We present to your attention several options for reconstructions of the Slavic month book, comparison and order of months in different Slavic languages, as well as a detailed explanation of the origin and meaning of the names of each of the months of the year. It should also be noted that true Slavic calendar was sunny; it was based on 4 seasons (seasons), each of which celebrated the holiday of the solstice (rotate, solstice, equinox). With the advent of Christianity in Rus', they began to use a lunar calendar, which is based on the period of changing phases of the Moon, as a result of which a certain “demolition” of dates has now formed by 13 days ( a new style). The dates of Slavic pagan holidays (many of which were replaced over time by Christian names) are calculated according to the old true style and “lag” behind the new calendar by 13 days.
| Modern name of the month | Option I | Option II | Option III | IV option | VI option |
| January | Szechenie | Cold | Prosinets | Prosinets | Xichen |
| February | Lute | Lute | Lute | Szechenie | Snezhen, Bokogray |
| March | Berezozol | Berezen | Kapelnik | Dry | Zimobor, Protalnik |
| April | Pollen | Kveten | Pollen | Berezozol | Brezen, Snowgon |
| May | Traven | Traven | Traven | Traven | Herbal |
| June | Kresen | Cherven | Multicolor | Kresen | Izok, Kresnik |
| July | Lipen | Lipen | Groznik | Cherven | Lipets, Stradnik |
| August | Serpen | Serpen | Zarev | Serpen, Zarev | Zornichnik, Zhniven |
| September | Veresen | Veresen | Howler | Ruyen | Ruen, Khmuren |
| October | Leaf fall | yellow | Leaf fall | Listopad, Pazdernik | Dirt Man, Wedding Party |
| November | Breast | Leaf fall | Breast | Breast | Chest |
| December | Cold | Breast | Cold | Jelly | Studny |
Table 1. Variants of names of Slavic months.
Origin of the names of the months
The Romans originally had a lunar year of 10 months, starting in March and ending in December; as indicated, by the way, by the names of the months. For example, the name of the last month - December - comes from the Latin "deka" (deca), which means tenth. However, soon, according to legend - under King Numa Pompilius or Tarquinius I (Tarquinius the Ancient) - the Romans switched to lunar year at 12 months containing 355 days. To bring it into line with the solar year, they began to add from time to time an extra month(mensis intercalarius) already under Numa. But anyway civil year with holidays designed for certain seasons, did not coincide at all with the natural year. The calendar was finally put in order by Julius Caesar in 46 BC: he introduced a solar year of 365 days with the insertion of one day in every 4th year (for us this day is February 29); and set the year to begin in January. The calendar and annual cycle were named after the great Roman commander and statesman Julian.
The months were designated by the same names as now. The first six months are named after the Italic gods (with the exception of February, which is named after a Roman holiday), July and August were called Quintilis (fifth) and Sextilis (sixth) until the time of Emperor Augustus, they received the names Julius and Augustus in honor of Julius Caesar and Augustus . Thus, the names of the months were as follows: Januarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Majus, Junius, Quintilis (Julius), Sexlilis (Augustus), September (from the Latin "septem" - seven, seventh), October (from the Latin "okto" " - eight, eighth), November (from the Latin "novem" - nine, ninth) and, finally, December (tenth). In each of these months, the Romans counted the same number of days as they count today. All names of months are adjective names in which the word “mensis” (month) is either implied or added. Calendae was the name of the first day of each month.
In Rus', the word “calendar” has been known only since the end of the 17th century. It was introduced by Emperor Peter I. Before that, it was called the “monthly word.” But no matter what you call it, the goals remain the same - fixing dates and measuring time intervals. The calendar gives us the opportunity to record events in their chronological sequence, serves to highlight special days(dates) in the calendar - holidays, and for many other purposes. Meanwhile, the ancient names of the months are still in use among Ukrainians, Belarusians and Poles!
