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How much does higher education cost in Bologna? University of Bologna in the Middle Ages. The emergence of the Bologna School of Law

University of Bologna is the first university in Europe. It was founded back in 1088. At first, only Roman law was taught here, but gradually the university expanded and now it consists of 23 faculties.

History of creation

The history of the University of Bologna began with the famous glossator Irnerius, who at the beginning of the last millennium decided to teach Roman law and teach it to young men. He gave his first public lecture in 1088, this year is considered the date of the creation of the university. Already in the 12th century, professors of Roman law taught by Irnerius became famous throughout Europe, which led to a large influx of students to the university.

The highest ranks of society from all over the world sent their children here to study. However, from the very beginning, the university maintained its reputation and people were accepted here only for excellent knowledge, and not for the money and position of their parents. At one time the following people studied here famous people, like Copernicus and Ulrich von Hutten.

At all times, the main feature of the university was that the main thing in it were the students. It was they who chose the teachers and fired them, they even paid them salaries, although this cannot be fully called a salary, rather they were donations. That is, each student, if he considered it necessary, could give any amount to the teacher, and if he was guilty, he could fine him and take the money.

University of Bologna today

Today the University of Bologna has 23 different faculties, with almost 100 thousand students.

Faculties of the University of Bologna:

The University of Bologna provides the opportunity to obtain both a bachelor's and a master's degree. The bachelor's program lasts 3 years, the master's program - 2 years. Education here is conducted in both Italian and English.

Despite the rich history and prestige of the University of Bologna, education here is relatively inexpensive. Bachelor's degrees start from 600 euros, and Master Program- about 1000 euros.

The University of Bologna began to emerge at the end of the 21st century, when teachers of logic, rhetoric, and grammar turned to law. The year 1088 is considered the beginning of independent and church-free teaching in Bologna. During this period, Irnerius became a significant figure. His work in systematizing Roman legal materials spread beyond the city's borders.

At first, university tuition in Italy was paid for by students. They collected money to compensate teachers for their work. The collection was carried out on a voluntary basis, because science given by God could not be sold. Gradually, the university in Bologna turned into a center of science, and teachers began to receive real salaries.

Features of occurrence

The emergence of a university in the Italian city of Bologna was facilitated by the intense and serious “struggle for investiture” that was waged between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII. At that time, the sovereigns of Christian countries appointed priests and bishops at their request, and Pope Gregory VII decided to proclaim the supremacy of the church over secular power, and he looked for evidence to justify his decision in the history of Christianity. In Bologna by that time there was already a school of “liberal arts”, which was popular in the 10th and 11th centuries. Students studied Roman law and rhetoric as additional classes. In the writings of the 13th century Bolognese jurist Godefroy there is historical information about opening a legal special school at the personal request of Countess Matilda, who was the ruler of Tuscany and Lombardy and a supporter of the Pope.

The fight for influence

In the 11th-12th centuries European politics there was a turning point. It was then that the relationship between church and state was established. The struggle was based on legal issues, so the study of Justinian’s law became the basis for the self-awareness of the Empire.

In 1158, Martino, Bulgaro, Ugo, Jacopo invited Federico I Barbarossa to his meeting. Experts had to demonstrate compliance in the empire political freedoms. Three of them (besides Martino) supported the Empire and expressed their recognition of Roman law. Federico I Barbarossa passed a law according to which the school became a society of students, headed by a teacher. The Empire promised such institutions and teachers protection from political claims.

The University of Bologna has become a place that is absolutely free from the influence of authorities. This educational institution has outlived its defender. There were attempts on the part of the Commune to control this educational institution, but the students, in order to resist such pressure, united into one team.

The thirteenth century was a time of contrasts. The University of Bologna managed to overcome thousands of difficulties, it always fought for autonomy, resisted political power, which viewed it as a symbol of prestige. At that time there were about two thousand students in Bologna.

In the 14th century, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, astronomy, logic, grammar, rhetoric, and theology began to be studied within its walls.

Talented students and teachers

The first university in Bologna is proud that such famous personalities as Francesco Petrarca, Cino Pistoia, Dante Alighieri, Cecco d'Ascoli, Enzo, Guido Guinidzelli, Coluccio Salutati, Salimbene Parma and others came from its walls.

