R. Likert developed his own theory of leadership styles and arranged them in a certain length from 1 to 4.
In model 1, the manager does not trust his subordinates, rarely connects them To decision making, and tasks descend from top to bottom already ready. Basic the incentive is fear and the threat of punishment, the rewards are random here.
Model 2 assumes that the leadership honors the subordinates with some trust, but as the master the servant. Part re-
nominations are delegated downward, but they are accepted within strictly prescribed limits. The reward is more real here, and the punishment is potential.
In Model 3, management shows great, but not complete, trust in subordinates. General issues are decided at the top, the private ones are delegated down. In addition to systematic reward and random punishment, limited involvement in decision-making is used for motivation.
Model 4 characterizes complete trust. The decision-making process is dispersed across all levels, although it is integrated. The flow of communications goes not only up and down, but also horizontally. Full interaction achieved with a high level of trust.
10. Modification strategy
Modification focuses on the observed behavior of people in the organization. Four levels of modification, or change, are distinguished: knowledge, attitudes, behavior and group activity. The first level is easy to change depending on the level and requirements of the work. A person's attitude also includes an emotional component, so it is more difficult to change it. Changing behavior is even more difficult. A person is aware of the dangers of smoking, feels a deterioration in health, but is not able to change his behavior due to a long-term habit. And the hardest part is changing group activities. The group is a self-healing form of joint activity, therefore, to change the behavior of its individual member without prior change group norms and values - an almost hopeless business. Change can be done by forcibly innovating and by involving workers in the change.
There are also our domestic models of organization management (R.V. Ryvkina, A.I. Prigogine), but they are poorly introduced into production and especially have not proven their effectiveness and vitality. All these management aspects and actions are performed in social organization.
State of the art management theory is aimed at the synthesis and development of previously developed views of the main "schools of management", as well as the development of new ideas about management. The range of modern theoretical and applied developments is extremely wide and diverse. New directions and trends have been developed, new constructive concepts have been introduced, and promising trends in the development of control theory have been formed. In particular, these are the concepts of "strategic management" and personnel management "," innovation management "," production management ", the concepts of" organizational culture "and" managerial abilities ".
You can also highlight the main trends modern stage development of control theory.
The first associated with an increase in the level of material and technical base modern production and services. Management thought concentrates its efforts on managing operations and raising the level of productivity through the synthesis of the activities of people and the use of technical capabilities (computer technology).
The second consists in the further democratization of management, participation in the income and property of organizations of ordinary workers, in the implementation of their managerial functions, participation in property.
The third tendency - internationalization of management, business. In the 90s, most developed countries switched to an open economy, which sharply increased international competition, and this, in turn, strengthened production cooperation, caused the growth of transnational companies. The international experience of management suggests a number of new problems facing the theory and practice of sociology and psychology of management.
Today, more and more widespread is the theory called "democracy in the workplace." The essence of this theory is to empower all grassroots levels. It is consonant with the theory of participatory management. Participatory management is aimed at emancipating the initiative and creative activity of the employee, creating a
store for individual achievements talented people; provides the necessary integration of evaluative efforts into a single collective action. Participation is the involvement of employees in management by delegating managerial powers to them. A participatory leadership style is applicable in managing the activities of subordinates under the following conditions:
a) if the leader is confident in himself, has a high educational, professional and creative level, knows how to appreciate and use the creative suggestions of subordinates;
b) if subordinates have a high level of knowledge, the need for creativity, independence, personal growth, interest in work;
c) if the task facing the employees involves a plurality of solutions, requires deep analysis and high professionalism of execution, strenuous efforts and a creative approach.
A participatory leadership style assumes that managers fully trust their subordinates in all matters, always listen to and constructively use their opinions, organize a wide and comprehensive exchange of information, involve subordinates in setting goals and monitoring their achievement, widely using various forms of encouragement as a means of stimulation. This management style can be considered appropriate for the leadership of analytical, research and development departments, development teams and other similar departments of management bodies in which an innovative approach to problem solving is important.
5. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION
1. Tell us about the process of humanization of education.
2. What is the essence of management?
3. What are the objective and subjective management factors?
4. How does sociology and psychology of management relate to other disciplines?
5. What is the object and subject of sociology and psychology of management?
6. What are the main tasks of sociology and psychology of management?
7. What are the principles of modern governance?
8. What terms are included in the conceptual apparatus of sociology and psychology of management?
9. When did the theory of scientific management emerge?
10. What is known for the "school human relations»?
11. Who are the classics of management?
12. What contributions did Taylor make to control theory?
13. When and by whom were the principles of management first formulated?
14. What is the essence of A. Maslow's theory of needs?
15. Why is F. Herzberg's theory called two-factor?
16. What characterizes "Theory X" and "Theory Y" D. MacGregor?
17. What is the significance of R. Likert's theory for management?
THEORY OF LEADERSHIP STYLES BY R. LYKERT
A supporter of the school of "human relations" colleague of Herzberg and McGregor, a famous American social psychologist, researcher of problems of organizations, organizational behavior and managementRENSIS LIKERT (1903-1981)developed his own theory of leadership styles
In 1947, Likert began to study how to achieve optimal control of the efforts of individuals in order to achieve desired goals and satisfy their needs. For this, a research group was created on the basis of Michigan State University, which, studying organizations with high and low labor productivity, developed the principles and methods of effective leadership. The research was carried out in various industries and organizations. The group interviewed thousands of employees who performed various tasks- from the most primitive to those requiring high qualifications and education.
In the process of research, Likert found that the observed differences in the effectiveness of organizations are determined by the position from which management approaches the organization of the work of employees. Through a survey of leaders and their subordinates, two leadership style: task-oriented leadership and employee relationship-oriented leadership, recruiting and working with employees.
“A work-oriented leader,” wrote Likert, “prefers to carefully control his subordinates, while he uses rewards, punishments and all the power at his disposal in order to influence his subordinates. [...] caring for people is seen as a completely redundant detail that a leader cannot afford to pay attention to. An employee-oriented leader finds it possible to delegate authority to his subordinates. Such leaders prefer to create comfortable conditions for their subordinates to carry out tasks. They pay great attention and attach paramount importance to the promotion of their subordinates, their personal growth and achievements ”(8).
In other words, a job-focused leader is concerned primarily with task design and reward design to improve productivity. In contrast, people are the primary concern of a person-centered leader. Problems of increasing labor productivity are considered by such managers through the prism of improving human relations, mutual assistance, and the maximum participation of employees in decision-making.
In 1967, in the continuation of his research, Likert generalized real methods management and proposed four basic styles of leadership, placing them on a certain continuum from 1 to 4. The systems, or models, that he considered, for managing the organization differed in:
way of control
the degree of concentration of power,
distribution of responsibilities,
the distance between the leader and his subordinates.
Leadership styles R. Likert
In system 1, all organizational decisions are made by management. The autocrat leader does not trust his subordinates, rarely engages them in decision-making, and the tasks (as well as the methods of their solution) are “lowered” from above already ready. In an organization focused on this system, the rules for performing specific work are rigidly set. Pressure, coercion, fear and the threat of punishment are used as factors that induce people to work. Rewards here are random, as, incidentally, is the interaction of a manager with subordinates, which is based on mutual distrust. Formal and informal organizations are in a state of confrontation.
System 2 assumes that management grants subordinates a certain level of trust: some decisions are delegated downward, but they are made within strictly prescribed frameworks. The reward is real and the punishment is potential, and both are used to motivate workers. Interaction is carried out in terms of leniency on the part of the leader and caution on the part of the subordinate. The informal organization exists, but only partially opposes the formal one.
In System 3, management shows significant, but not complete, confidence in their subordinates. General issues are decided at the top, private ones are delegated down. In addition to systematic remuneration and random punishments, the possibility of some participation in the decision-making process is used to motivate employees. The flow of communication in the organization is directed both up and down, but the content of the transmitted information is limited to the one that the management wants to hear. Moderate interaction between management and ordinary employees is characterized as trusting and frank, but with an admixture of elements of fear. An informal organization may not arise, but if it exists, then there is its partial non-coincidence with the formal organization.
System 4 is built on total trust. According to Likert, it is she who is the most effective of all the systems he considered. The decision-making process here is of a group nature: it is dispersed across all levels, although it is integrated. The flow of communications goes not only from top to bottom, but also horizontally. Employees are motivated through participation in the decision-making process regarding the definition of the organization's goals, forms of incentives and methods of work organization. There is a friendly interaction characterized by high level mutual trust. Formal and informal organizations tend to overlap. System 4 managers correspond to managers who encourage employee participation in management. In addition, in contrast to the work-oriented leaders of System 1, they are person-oriented.
