structure, and, consequently, its organization.
Each system has its own peculiarities, its own response to control, its own forms of possible deviation from the program, its own ability to respond to various kinds of influences.
Production facilities are complex hierarchical systems consisting of a complex of interconnected and interdependent subsystems: an enterprise, a workshop, a production site, and a “man-machine” section.
Works on the organization and management of production consist in designing and ensuring the functioning of systems. These include:
Establishing the nature of the relationship between the elements of the system (subsystems) and the channels through which communications are carried out within the system;
· Creation of conditions for the coordinated development of the elements of the system and the achievement of the goals for which it is intended;
· Creation of the mechanism providing this coordination;
· Organizational construction of management bodies, development of methods and techniques for managing the system.
A systematic approach to production (organization) management has become most widespread in the United States and is used in almost all countries. It involves considering the company as a complex system consisting of various subsystems, the functions of which depend on the goals and objectives facing each of the subsystems. This determines the classification of subsystems that make up either organizational structure firm or production structure.
The concept of "system" implies that all the subsystems included in it are closely interconnected and have diverse connections with the external environment. The firm is considered as an organization, which is a complex of interrelated elements. At the same time, the internal structure of the organizational system allows for the relative autonomy of subsystems that form a hierarchy of subsystems.
The system approach assumes the presence of a special unity of the system with the environment, which is defined as a set external elements that affect the interaction of the elements of the system.
To express the essence of the system, various means are used: graphic, mathematical, matrix, "decision tree", etc. each of these means cannot fully reflect the essence of the system, which consists in the interconnection of its elements.
A comprehensive study of the links between elements (subsystems) is necessary to build a model of a control object - a firm or an enterprise. Experiments with the model make it possible to improve management decisions, that is, to find the most effective achievement of common goals.
A systematic approach to production management proceeds from the fact that the development of plans for diversified and decentralized production is subject to the interests of the interaction of production units that make up the production (operational) system. This approach has been developed through the use of computer technology and the creation of centralized information systems.
The use of computer technology based on a systematic approach makes it possible to improve the methods and structure of production management.
A systematic approach to management involves considering management as a procedure or process for making managerial decisions.
Management decision making is the choice of one course of action from alternative options. A managerial decision is understood as the actions of a leader in order to choose the optimal action in the presence of at least two options. The complexity of choosing solutions increases as the number of options increases. The need for decision-making is determined by the presence of problems in the production and commercial activities of the company.
Modern management concepts
Modern views on management are represented by various trends and schools. Recently, management has received quite a wide application of the following basic approaches.
System approach to management. At present, there is no unambiguous definition of a systematic approach. Nevertheless, this approach is today the main management methodology. In numerous publications on management, it is recognized as dominant in the justification of management decisions in various fields. System methodology is the most ordered basis for managing complex areas of interrelated activity, allowing you to open and analyze the components that make up the system, and consistently combine them with each other. The systems approach is based on the premise that that any organization is a system that consists of a set of interconnected elements and parts that strive to achieve a common goal and function as a whole. The system receives certain resources from the external environment, transforms them and returns new resources to the external world. In accordance with systems theory, the activities of an organization are described in terms of input resources, the transformation process, output resources, feedback and the external environment (Fig. 1)1.
The famous Soviet scientist D.M. Gvishiani, summarizing the views of leading American economists, formulated the essence of the systems approach as follows2:
- the formulation of goals and the clarification of their hierarchy should be carried out before the start of any activity related to management, especially decision-making;
- to achieve the set goals at the minimum cost by means of comparative analysis alternative ways and methods of achieving goals and making appropriate choices;
Fig.1. Organization as a system
- quantitative assessment (quantification) of goals, methods and means of achieving them should be carried out not on partial criteria, but on a broad and comprehensive assessment of all possible and planned results of activities.
Fig.2. The main elements of the organization as a system
A systematic approach to the activities of the enterprise, it is schematically presented in Fig. 2, involves the analysis of: people, machines, buildings, the influx of raw materials, output, financial resources, etc.
The system approach is also applicable to the analysis of the activities of the municipality (Fig. 3). Interrelated elements in this case may be: the administration of the Moscow Region, industry, rural settlements, the infrastructure of the municipality, etc.