Since the fifteenth century, teaching has been conducted in Hebrew and Greek, and a century later in Bologna students study experimental sciences. The laws of nature were taught by the philosopher Pietro Pomponazzi.

The philosopher taught the laws of nature, despite his beliefs in theology and philosophy. A significant contribution to the pharmacopoeia was made by Ulisse Aldrovandi, who studied fossils. It was he who created their detailed classification.

In the 16th century, Gaspare Tagliacozzi was the first to study plastic surgery. He carried out serious research in this area, which became the basis for the development of medicine.

The University of Bologna gradually developed. Even in the Middle Ages, Italy was proud of such eminent personalities as Paracelsus, Thomas Beckett, Albrecht Durer, Raymund de Penyafort, Carlo Borromeo, Carlo Goldoni, Torquato Tasso. It was here that Leon Baptiste Alberti and Pico Mirandola studied canon law. Papal right was learned in Bologna by Nicolaus Copernicus even before he began his basic research in the field of astronomy. During industrial revolution The university has a beneficial effect on the development of technology and science. IN this period The works of Luigi Galvani appear, who, along with Alexander Volt, Henry Cavendish, and Benjamin Franklin, became the founder of modern electrochemistry.

The era of rise

During the creation of the Italian state, the University of Bologna was actively developing. Italy acquires such important figures as Giovanni Pascoli, Giacomo Ciamichan, Giovanni Capellini, Augusto Murri, Augusto Righi, Federigo Henriques, Giosue Carducci. At the end of the nineteenth century, the university maintained its importance on the world cultural stage. It maintained this position until the interval between the two wars, and is rightfully included in the oldest universities in Italy. Time has no power over this Italian “forge of talents”.

Modernity

In 1988, the University of Bologna celebrated its 900th anniversary. On this occasion, the faculties received 430 rectors from different corners of our planet. Alma mater of all universities and is currently considered the main scientific center international scale, maintains leadership in the implementation of research projects.

According to the classification compiled by the QS World University Rankings, the university in Bologna is ranked 182nd in the world. This position of the educational institution in the ranking indicates a high level of teaching. Bologna is a city in Italy that is rightfully proud of this temple of science.

University structure

On this moment The University of Bologna has about 85,000 students. This educational institution has an unusual structure - a “multi-campus”, which includes five institutions in the cities:

Bologna;
Forli;
Cesene;
Ravenna;
Rimini.

What else is Bologna proud of? The Italian region became the first in the country to have a university branch opened outside the country - postgraduate courses began to be taught in Buenos Aires to deepen different aspects relations between the European Union and Latin America.

The educational programs of this higher educational institution are related to research in different areas knowledge. The courses are structured in such a way that they fully meet all the demands of the labor market. Special attention The University of Bologna focuses on international relations.

Activities of laboratories and research centers, high level the results obtained allow this educational institution to annually take an active part in prestigious scientific competitions and conferences.

Applicants who enroll at the University of Bologna can count on scholarships and contracts that involve living and studying abroad.

University faculties

Currently, this prestigious educational institution in Italy includes several faculties:

architectural;
agrarian;
economic (in Bologna, Forli, Rimini);
industrial chemical;
Faculty of Conservation cultural heritage;
legal;
pharmaceutical;
engineering (Bologna, Cesena);
veterinary;
foreign languages and literature;
psychological;
veterinary;
medical-surgical;
communications;
physical culture;
natural science and mathematics;
political sciences;
graduate School modern languages;
statistical sciences.

Contacts and addresses

This educational institution is located in Bologna on Giamboni Street, along which thousands of students pass every day. In this area there are many places that are associated with the university: stands, cafes, auditoriums. A visit to this street allows you to understand historical value cities.

Number 13 has a central building in which the rector's office is located. It is located opposite the Poggi Palace. There is an auditorium in this building that is dedicated to Carducci, who once listened to lectures on Italian literature here.

The building of the First University rises on Piazza Galvani. Since 1838, the palace has housed the library of the Commune, but the main treasure is located in Today, it is the main proof of the university tradition in Bologna.

University specifics

Due to the fact that this higher education institution was founded in the twelfth century, it is rightly called one of the oldest in Europe. The University of Bologna is characterized by two distinctive features:

he was not the association of the professor to whom the students who came to lectures had to obey;
the students' association had the right to choose leaders to whom the professors were subordinate.