According to Likert, in order to develop an organization towards the fourth management model, management must:
1) observe the principle of "supportive" relationship;
2) adhere to collective decision-making methods;
3) set high production goals.
This means, among other things, that the interaction between employees of the organization should be of a group, and not just a linear, hierarchical character of the "leader-subordinate" type.
Likert's research has shown that the most effective leaders focus primarily on the human aspects of the problems they face and build relationships that are based on mutual assistance. And although it was later found that Likert's findings are not applicable to all situations, for example, due to the nature of the situation, a person-centered style does not always improve productivity, the merit of this researcher is that he deepened the existing understanding of business relationships between employees. and showed how the principles of the above-mentioned theory "Y" can be implemented in the structure of the organization.
The advantage of Likert's concept is that it can be easily used in a case study. To speed up the analysis of the organization, the author has developed 20 points (variables), such as, for example, "the level of trust in the relationship between the manager and the subordinate", "the nature of motivation", "the nature of interaction", etc. They can be built in the form of a scale and questioned as managers, and subordinates. For example, the variable “confidence level” includes a description of the following four items on the scale: “there is no trust in subordinates,” “condescending trust, like a master has to a servant,” “significant but incomplete trust: there is a desire to keep control in their hands” and “ full confidence in all matters. " Scale items represent a specific version of the description of models 1, 2, 3 and 4.
MODEL OF EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATION R. LIKERT
R. Likert identified three types of variables that determine the long-term effectiveness of an organization: causal, intermediate, resulting:
He referred to the causal variables as intra-organizational factors that are under the control of the administration - formal organization structure, economic strategy and social policy, professional qualifications of employees, etc.
Intermediate variables denote human resources organizations - attitude to work and people's skills, organizational climate, decision-making methods, level of trust in management, loyalty, ways of stimulating and motivating activities, etc.
The resulting dependent variables express the end result of efforts - an increase or decrease in labor productivity and profits, satisfaction of consumer demands with their products, etc.
The relationship between these factors can be represented as stimuli (causes) affecting the body (resources) and creating a certain result (output). This model explains why trying to directly affect intermediate variables is usually unsuccessful.
It is more correct to influence them through a change in causal factors. Likewise, the attempt to improve the resulting performance of the organization through the impact on the intermediate variables, according to Likert, is less successful than changing the causal variables. As a matter of fact, the methodology of social planning in our country was built on the same principles - to influence, first of all, the working conditions in the team, and not directly on the needs, motivation and behavior of workers.
The negative consequences of violation of such principles in the production team are obvious. The manager seeks to increase productivity or fulfill the plan at any cost (resulting indicators), putting pressure on the behavior of employees (intermediate factors), without taking care of improving the organization and working conditions, solving the housing problem, and recruiting qualified personnel (causal variables).
In the end, he will achieve temporary success and even make a personal career, but the climate in the team will gradually deteriorate. Other indicators may also change: staff turnover will increase, the number of accidents will increase, absenteeism (absence from the workplace), and the number of absenteeism will increase. Finally, workers' complaints about working and living conditions will increase. Moreover, the latter will reflect not the deterioration of working conditions (they have not changed), but psychological dissatisfaction with them ("blocking emotions"), irritability and frustration of workers.
Restoring the disturbed balance in the organization will require much more effort and material costs than achieving short-term success. According to research by R. Likert, in small organizations it takes from a year to three years to restore the socio-psychological climate, in large ones - up to seven years. Sometimes it is necessary to update the entire composition of employees in a particular department, who have been getting used to bad job, low quality products, unjustified earnings. Restructuring in such situations turns out to be very painful and often leads to acute labor conflicts at the enterprise. In addition, it will not immediately bear fruit, the team will work worse for some time than it can already in the new conditions.
A follower of the doctrine of "human relations", a colleague of Herzberg and McGregor, Rensis Likert developed his own theory of leadership styles. He generalized real control methods and arranged them on a certain continuum from 1 to 4.
In model 1 (exploitative-authoritarian style) the manager does not trust his subordinates, rarely involves them in decision-making. Tasks descend from top to bottom ready-made. The main incentive is fear and the threat of punishment, the rewards are random here, as well as the interaction of the leader with subordinates, which is based on mutual distrust. Formal and informal organizations are at odds. Managers of this style are based on D. McGregor's "X" theory.