January so named because it was dedicated by the ancient Romans to Janus, the god of Peace. In our country, in the old days, it was called “Prosinets”, it is believed, from the blueness of the sky beginning to appear at this time, radiance, from intensification, with the addition of day and sunlight. January 21, by the way, is the Prosinets holiday. Take a closer look at the January sky and you will understand that it fully lives up to its name. The Little Russian (Ukrainian) name for January “sechen” (sichen, sіchen) indicates either the turning point of winter, which, according to popular belief, occurs in January, the cutting of winter into two halves, or the bitter, severe frosts. Some researchers identify the root "blue" in the word "prosinets", believing that this name was given to January for the early twilight - with "blue". Some scientists associated the name with the ancient folk custom go house to house during Svyatki and ask for treats. In Rus', the month of January was originally the eleventh month, for March was considered the first, but when the year began to be counted from September, January became the fifth; and, finally, since 1700, since the change made in our chronology by Peter the Great, this month became the first.
February the Romans had last month in the year and named after Febra, the ancient Italian god to whom it was dedicated. The indigenous Slavic-Russian names for this month were: “sechen” (a common name for it with January) or “snezhen”, probably from snowy time or from the verb “sech for snowstorms”, common in this month. In Little Russia, from the 15th century, following the imitation of the Poles, the month of February began to be called “fierce” (or lute), for it is known for its fierce blizzards; The villagers of the northern and middle Russian provinces still call him “side warmer,” because at this time the cattle come out of the barns and warm their sides in the sun, and the owners themselves warmed their sides at the stove. In modern Ukrainian, Belarusian and Polish languages, this month is still called “fierce”.
March. From this month the Egyptians, Jews, Moors, Persians, ancient Greeks and Romans began the year, as well as, once upon a time, ours. Slavic ancestors. The name "March" was given to this month by the Romans in honor of the god of war, Mars; it was brought to us from Byzantium. The true Slavic names of this month in the old days in Rus' were different: in the north it was called “dry” (little snow) or “dry” because of the spring warmth, drying up all moisture; in the south - “berezozol”, from the action of the spring sun on the birch, which at this time begins to fill with sweet juice and buds. Zimobor - conquering winter, opening the way to spring and summer, thawed snow - this month the snow begins to melt, thawed patches and drops appear (hence another name drip). The month of March is often called “flight”, since it marks the beginning of spring, the harbinger of summer, and together with the months following it - April and May - it constitutes the so-called “flight” (the holiday of which is celebrated on May 7).
April comes from the Latin verb "aperire" - to open, it actually indicates the opening of spring. The Old Russian names for this month were berezen (brezen) - by analogy with March; snowrunner - streams run, carrying with them the remains of snow, or even pollen, because that’s when the first trees begin to bloom, spring blossoms.
May. Latin name This month was given in honor of the goddess Mai, just like many others, it came to us from Byzantium. The Old Russian name for this month was herbal, or herbal (herbalist), which reflected the processes occurring in nature at this time - a riot of growing herbs. This month was considered the third and last summer month. This name is known in the Ukrainian language.
June. The name of this month comes from the word "Iunius", given to it in honor of the goddess Juno by the Romans. In the old days, the original Russian name for this month was izok. Izokom was the name given to a grasshopper, of which there was particular abundance this month. Another name for this month is worm, especially common among Little Russians, from chervetsa or worm; This is the name given to a special kind of dye worms that appear at this time. This month is also called multi-colored, because nature gives birth to an indescribable riot of colors. flowering plants. In addition, in ancient times, the month of June was very often popularly called kresnik - from the word “kres” (fire).
July comes from the name "Julius", given in honor of Gaius Julius Caesar, and, of course, has Roman roots. In our old days, it was called, like June - cherven - from the fruits and berries that ripen in July and are distinguished by their special reddishness (scarlet, red). The folk poetic expression “red summer” can serve literal translation the name of the month in which attention is drawn to the brightness of the summer sun. Other ancestral Slavic name July - lipets (or lipen), which is now used in Polish, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages like the month of linden blossoms. July is also called the “top of summer”, since it is considered the last month of summer (July 20 is celebrated as “Perun’s Day”, after which, according to popular beliefs, autumn comes), or also “sufferer” - from the painful summer work, “thunderstorm” - from severe thunderstorms.
August. Like the previous one, this month received its name from the name of the Roman emperor - Augustus. The indigenous ancient Russian names of the month were different. In the north it was called “glow” - from the radiance of lightning; in the south, “serpen” comes from a sickle used to remove grain from the fields. Often this month is given the name “glow”, in which one cannot help but see a modified old name “glow”. The name “stubble” will be unnecessary to explain, because in this month the time came for harvesting the fields and harvesting. Some sources interpret the glow as associated with the verb “to roar” and denotes the period of roaring of animals during estrus, while others suggest that the name of the month refers to thunderstorms and evening lightning.