Bologna students were divided into two groups:

“ultramontanes” who arrived in Italy from other countries;
"Citramontani", who were residents of Italy.

Each group annually elected a rector and a council of representatives of different nationalities, which was in charge of the university jurisdiction.

Professors were elected by students for a certain period of time, they received a certain fee, and taught only in Bologna.

According to their status, they were free only in classes with students. During lectures and seminars, professors could demonstrate their teaching talent and personal qualities.

Another feature of the University of Bologna was that it became a law school. In addition to Roman and canon law, medicine and liberal arts were taught within the walls of this Italian educational institution.

Conclusion

During its existence, the Bologna school managed to provide significant influence not only for Italy, but throughout Western Europe.

The positive reputation of Bologna professors made it possible to consider this educational institution as a center of Roman law.

Currently, the University of Bologna is considered the oldest educational institution in the world, whose history has not been interrupted from the period of its founding to the present. Every year thousands of students from different points globe flock to Bologna in the hope of becoming students of this elite educational institution.

The University of Bologna laid the foundation for European education.

University of Bologna

original name	Italian Università di Bologna
Motto	Alma Mater Studiorum
Year of foundation	1088
The president	Francesco Ubertini
Students	86.014
Foreign students	2.280
Location	Bologna
Campus	Bologna (main campus) Forli, Cesena, Ravenna, Rimini
Website	unibo.it/en/homepage

Story

The data in this article is as of the end of the 19th century.

You can help by updating the information in this article.

The emergence of the Bologna School of Law

According to the testimony of an Italian jurist of the 13th century Odofreda, Bologna became the location of the law school, which had previously been based in Ravenna, and even earlier in Rome. In the treaty of 964, which was concluded between Emperor Otto I the Great and Pope Leo VIII, doctors of law who lived in Rome were named. It is also known that in 1055 Dominicum legis Doctorem issued diplomas to teachers and students of law in Ravenna. In Bologna, Pepo was the first to teach jurisprudence, receiving the degree of Doctor of Laws in 1075.

However, the real founding of the Bologna School of Law is associated with the name Irneria. Initially he was magister artium liberalium, but then began to specialize in jurisprudence. According to Hermann Fitting, the reason for Irnerius’ change of interests was the desire of Margravess Matilda of Tuscany to create a competitor to the Ravenna School of Law. During the struggle for investiture, the countess actively supported Pope Gregory VII, while the jurists from Ravenna were distinguished by their hostility to the papal throne. According to legend, Irnerius began teaching law in Bologna in 1088.

Coming to fame

A circle of students soon formed near Irnerius, the most famous of whom were four (Quatuor Doctores): Bulgar, Martin Gosia, Jacob de Boragine and Hugo de Porta Revennate. The school of glossators began with them.

At the beginning of the 12th century, the school of law in Bologna was already more popular than that of Ravenna. However, even in the middle of this century, the school of liberal arts enjoyed greater fame outside Italy. But by the end of the 12th century, Bolognese law professors gained a noticeable advantage over other Bologna scientists and gained European fame. This happened thanks, firstly, to the scientific advantages of the teaching method and, secondly, to the patronage of the German emperor (1152-1190) Frederick I Barbarossa, who was also the king of Lombardy and was interested in maintaining the authority of Roman law, which could be relied upon when harassment of the crown. After the Diet of Roncaglia (Piacenza) in 1158, which was attended by Bolognese professors and where the legal relations between the emperor and the Italian cities were regulated, Frederick pledged to grant all students studying Roman law in Bologna the following benefits: firstly, free travel throughout all countries under the auspices of his authority (which helped to avoid the troubles usually experienced by foreigners), and secondly, to be subject in the city to the court exclusively of professors or a bishop.

The popularity of the university was also facilitated by the development of the city and its wonderful climate. Not only young men, but also adults and family people came to study. Nicolaus Copernicus, Ulrich von Hutten, and Oloander studied in Bologna. Crowned heads also sent their children to Bologna to study law and the liberal arts. Surprising features of the university for that time were the impossibility of enrolling only due to one’s position (knowledge was required equally from the son of an artisan and from the son of a king), and also the fact that women were admitted both as students and as teachers.