Model 2 (sympathetic authoritarian style) assumes that the leadership honors the subordinates with some trust, but as the master the servant. Some decisions are delegated downward, but they are made within strictly prescribed boundaries. The reward is real and the punishment is potential, and both are used to motivate workers. Interaction is carried out in terms of condescension on the part of the leader and caution on the part of the subordinate. The informal organization exists, but only partially opposes the formal one.
In model 3 (consultative democratic style) managers seek advice from subordinates and strive to constructively use the best that they suggest. Motivation is no longer only due to reward, but also in the form of some connection to management. Most of management personnel feel responsible for achieving the goals of the organization. Communications are carried out both from top to bottom and from bottom to top.
Model 4 (group control) characterizes complete trust. The decision-making process is dispersed across all levels, although it is integrated. The flow of communications goes not only up and down, but also horizontally. Employees are motivated to better performance through participation in decision-making regarding the setting of the organization's goals, forms of incentives and methods of organizing work. Personnel at all levels feel real responsibility for the goals of the organization. Friendly interaction with a high level of trust. Formal and informal organizations tend to overlap. Managers of this style are based on D. McGregor's “Y” theory.
Likert named model 1 task-oriented with a rigidly structured control system, and model 4 - relationship-oriented, which are based on the brigade work organization, collegial management, delegation of authority and general control. Models 2 and 3 are intermediate. The most effective, productive organization (enterprise, workshop, site) has a leader who can be characterized by model 4.
The famous American specialist in the field of human relations Dale Carnegie formulated six rules (principles) of communication, the observance of which allows people to be liked by others:
1) be genuinely interested in other people;
2) smile;
3) remember that a person's name is the sweetest and most important sound for him in any language;
4) be a good listener, encourage others to talk about themselves;
5) talk about what interests your interlocutor;
6) instill in your interlocutor the awareness of his significance and do it sincerely.
He also formulated principles, "the observance of which allows you to persuade people to your point of view":
- the only way to gain the upper hand in an argument is to avoid it;
- show respect for the opinion of your interlocutor, never tell the person that he is wrong;
- if you are wrong, admit it quickly and decisively;
- stick to a friendly tone from the very beginning;
- make the interlocutor immediately answer you "yes";
- let your interlocutor think that this thought belongs to him;
- sincerely try to look at things from the point of view of your interlocutor;
- be sympathetic to the thoughts and desires of others;
- appeal to more noble motives;
- dramatize your ideas, present them effectively;
- challenge, touch the quick.
School of Human Relations and School behavioral sciences had a huge impact on the development of management thought, focusing on the importance of the human factor in achieving the effective performance of organizations, showed that wage is not the only incentive for the employee to work efficiently.
1. List the prerequisites for the creation of a "theory of human relations".
2. What and why did the founders of the "theory of human relations" try to improve?
3. What is the essence of the Hawthorne Experiments?
4. What conclusions did E. Mayo draw based on the results of the Hawthorne experiments?
5. What questions did M.P. Follett?
6. What concept was developed by Charles Bernard?
7. What determines the motivation of the worker's behavior according to A. Maslow's theory?
8. List the levels of A. Maslow's hierarchical pyramid of needs.
9. What is practical use for personnel management hierarchical pyramid of needs A. Maslow?
10. What did Herzberg call “negative incentives”?
11. List the basic premises of the theory "X" D. McGregor.
12. List the basic premises of the theory "Y" D. McGregor.
13. What is the essence of D. Ouchi's “Z” theory?
14. What styles of personnel management did D. McGregor suggest?
15. What styles of leadership suggested in his theory of leadership R. Likert?
R. Likert developed his own theory of leadership styles and arranged them along a certain length from 1 to 4.
· In model 1: the manager does not trust his subordinates, rarely involves them in decision-making, and tasks descend from top to bottom ready-made. The main incentive is fear and the threat of punishment, the rewards are random here. This model is task-oriented with a rigidly structured control system.
· Model 2: Assumes that the leadership honors the subordinates with some trust, but as the master the servant. Some decisions are delegated downward, but they are made within strictly prescribed boundaries. The reward is real and the punishment is potential.
· In Model 3: Management shows great, but not complete, trust in subordinates. General issues are resolved upward, private ones are delegated downward. In addition to systematic rewards and occasional orders, limited involvement in decision-making is used for motivation.
· Model 4: characterizes complete trust. The decision-making process is dispersed across all levels, although it is integrated. The flow of communications goes not only up and down, but also horizontally. This model focuses on relationships based on team work organization, collegial management, delegation of authority, and overall control.
Models 2 and 3 are intermediate.