Rice. 3. Municipality like a system
Basic principles of a systematic approach.
1. The presence of links between individual system units, which allows them to enter into relationships if there are certain conditions. For example, the purpose of the company is closely related to its structure. Depending on the volume of products produced, and this may be the goal of the company, it depends on how many departments and which ones the company has in its structure.
2. The system as a whole can influence the properties and positions of individual elements, changing them in a certain direction. Equipping the enterprise with the latest technological equipment will require personnel training from the management, which in turn can affect the quality of products, lead to an increase in sales and an increase in the company's customers.
3. Any system is hierarchical, i.e. it has system units of different levels. Modern Enterprise has several levels of management: the highest level of management, which is responsible for developing the company's strategy, the middle one is responsible for preparing documents for decision-making, the lowest one is directly involved in the implementation of the decisions made. Success in achieving the goals of the company depends on how well the interaction of all levels of management is established.
4. Significant change in the properties of the series system elements can lead to a qualitative change in the entire system. The result can be either a regression and simplification of the internal structure, or the emergence of a higher level system. The expansion of the range of products can lead to the emergence of new industries, an increase in the number of personnel, the volume of products, and, consequently, to an increase in profits. Consequently, the firm can take a dominant position in the market for a particular product.
5. The principle of entropy applies to the system and the external environment (social entropy is a measure of deviation social system or its subsystem from the reference (normal, expected) state, when the deviation manifests itself in a decrease in the level of organization, efficiency of functioning, and the rate of development of the system)1. In this case, the system seeks to align its state with the external environment. Action illustration this principle can serve as the actions of the Government of the Russian Federation to stabilize mortgage lending to citizens of the Russian Federation who find themselves in critical situation due to the 2008 financial crisis. In order to prevent a crisis in the mortgage system and ensure that housing problems are solved, the following steps were taken:
- providing borrowers who have fallen into a difficult situation due to the crisis, an annual deferral of mortgage payments;
- provision by the state of guarantees to banks on mortgage loans and bonds;
– cancellation of the three-year “pause” between the moment of the birth of the second child and the opportunity to use maternal capital. This money can be used to partially repay a mortgage loan or interest on it, as well as purchase housing in any other way without any time limits.
6. The properties of the system as a whole differ from the properties of its individual elements, but are determined by these properties. For example, the efficiency of an enterprise depends on how advanced technologies are used in the production process, how well the structure corresponds to the tasks being solved (may be too cumbersome), whether issues of interaction with suppliers of raw materials are successfully resolved, etc. In turn, the properties of the entire system (for example, the stability of its functioning) differ from the properties of each of the above-mentioned elements of the system.
2. Process approach in management.
An approach that defines the consideration of the activities of any company as a network of business processes linked to the goals and mission of the organization1.
The dynamism of business and the external environment leads companies to understand business management not as managing a set of individual functions, but a set of business processes that determine the essence of business activities. The term “process approach” itself has been known for a long time, but it began to be used in conditions of high dynamics of the external environment and competition. The process approach is aimed at increasing the flexibility of the business, reducing the response time to changes in the market and the external environment, and improving the performance of the organization.
The process approach is based on several basic principles
· Perception of business as a system:
- any enterprise should be considered as a system, and its development - according to the laws of complex systems;
Solving local problems does not change the system. The system can only be changed as a whole;
- a system that is in a stable state is not able to evolve.
Perception of activity as a process:
- any activity can be considered as a process, therefore, it can be improved;
- any activity allows for separation both in time and in material resources and staff;
- any purposeful and planned activity that uses resources transforms input products into output;
- the activity of the enterprise is a network of interrelated processes, since all types of activities and their corresponding processes are interconnected;
- each process has an external or internal supplier of input resources and an external or internal consumer of the output product or service.
Standardization and transparency of responsibility:
- the top management of the enterprise should take full responsibility for the creation and management of quality;
- each process must have an owner, that is, there must be personification and distribution of responsibility for all types of activities;
- all components of the processes should be as standardized and understandable as possible;
- standardization should be carried out on the basis of interrelated and harmonized standards, implemented in the form of regulatory documentation and corporate standards that describe all types of enterprise activities.