Students flocking from all over Europe were not slow to form real corporations in their midst, modeled on the various craft and artistic guilds of that time. By the end of the 12th century, a meeting of all student corporations under a common statute constituted the University of Bologna.

Features of the University of Bologna

This university, which, along with the Parisian one, founded in the same era (1200), is the oldest in Europe, from the day of its formation had two features arising from the very conditions under which it was formed. Firstly, it was not an association of professors (universitas magistrorum), to whose authority the students attending their lectures had to exclusively submit, but an association of students (universitas scholarium), which itself elected the leaders to whom the professors were subject. The Bologna students were divided into two main parts, the “ultramontanes” (from beyond the mountains, that is, from countries outside Italy, beyond the Alps) and the “citramontanes” (from Italy, on this side of the Alps), of which each annually elected a rector and a council from of various nationalities, who together with him was in charge of administration and university jurisdiction. Professors (doctores legentes) were elected by students certain time, received a fee according to the condition and were obliged not to teach anywhere except Bologna. Being, according to the statute, thus dependent on the university and being free only to supervise the studies of students, they could gain authority and influence on listeners solely with their knowledge, personal qualities and teaching talent.

The second feature of the University of Bologna was that it was legal (universitas legum) in contrast to the University of Paris, which at first was dedicated solely to theology. The study of Roman law, which gave rise to the university itself, and canon law, introduced into the university curriculum in the 12th century, remained the main subjects of university teaching. Medicine and the liberal arts were taught there during the 13th century by famous professors; but their listeners were nevertheless considered to belong to the university of law, and only in the 14th century, along with it, two other universities were formed: 1) medicine and philosophy and 2) theology. A remarkable consequence of the legal character of the University of Bologna was that it was not subject to the pope, like the University of Paris, since there was no need for ecclesiastical permission to teach Roman law, which was required for theology. However, starting from the 13th century, the popes, who supported the university in its disputes with the city government, and approved its statutes in 1253, in turn gained some power over the university, and ensured that the Bolognese archdeacon was the controller of exams and the issuance of diplomas from their name, “to ensure their correctness.”

Heyday

The most brilliant period of the Bolognese school of law was the period of time between the beginning of the 12th century and the second half of the 13th century, covering the lectures of Irnerius and the teaching of glossatorship by Accursius. During this period, their new method of teaching found the widest and most fruitful application both in oral presentation and in the writings of glossators. During this long period, the most famous of the glossators, after the four doctors mentioned above, were: Placentinus, who worked mainly on the Code of Justinian and founded the school of law at Montpellier, where he died in 1192; Burgundio is one of the few glossators who knew Greek, and a translator of the Greek texts of the pandects; Roger, Jean Bassien, Pillius, Azo - whose works enjoyed such authority that there was even a saying: “Chi non ha Azo, non vado a palazzo”; Hugolin, who continued the work of Azot Jacques Balduini; Rofroy and, finally, Accursius (1182-1258), the most famous of the glossators, famous mainly for his huge compilation in which he summarized the work of his predecessors.

Accursius passed on his love for the practice of law to his children, and his daughter, Dota d’Accorso, awarded the degree of Doctor of Laws by the university and admitted to public teaching, was the first woman mentioned in the annals of the university. She was followed by other women lawyers: Bitgisia, Gozzazzini, Novella d'Andrea and others. Simultaneously with Roman law, the University of Bologna successfully taught canon law by professors who directly followed the method of Irnerius in their lectures and writings. Since the second half of the 12th century, the names of professors of canon law (doctores decretorum) are found in acts relating to the University of Bologna. Around 1148, Gratian, a monk and author of famous decretals, lived in Bologna. After him, his students Pocapalia, Rufinus, Roland Bandinelli (who later became Pope under the name Alexandra III), Guguccio, and in the 13th century. - Richard of England, Damasus, Tancred, famous for his “Ordo judiciarius”, Bernard of Parma, Raymond of Penyafor - became the main representatives of the university teaching of canon law in Bologna. For some time the professors of Roman law (legum doctores) and the canonists (decretistae) formed two separate classes; but little by little the canonists began to regard Roman law as component their subject, and vice versa, novelists had to make references in their works to church canons; the same scientists were often professors of both types of law (doctores utriusque juris) and were engaged in teaching both of these branches of law, which are closely related to each other.