September- “September”, the ninth month of the year, among the Romans it was the seventh, which is why it got its name (from the Latin word “septem” - seventh). In the old days, the original Russian name for the month was “ruin” - from the roar of autumn winds and animals, especially deer. The Old Russian form of the verb “ryuti” (to roar) is known, which when applied to the autumn wind meant “to roar, to blow, to call.” He received the name “gloomy” due to his weather differences from others - the sky often begins to frown, it rains, autumn is in nature. Another name for this month, “heather,” is explained by the fact that the heather begins to bloom at this time.
October- "October", the tenth month of the year; among the Romans it was the eighth, which is why it got its name (from the Latin “octo” - eight). Our ancestors know it under the name “leaf fall” - from the fall of leaves in the autumn, or “pusdernik” - from puzderi, bonfire, since in this month flax, hemp, and habits begin to crush. Otherwise - a “dirty man”, from the autumn rains that cause bad weather and dirt, or a “wedding man” - from the weddings that peasants celebrate at this time.
November. We call the eleventh month of the year "November", but among the Romans it was the ninth, which is why it got its name (nover - nine). In the old days, this month was called the month itself (breast or thoracic), from piles of frozen earth with snow, since in general in the ancient Russian language the winter frozen road was called the chest path. In Dahl's dictionary, the regional word "heap" means "frozen ruts along the road, frozen hummocky mud."
December. “Decemvriy” (lat. december) is our name for the 12th month of the year; among the Romans it was tenth, which is why it got its name (decem - ten). Our ancestors called it “studen”, or “icy” - from the cold and frosts common at that time.
The word “month” itself indicates the connection between the selection of such a chronological period and lunar cycles and has pan-European roots. Consequently, the length of the month ranged from 28 to 31 days; it is not yet possible to more accurately indicate the count of days by month.
| Modern name | Russian | Ukrainian | Belorussian | Polish | Czech |
| January | Szechenie | Sichen | Studzen | Styczen | Leden |
| February | Lute | Lutius | Lyuty | Luty | Unor |
| March | Berezen | Berezen | Sakavik | Marzec | Brezen |
| April | Kveten | Kviten | Handsome | Kwiecien | Duben |
| May | Traven | Traven | Traven | Maj | Kveten |
| June | Cherven | Cherven | Cherven | Czerwiec | Cerven |
| July | Lipen | Lipen | Lipen | Lipiec | Cervenec |
| August | Serpen | Serpen | Zhniven | Sierpien | Srpen |
| September | Veresen | Veresen | Verasen | Wrzesien | Zari |
| October | Leaf fall | Zhovten | Kastrynchnik | Pazdzernik | Rijen |
| November | Breast | Leaf fall | Listapad | Listopad | Listopad |
| December | Cold | Breast | Snezhan | Grudzien | Prosinec |
Table 2. Comparative names of the months in different Slavic languages.
In the "Ostromir Gospel" (11th century) and other ancient written monuments, January corresponded to the name Prosinets (since it became lighter at that time), February - Sechen (since it was the deforestation season), March - dry (since in some places the earth was already drying up), April - birch, berezozol (names associated with birch beginning to bloom), May - grass (from the word "grass"), June - izok (grasshopper), July - cherven, serpen (from the word "sickle", indicating the time of harvest), August - glow (from "glow"), September - ryuen (from "roar" and the roar of animals), October - leaf fall, November and December - breast (from the word "heap" - frozen rut on the road) , sometimes - jelly.
Thus, the Slavs did not have common ideas about the order and names of the months. From the entire mass of names, Proto-Slavic names are revealed, which indicates the unity of the origin of the calendar. The etymology of names is also not always clear and gives rise to various kinds controversy and speculation on this topic. The only thing that most reenactors agree on is the connection between the names and natural phenomena, characteristic of the annual cycle.
, adopted by Julius Caesar in 45 BC.
Calendar - from lat. calendarium – “debt book”. The Calendarium indicated Kalends - the first days of each month, when debtors in ancient Rome paid interest.