The advantage of Likert's concept is that it can be easily operationalized and used in case study.
Likert interviewed hundreds of managers in dozens of companies not only to test his model, but also to prove (using a special procedure): the most effective, productive organization (enterprise, workshop, area) has a leader who can be characterized by model 4.
Modification strategy
Today, a theory called "democracy in the workplace" is becoming more widespread. The essence of this theory is to empower all grassroots levels. Another name for this theory is the theory of participatory management. Participatory management is aimed at liberating the initiative and creative activity of the employee, creating room for individual achievements of talented people. Participation is the involvement of employees in management by delegating managerial powers to them. A participatory leadership style assumes that managers fully trust their subordinates in all matters, always listen to and constructively use their opinion, organize a wide and comprehensive exchange of information, involve subordinates in setting goals and monitoring their achievement, widely using various forms of encouragement as a means of stimulation. This management style can be recognized as appropriate for leading analytical, research and development departments, development groups and the second similar divisions of management bodies, in which an innovative approach to problem solving is important.
Further, the theory of modification strategy focuses on the observed behavior of people in the organization. Four levels of modification, or change, are distinguished: knowledge, attitudes, behavior and group activity. The first level is easy to change depending on the level and requirements of the work. A person's attitude also includes an emotional component, so it is more difficult to change it. Changing behavior is even more difficult. A person is aware of the dangers of smoking, feels a deterioration in health, but is unable to change his behavior due to a long-term habit. And the hardest part is changing group activities. A group is a self-healing form of joint activity, therefore, it is almost hopeless to change the behavior of its individual member without first changing group norms and values. Change can be done by forcibly innovating and by involving workers in the change.
It is possible to highlight the main trends of the current stage of development of control theory.
The first is associated with an increase in the level of the material and technical base of modern production and services. Management thought concentrates its efforts on managing operations and raising the level of productivity through the synthesis of human activities and the use of technical capabilities (computer technology).
The second consists in the further democratization of management, participation in the incomes and property of organizations of ordinary workers, in the exercise of their managerial functions, participation in property.
The third trend is the internationalization of management and business. In the 90s, most of the developed countries switched to an open economy, which sharply increased international competition, and this, in turn, strengthened production cooperation, caused the growth of transnational companies. The international experience of management suggests a number of new problems facing the theory and practice of sociology and psychology of management.
Rensis Likert, in the course of his research, proposed four basic systems leadership style. He hoped that these four systems, presented in Figure 4, would help classify the behavior of leaders. This is proof that there are intermediate options on the leadership style continuum. These leadership systems are characterized by varying degrees authoritarian and democratic style, necessary to influence people, prompting them to achieve the goals of the organization.
Figure 1.4 - Likert Leadership Styles.
Likert describes system 1 leaders as exploitative-authoritarian... These leaders have the characteristics of an autocrat. System 2 is called benevolent authoritarian... These leaders may maintain authoritarian relationships with subordinates, but they allow subordinates, albeit limitedly, to participate in decision-making. Motivation is created by reward and, in some cases, by punishment. In general, in system 2, the leaders are of the type of supportive autocrat. The leaders of the 3 system called advisory show significant, but not complete, trust in subordinates. There is two-way communication and some degree of trust between managers and subordinates. Important decisions are made at the top, but many concrete solutions accepted by subordinates.
System 4 involves group decisions and employee participation in decision-making... According to Likert, it is the most effective. These leaders have complete confidence in their subordinates. The relationship between the manager and subordinates is friendly and mutually trusting. Decision making in the highest degree decentralized. Communication is two-way and non-traditional. System 4 leaders correspond to leaders who encourage worker participation in management (theory "Y"). In addition, they are human-centered, as opposed to work-centered System 1 leaders.
Likert's studies have shown that the most effective leaders at the grassroots level focused primarily on the human aspects of the problems faced by their subordinates, and created relationships based on mutual assistance. They deliberately divided subordinates into production groups and presented them with complicated tasks. They used group leadership instead of traditional individual conversations with subordinates. Discussing the benefits of this style to the sales organization, Likert notes, “New interests, new markets, and new sales strategies discovered by a single salesperson are immediately shared with the group, which they develop and improve. Human-to-human interaction in meetings. where the leader is dominant, does not create group loyalty, and has much less beneficial effect to motivate salespeople rather than group interactions and meetings where decisions are made. ”Other scholars have come to similar conclusions. However, Likert’s findings do not apply to all situations.