During the period of greatest prosperity at the University of Bologna, the school of law, along with jurisprudence, other sciences began to flourish: philosophy, Latin and Greek literature, and then medicine. Among the professors and philosophers we can name Alberigo, who read in the 12th century, the Florentine Lot, who taught physics at the same time as philosophy, and the monk Moneto. Among the philologists of the University of Bologna were Gaufrido di Vinisauf, an Englishman by birth, who taught and wrote in poetry and prose, Boncompagno, an excellent expert Latin language. Studying Greek language, which marked the beginning of the era of humanists, took root here earlier than in other Italian universities, and since the 15th century it has been firmly established in Bologna, which can be proud of the fact that Erasmus of Rotterdam lived among its philosophers. In Bologna, medicine also made a significant step forward thanks to the method of teaching anatomy first introduced by Lucin di Luzzi human body and animals on corpses. In the field of practicing medicine, and then natural sciences, and especially the female professors at the University of Bologna stood out. Among them are the names of Dorothea Bucca (XIV-XV centuries), who after the death of her father Giovanni Bucca took the department of practical medicine and moral philosophy, and closer to our time, the famous Bolognese lecturer of the 18th century - Laura Bassi, who occupied the department of experimental physics and philosophy, the pride of Bolognese women who, by subscription, built a monument in honor of their illustrious compatriot, which adorns the staircase leading to the museum and library of the university, Gaetana Agnesi , who taught analytical geometry, Anna Morandi, after Manzolini’s husband, famous for her work on anatomy, Maria dalle Donna, who earned the respect of Napoleon I.

Decline in popularity

The spiritual and moral authority enjoyed by the professors of the Bologna school was reflected not only in the success of their lectures and writings, but also in the high position they occupied both in Bologna itself and beyond. They were exempt from taxes and military service and, received all the rights of citizens of Bologna, even if they were not born in this city. They were titled dominus(possessive master), in contrast to the title magister, which was worn by professors of the school of liberal arts, and they were considered knights. Many of them took an active part in public affairs as judges, city rulers or envoys, such as Azo, Hugolin and Accursius in Bologna, Burgundio in Pisa, Baldina in Genoa, Rofroy in Benevenge. But Bologna often forgot that it owed its brilliance to the university, and entered into conflict with it during the 12th and 13th centuries. into violent disputes, which often threatened to destroy the rights and privileges of the university and interrupted classes in it. The struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, which divided Italy into two warring parts, was waged with particular force in Bologna, and the university could not remain indifferent to it. Despite, however, these disputes and party strife, the Bolognese school by the half of the 13th century. reached highest point prosperity. From this time on, the direction in the previous system of glossators began to change little by little. Instead of taking exclusively texts from the primary sources of Roman law as the subject of their interpretations, present-day professors began to interpret the glosses of their predecessors: in the school, as well as in the courts, the glossa magistralis Accursion took the place of the Corpus juris.

Moreover, various circumstances influenced the change in worse than that the high position enjoyed by the Bolognese professors. Taking part in public affairs, they inevitably interfered in party feuds and, as a result, lost a significant share of their moral influence. By the end of the 13th century. the city founded several chairs for public lectures and assigned to the professors who occupied these chairs a certain fee in return for the fees paid by the students themselves, and little by little the majority of the professors found themselves on the payroll of the city; They thus fell under the authority of the city municipality, which pretended to regulate professorial teaching, regardless of the personal abilities of teachers and the interests of science. And in the next century, another new measure dealt a mortal blow to the Bolognese school: Political Party, which more and more seized power in the city, discovered a desire to grant the right to teach only to the citizens of Bologna and, moreover, only to members famous names, very few. The University of Bologna thus gradually lost its supremacy in the study of Roman law, since the most famous legalists of this time went to teach in Pisa, Perugia, Padua and Pavia, which competed with each other for the palm.

The fall of the Bolognese school caused during the 14th century. the emergence of a school of commentators (in the person of Bartolo), which dominated during the 14th and 15th centuries. But in the 16th century. historical school took into her own hands the work of glossators, expanding and supplementing it with the help of all the means that history and philology, updated by the works of Renaissance humanists, provided her.