According to the Egyptian model, Sunny Julian calendar started on January 1st. IN 325 AD e. The Julian calendar was adopted at the Council of Nicea Christian Church. Since then, oh The main annual cycle of services of the Russian Orthodox Church is conducted according to the Julian calendar.
Month names modern calendar appeared in Ancient Rome.
The Etruscan and then the Roman Lunar calendar originally had 10 months
, dedicated initially to Etruscan and then Roman gods and rulers. The first day of each month according to the lunar calendar coincides with the new moon.
According to legend, the lunar calendar of 10 months was created by Romulus, the founder of Rome.
MARCH.
The Roman lunar calendar had 10 months dedicated to Roman gods and rulers. The month of March was named in honor of the god of war Mars (Etruscan god Maris). The first month lunar calendar was named after the god of war Mars (Martius) . In the earliest myths (lat. Maris) was considered the god of living nature and the fertility of the earth, which comes with the arrival of spring and awakening vitality nature. The name Maris (Latin Mars) comes from the root word of the Vedic Sanskrit - ь; , gods of the storm, who owe their origin to the cult of the dead. In Etruscan mythology, Maris is March - the spring calendar deity, the patron of vegetation and fertility of the coming year, since the home of the spearman Mars Quirinus (lat. Quirinus - spear-bearer) is located in the spring sector of the Sky. Later Etruscan Mars Quirin became god of war. According to the ancient “Russian ABC book”, The month of March was called Turas.
APRIL
Romulus named the month April - Up
Rilis, in honor of Aphrodite, born from sea foam. Greek Aphrodite, known in the Roman pantheon of gods as Venus, who was the mother of Aeneas, who fled after the fall of Troy in 1250 BC e.
to Italy, and was considered the founder of the Roman people. According to the poet Ovid, the month of April is Apridis, derived from the Latin verb aperio - “I open”
, because April opens the way to spring.
Lad and Lada. Artist Mikhail Nesterov
Innovations in Rome made by Numa Pompilius
:
He had with him all the lands belonging to Rome were counted,
implemented land surveying with stone pillars.
Numa established craft workshops
, establishing separate celebrations for each of them. Here's what it says about it Plutarch in his Comparative Lives:
« The people were divided according to their occupation, flutists, goldsmiths, carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, tanners, coppersmiths and potters. The king combined other crafts together and formed one workshop from them. Each workshop had its own meetings, gatherings and religious ceremonies. Thus the king for the first time expelled that discord that forced some to consider and call themselves Sabines, others - Romans, some by citizens of Tatius, others by Romulus, as a result of which the division into guilds brought harmony and unanimity everywhere and in everything.”
Numa Pompilius was the first to establish religious cults, he introduced veneration Termina - the god of boundaries and veneration of the goddess of peace Fides (lat. Fides)- the ancient Roman goddess of harmony and fidelity. Deification of Fidelity (lat. Fides), and the most important virtues - Honor, Valor, Piety, Harmony, and honest work.
Numa introduced the position of priests to serve Jupiter, Etruscan Mars Quirinus, who became a Roman god.
Numa entered – keeper hearth and home, were revered in every family and protected the house from harm, was considered the patron of every beginning, the first step on the journey. In each city, a state center of the Roman goddess Vesta was created - Vesta populi Romani Quiritium, and its servants, the Vestals, supported Eternal flame and distributed it to citizens so that they would light their family hearths.
Numa established positions government positions fetials announcing the beginning and end of the war.
The fetial rite formally ensured that Rome would wage a just war (Latin bellum iustum, bellum pium), and the position high priests- pontiffs.
Numa banned human sacrifices and introduced bloodless sacrifices to the gods - onions, cutting hair as a sign of mourning, etc.
Numa Pompilius introduced a new lunisolar calendar, each year of which consisted of 355 days and divided the days of the months into holidays (festas) and weekdays.
Sabine second Roman king Numa
built his palace in Veyi,
between the Sabine Quirinal and the Roman Palatine,
what did it symbolize the unification of two communities: Roman and Sabine.