University influence

Europe. Located in the Italian city of Bologna. In the Arab world, Bologna's rival is Al-Qaraween University, the oldest continuously existing university in the world, however, unlike European ones, Arab "universities" did not issue diplomas in the name of the institution itself. Member of the European university association Utrecht Network.

Story

The emergence of a legal school

In Bologna, as in other large centers of Italy, Roman law has been studied and put into practice since ancient times. Exact date The foundation of the university is unknown, but there is no doubt that in Bologna there was a school of “liberal arts”, which was especially famous in the 11th century, where students studied Roman law as additional classes to the course of rhetoric.

Bologna students of the German “nation” (community). 15th century miniature

Irnerius began the deep study of law at the end of the 11th century. This Irnerius (sometimes called Vernerius, Varnerius, Garnerius) was a teacher at the school of liberal arts; Having studied Justinian's law himself, without the help of a teacher, he acquired a reputation as a legalist. According to the testimony of Audfroy, a Bolognese lawyer of the 13th century, whose writings contain historical information regarding the professors who preceded him, Irnerius opened a special law school at the request of Countess Matilda, the former ruler of Tuscany and part of Lombardy. It is quite plausible that this princess, being a supporter of the Pope, was against inviting into her courts the legists from Ravenna, who were distinguished by their traditional hostility to the papal throne.

Irnerius opened his public lectures in the year considered to be the year of the founding of his institute, and held a chair there until his death (between 1137 and 1137).

Coming to fame

Irnerius had many students, of whom the most famous were four doctors of law: Bulgar Martin, Gosia, Gug and Jacques de la Porte Revennante. At the beginning of the 12th century, the school of law in Bologna was already more popular than that of Ravenna. However, even in the middle of this century, the school of liberal arts enjoyed greater fame outside Italy. But by the end of the 12th century, Bolognese law professors gained a noticeable advantage over other Bologna scientists and gained European fame. This was due, firstly, to the scientific advantages of the teaching method and, secondly, to the patronage of the German Emperor Frederick I, who was also the king of Lombardy and was interested in supporting the authority of Roman law, which could be relied upon in cases of harassment of the crown. After the Diet of Roncaglia in 1158, which was attended by Bolognese professors and where mutual legal relations between the emperor and the Italian cities, Frederick undertook to provide all students studying Roman law in Bologna with the following benefits: firstly, free travel in all countries under the auspices of his authority (which helped to avoid the troubles usually experienced by foreigners), and secondly , to be subject in the city to the court exclusively of professors or the bishop.

Popularity foreign students, especially northerners, was added by the city’s wonderful climate and its development. Not only young men, but already fully grown, family people came to study. Among them are such as Cuza, Copernicus, Ulrich von Hutten, Oloander. Crowned heads even sent their children to Bologna to study law and fine arts. Surprising features of the university at that time were the impossibility of enrolling only due to one’s position (knowledge was required equally from the son of an artisan and from the son of a king), as well as the fact that women were allowed into its bowels, both as students and as teachers.

Spanish Collegium, built in the 1360s.

Features of the University of Bologna

This university, which, along with the Parisian one, founded in the same era (1200), is the oldest in Europe, from the day of its formation had two features - features arising from the very conditions under which it was formed. Firstly, it was not an association of professors (universitas magistrorum), to whose authority the students attending their lectures had to exclusively submit, but an association of students (universitas scholarium), which itself elected the leaders to whom the professors were subject. The Bologna students were divided into two main parts, the Ultramontans and the Citramontans, each of which annually elected a rector and a council of various nationalities, who together with him were in charge of the administration and university jurisdiction. Professors (doctores legentes) were elected by students for a certain period of time, received a fee according to the condition and were obliged not to teach anywhere except Bologna. Being, according to the statute, thus dependent on the university and being only free to supervise the students’ studies, they could gain authority and influence on students solely through their personal qualities and teaching talents.

The second feature of the University of Bologna was that, in essence, it was legal (universitas legum), in contrast to the University of Paris, which at first was devoted solely to theology. The study of Roman law, which laid the foundation for the university itself, and canon law, introduced into the university curriculum from the 12th century, remained the main, if not exclusive, subjects of university teaching. Medicine and the liberal arts were indeed taught there during the 13th century by famous professors; but their listeners were nevertheless considered to belong to the law university, and only in the XIV century. Along with them, two other universities were formed: 1) medicine and philosophy and 2) theology. A remarkable consequence of the purely legal character of the University of Bologna was that it was not, like the University of Paris, subject to the supreme authority of the popes, since there was no need for ecclesiastical permission to teach Roman law, which was required for the study of theology. However, starting from the 13th century. The popes, who supported the university in its disputes with the city administration and approved its statutes in 1253, in turn had a certain moral authority over the university and ensured that the Bolognese archdeacon, on their behalf, acted as a controller at exams and when issuing diplomas, in order to ensure that their correctness.