In the Etruscan city there were several temples dedicated to the patron goddess of the city. Veii ancient city Etruscans, located north of Rome, was part of the Etruscan union and was an important center since the Iron Age Villanovo culture of the 10th-9th centuries BC. e. similar to the Greek earth goddess Demeter and the Roman Ceres, goddess of harvest and fertility. The Etruscans brought “votive gifts” to the temple of Vei, that is, votive gifts, promised gifts for healing from illnesses. The goddess Veya was a healer.
JANUARY
January is named after Roman god of doors Janus.
comes from the Latin word " januae" - door, "Jani" - arch
. IN ancient Rome The first day and first month of the new year were named after Janus - Januarius (lat. Januarius)
, that is, belonging to Janus, or January.
At the beginning of Januarius (January), people wished each other well and gave sweets to make the whole year sweet and happy. During the holiday, all quarrels and discord were prohibited.
Unlike all subsequent Roman kings, waging endless wars, During the reign of Numa Pompilius, the gates of the Temple of Janus, which were usually opened at the outbreak of armed conflicts, were never opened.
Lupercalia. Artist Andrea Camassi, c. 1635.
FEBRUARY.
February comes from the Latin word februa - februa, februm - februum - cleansing,
And accompanied by pagan rituals cleansing, which became part of the preparation for the onset of spring in the northern hemisphere.
Purification was carried out through the ritual of cleaning houses, streets, temples, eating food and salt, the priests brought leaves to the temple, made a sacrifice - ritual killing of a goat on February 15, strips of goat skin were cut
and crushed these leather belts on the young men. This is how the Lupercalia holiday began - half-naked young men, in goat capes, ran around the sacred border of Rome, “playfully” whipping women with bloody strips of goat skin. It was believed that this ritual cleanses the city and promotes fertility of the fields and the birth of children.
Shannon Number April 18th, 2015
Every time we sit down to play chess, the game is on in a new way and almost never repeated. And it really never repeats itself - this was proven by the American mathematician Claude Shannon. He calculated minimal amount non-repeating chess games.
This number is equal to...
... ten to the one hundred and twentieth power and it is named after its discoverer “Shannon number”.
Claude Elwood Shannon (1916-2001) – famous engineer and mathematician, is the “father of information theory”. He was fascinated by chess and is the first to recalculate with great accuracy the complex tree of the game, i.e. number of possible chess games. The basis of his calculations is the theory that any game contains on average 40 moves and on each move players choose from approximately 30 possibilities. This equals approximately 10,120 possible games. In the end, it turns out that the approximate number of non-repeating chess games is these ten to the one hundred and twentieth power. This is more than the total number of atoms in the observable Universe:
This number is known as Shannon's number.
Shannon also calculated the number of possible positions on the chessboard - it is ten to the forty-third power.
Peterson came to the same conclusion in 1996. An interesting comparison with the Shannon number is that total number atoms in the universe - 10 to the 81st power. But Peterson puts limits on calculations and defines real chess moves by 1050.
All these calculations will change when new chess rules, such as the Sofia Rule, begin to be applied. The numbers are close enough to real to show deep meaning and the variety of chess.
And a dozen more interesting things about chess:
1. Origin of the name
Chess originates from the 6th century Indian game of chaturanga, whose name translates from Sanskrit as "four divisions of army", which includes infantry, cavalry, bishops and chariots, which are represented in chess by the pawn, knight, bishop and rook.
In the 7th century the game came to Persia and was renamed Shatranj. The name chess comes from the Persian language. Players said “Check” (from Persian for “king”) when attacking the opponent’s king, and “Checkmate” (from Persian for “the king is dead”).
2. The chess machine that fooled everyone
In 1770, Hungarian inventor Wolfgang von Kempelen created a chess machine. The machine was a human-sized figure of a “Turk” who sat behind a huge wooden cabinet whose doors opened, showing the public complex mechanisms.
The mechanical arm moved pieces around the field and beat such famous opponents as Napoleon Bonaparte and Benjamin Franklin.
As it turned out many years later, the chess machine was not a machine. Inside the machine was a chess player who moved around inside and hid as the complex mechanisms of the smart “machine” were shown to the public.
3. The shortest and longest chess game
The shortest chess game is called stupid mate, consisting of two moves: 1. f3 e5 and 2. g4 Qh4++. A draw or loss can also occur before players begin making moves, either due to a certain scenario in the standings or as a result of a player not showing up to play.