Heyday

Accursius passed on his love for the practice of law to his children, and his daughter, Dota d’Accorso, awarded the degree of Doctor of Laws by the university and admitted to public teaching, was the first woman mentioned in the annals of the university. She was followed by other women lawyers: Bitgisia, Gozzazzini, Novella d'Andrea and others. Simultaneously with Roman law, the University of Bologna successfully taught canon law by professors who directly followed the method of Irnerius in their lectures and writings. Since the second half of the 12th century, the names of professors of canon law (doctores decretorum) are found in acts relating to the University of Bologna. Around 1148, Gratian, a monk and author of famous decretals, lived in Bologna. After him, his students were Pocapalia, Rufinus, Roland Bandinelli (who later became Pope under the name of Alexander III), Guguccio, and in the 13th century. - Richard of England, Damasus, Tancred, famous for his “Ordo judiciarius”, Bernard of Parma, Raymond of Penyafor - became the main representatives of the university teaching of canon law in Bologna. For some time the professors of Roman law (legum doctores) and the canonists (decretistae) formed two separate classes; but little by little the canonists began to regard Roman law as an integral part of their subject, and conversely, the novelists had to make references in their works to the canons of the church; the same scientists were often professors of both types of law (doctores utriusque juris) and were engaged in teaching both of these branches of law, which are closely related to each other.

During the period of greatest prosperity at the University of Bologna, the law school, along with jurisprudence, began to flourish and other sciences: philosophy, Latin and Greek literature, and then medicine. Among the professors and philosophers we can name Alberigo, who read in the 12th century, the Florentine Lot, who taught physics at the same time as philosophy, and the monk Moneto. Among its philologists, the university had Gaufrido di Vinisauf, an Englishman by birth, who taught and wrote in poetry and prose, and Boncompagno, an excellent expert in the Latin language. The study of Greek, which marked the beginning of the era of the humanists, took root here earlier than in other Italian universities, and since the 15th century it has been firmly established in Bologna, which can be proud of the fact that Erasmus of Rotterdam lived among its philosophers. In Bologna, medicine also made a significant step forward thanks to the method of teaching the anatomy of the human body and animals on corpses, first introduced by Lucin di Luzzi. In the field of medicine, and then natural sciences, female professors at the University of Bologna especially distinguished themselves. Among them are the following names: the names of Dorothea Bucca (XIV-XV centuries), who, after the death of her father Giovanni Bucca, occupied the department of practical medicine and moral philosophy, and the famous Bolognese lecturer of the 18th century, closer to our time - Laura Bassi, who occupied the department of experimental physics and philosophy, the pride of Bolognese women who, by subscription, built a monument in honor of their illustrious compatriot, which adorns the staircase leading to the museum and library of the university, Gaetana Agnesi, who taught analytical geometry, Anna Morandi, after Manzolini’s husband, famous for her work on anatomy, Maria dalle Donne , which earned the respect of Napoleon I.

Decline in popularity

The spiritual and moral authority enjoyed by the professors of the Bologna school was reflected not only in the success of their lectures and writings, but also in the high position they occupied both in Bologna itself and beyond. They were exempt from taxes and military service and, even if they were not born in Bologna, received all the rights of citizens of this city. They were given the title of dominus, in contrast to the title magistera, which was worn by professors of the school of liberal arts, and were considered knights. Many of them took an active part in public affairs as judges, city rulers or envoys, such as. Azo, Gugolin and Accursius - in Bologna, Burgundio - in Pisa, Baldina - Genoa, Rofroy - Benevenge. But Bologna often forgot that it owed its brilliance to the university, and entered into conflict with it during the 12th and 13th centuries. into violent disputes, which often threatened to destroy the rights and privileges of the university and interrupted classes in it. The struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, which divided Italy into two warring parts, was waged with particular force in Bologna, and the university could not remain indifferent to it. Despite, however, these disputes and party strife, the Bolognese school flourished for a long time and in the half of the 13th century. reached the highest point of prosperity. From this time on, the direction in the previous system of glossators began to change little by little. Instead of taking exclusively texts from the primary sources of Roman law as the subject of their interpretations, present-day professors began to interpret the glosses of their predecessors: in the school, as well as in the courts, the glossa magistralis Accursion took the place of the Corpus juris.

Moreover, various circumstances influenced the change for the worse in the high position enjoyed by the Bolognese professors. Taking part in public affairs, they inevitably interfered in party feuds and, as a result, lost a significant share of their moral charm. Then, by the end of the 13th century. the city founded several chairs for public lectures and assigned to the professors who occupied these chairs a certain fee in return for the fees paid by the students themselves, and little by little the majority of the professors found themselves on the payroll of the city; They thus fell under the authority of the city municipality, which pretended to regulate professorial teaching, regardless of the personal abilities of teachers and the interests of science. And in the next century, another new measure dealt a mortal blow to the Bologna school: the political party, which was increasingly seizing power in the city, discovered a desire to grant the right to teach only to the citizens of Bologna and, moreover, only to members of famous families, very few in number. The University of Bologna, therefore, gradually lost its superiority in the study of Roman law, since the most famous legalists of that time went to teach science in Pisa, Perusa, Padua and Pavia, which competed with each other for the palm of primacy.

The fall of the Bolognese school caused during the XIV century. the emergence of a school of commentators - in the person of Bartol, which dominated during the 14th and 15th centuries. But in the XVI century. The historical school took into its own hands the work of the glossators, expanding and supplementing it with the help of all the means that history and philology, updated by the works of the humanists of the Renaissance, provided it.

University influence

During its existence, the Bolognese school had a huge influence not only on Italy, but also on the whole of Western Europe. Thanks to the reputation of its professors, Bologna was seen as the seat of Roman law: it was generally believed that only here a thorough knowledge of Roman laws and ecclesiastical rules could be found. That is why young people from all over Europe flocked here to hear the science of law from the lips of the professors themselves; upon returning back to their homeland, former students of the University of Bologna propagated the method and doctrine of glossators. In France, Pierre de Blois, Jacques de Revigny, Guillaume Durand; in England - Vacarius, Richard of England, Francis of Accursius; in Spain, Pont de Larida; in Italy there is a large group of legalists who, through their lectures and writings, disseminate the science that they themselves received in Bologna. Moreover, in the above countries, most law faculties were founded on the model of the Bologna school by its professors: in Italy - Paduan (1222), Vicenza (1203), etc.; in Aragon - Perpignan (1343); in France - the university in Montpellier, founded by Placentin at the end of the 12th century.

Since the end of the 12th century, thanks to the works of the Bolognese glossators and their students, the reception of Roman law has been increasingly expanding in the West, which, according to the doctrine of the then scientists, should be called universal law, that is, ratio scripta, which should serve the general legislation of all Christian peoples. At the same time, the study of canon law developed throughout Europe, the foundation of which was laid by the Bologna school. If, strictly speaking, it cannot be said that the Bolognese school brought into existence again in the 12th century the study of Roman law, which, in essence, did not cease in previous centuries, it can nevertheless be argued that, thanks to its method and doctrine, it largely renewed the science of law and had an enormous influence on legislation, institutions and the very ideas of European society, which was felt throughout the Middle Ages until very recently. That is why, in Bologna’s celebration of the 800th anniversary (1088-1888) of its university, the international character of the celebration could be so clearly reflected, to which the entire European scientific world. Its present position, the beginning of which can be dated back to 1859, when it again acquired a secular character, freed from the strong influence of the pope, bears very little resemblance to the old university. It has 4 faculties and a number of institutes, such as engineering school, pedagogical seminary, school of political science, independent of the Faculty of Law. The rector is appointed from among the professors, who in 1888 numbered up to 200. Among them are the famous Italian poet Carducci, who occupies the department of Italian literature and teaches, in parallel to this course, the comparative history of Romanesque literatures, and female lecturers - Giuseppina Cattani and Malvina Ogonovskaya, professors Slavic dialects.

The university's rich library contains more than 200 tons of volumes.