The longest chess game was played between Ivan Nikolic and Goran Arsovic in Belgrade in 1989. It lasted 20 hours and 15 minutes, 269 moves were made during the game, and it ended in a draw. Theoretically, the game could last even longer, but after the introduction of the 50-move rule, this number can be somehow limited.
4. Checkbox
Garry Kasparov once said that “chess is a torture of the mind.” Apparently that's why someone decided to combine chess with physical tests by creating chessboxing. Dutch artist Ipe Rubing became the founder of chessboxing after he saw the idea of combining chess and boxing in one comic book.
Chessboxing alternates rounds of chess and boxing and its motto is “Battles are fought in the ring, but wars are fought on the board.”
Checkboxing is becoming increasingly popular and is under control World Organization chessboxing
5. Dynamic queen
The Queen or Queen chess piece has undergone many changes throughout the history of chess. It all started with the fact that she could only move along one square diagonally, later she moved two squares, and then further and further, like a knight.
Now this figure can move both diagonally, horizontally, and vertically. At first she was the king's advisor or prime minister.
But later she became the most powerful figure in chess.
6. Backhanded chess
Blindfold chess is a variation of the game in which the player makes all of his moves without looking at the chessboard. As a rule, there is an intermediary in the game who moves the pieces.
Blindfold chess is an impressive ability that many of the top chess players possess. One of the record holders in blindfold chess was the Hungarian chess player Janos Flesz, who played 52 opponents simultaneously blindfolded and won 32 games.
7. Endless possibilities
After three moves, there are more than nine million possible positions on each side. An American mathematician calculated the minimum number of non-repeating chess games and derived Shannon's number.
According to this number, the number of possible unique batches exceeds the number of atoms in the visible Universe. The number of atoms is estimated to be 10^79, and the number of unique chess games is 10^120.
8. The power of chess computers
Chess computers are now an important part of chess. World champion Garry Kasparov, considered the strongest player in the history of chess, lost to the computer Deep Blue in 1997, and this was a real shock to the entire chess world.
In 2006, world champion Vladimir Kramnik was defeated by the computer Deep Fritz, once again highlighting the power of chess computers. Today, chess programs are often used by players to analyze and improve their games, and are often ranked on par with grandmasters.
9. Chess clock - to avoid falling asleep
At first, chess games were played without a clock. At the same time, players could play for many hours, or even days in a row, driving each other to exhaustion. In 1851, during a chess tournament, the assistant referee recorded that "the game was not completed due to the players eventually falling asleep."
After that, a year later, time control in the form of an hourglass was introduced at an international tournament, and in 1883 the first mechanical chess clock appeared, created by the British Thomas Wilson.
10. Chess and our brain
Psychologists often mention chess as effective method improve your memory. It also allows you to solve complex problems and think through ideas.
Many people believe that chess is a game for those who are naturally highly intelligent. This is partly true, but you can also significantly increase your intelligence by playing chess. Moreover, studies have shown that chess activates both hemispheres of the brain, improves Creative skills, concentration, critical thinking and reading skills.
Scientific research and development in recent decades have created computers and software that know how many moves there are in chess.
These programs are capable of brute force huge amount options, and determine how many variations of moves in chess can be made.
Now chess is a model scientific research in technology, psychology, pedagogy. When solving chess problems, the so-called exhaustive type is used, when from possible elements the best solution is selected.
A chess game, from the most general point of view, is a search of a huge (10 to 120 powers) number of options.
If we consider the beginning of the game, then at first there are only 20 moves: 16 pawns, 4 knights. After the second there are 20*20 = 400 positions, the third there are already 8902 positions and the number of positions or the search tree increases like an avalanche from move to move. In total, how many moves in chess are calculated, this is a huge number 10 to the 120th power.
Thus, the theorem is proven that an ultra-modern computer, in principle, can: “White starts and wins.”
What can a computer do in chess?
The fact that a computer can fundamentally beat a person requires considering the “computing power” of the opponent: the human brain.
The brain is the most complex creation in the universe, with 100 billion neurons and almost 10,000 times more neuron connections—a quadrillion options. If the computer processing speed exceeds a quadrillion operations, plus it is necessary to take into account the intricacy of connections between neurons, then in order to go through all the options you need. As you can see, a computer capable of trying out how many moves in chess has not yet been invented. Considering the different localization of brain functions in general among different people, we can conclude that there is a high probability of winning with the available software. On the other hand, a professional chess player looks at the positions of the pieces on the board in complete picture. He sees potentially winning and losing moves while anticipating his opponent's actions. The computer does not have internal intuition and therefore it is forced to analyze all possible moves, but as the capabilities of computer technology grow and software improves, a person cannot keep up with a silicon or silicone chip.
Everyone knows the official tournament in 1997, when an IBM computer running the Deep Blue program won a game against world chess champion Garry Kasparov.
In 2003, the Deep Junior program brought the tournament to a draw with Kasparov. Since then, it has been proven that chess has been forever erased from the primacy of human intelligence over machine intelligence. In addition, a human player is subject to the burden of fatigue, emotions, and blunders, unlike a machine.
Thus, sooner or later the computer will be able to calculate this game to the end and determine exactly how many moves there are in chess, but this in no way means that chess will lose its interest.
On the contrary, let computers compete with each other, and people with each other. This will happen not only with chess, but also with other games.
Yes, this is understandable, sprinters do not compete in speed with cars, and mathematicians do not compete with a calculator.
To the question How much in total? various options Is it possible to play chess? given by the author hoard the best answer is PawnMaster's answer, starting from the 3rd line, is no longer correct. The number of options on the 2nd move depends on the specific first move made, and the total number of options is already greater on the 2nd move.
Further quotes:
Irrational complications first!
Why?
Answer: because irrational complications and - I will add - attacks on material targets that accompany irrational complications are closest to the true and undistorted nature of the chess game. The latter is identified by me with the nature of chess chaos.
Chaos is primary. In chess, chaos is an infinite and primordial set of all possible, that is, all chess games allowed by the rules of the game. I repeat: all chess games without exception. Including meaningless games!
The important thing is that chaos is capable of self-ordering. Order is secondary. Let me add: the transition from chaos to order occurs on its own, that is, spontaneously, occurs without external influence to a complex dynamic system. Internal system parameters are working. They – these parameters – are responsible for “everything without exception”!
...
According to my most conservative arithmetic calculations, the position on the diagram is just one “real” chess position out of... tens of thousands of possible and failed final chess positions. Those positions in which a chess player interrupts the calculation of options and begins to assess the situation on the board. One accurate position for hundreds, thousands of inaccurate positions!
...In the ones I just cited beautiful options intertwined together are both the enemy’s attack and counterattack (from White’s point of view - defense), and strategy game. Together they define the so-called mixing layer - the central concept of the theory of dynamical systems. Chaos reigns in the mixing layer, uncertainty and His Majesty Chance reign. At the same time, we – chess players – need to absolutely understand the transparent truth: His Majesty Chance is not the result of our incompetence or dishonesty. He - His Majesty Chance - is just a symbol of our true ignorance, a symbol of the fundamental impossibility of absolutely accurately assessing a chess position. Order in chess is an island of knowledge in an ocean of chaos. We are doomed to wander in the jungle of chess variations. Chess is an almost inexhaustible game.
...
1. The model of a chess game will become a dynamic model when we guess to “inject” it well into the model known to science the principle of “lineaminoris resistentiae” (the principle of “line of least resistance”). I would like to note the fact that this principle, which is most important for any solid theory, was introduced into the theory of the chess game by Em. Lasker is the second world chess champion.
2. Chess chaos is primary. It represents an infinite set of all possible chess games. Or in other words: chess chaos is the totality of all chess “trajectories” without exception (chess tree). The physical analogue is thermodynamic chaotic systems in Nature. “Laws” are the rules of the chess game.
The most important nuance: the values of all chess pieces without exception are equal to zero. Including the king!
3. By postulating the infinite chess value of the king, we will instantly partially order the chess system. Will actually arise chess game(the goal of the game is checkmate to the enemy king). What is important for us is that during the transition from a chaotic chess game to a partially ordered game, elements of chaos will remain in the system. They - these elements of chaos - are indestructible.
4. A dynamic system, if it is sufficiently complex, does not need a “supervisor”. The system itself “makes” decisions. “Makes” decisions randomly.
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I will answer briefly and unequivocally: the game of chess does not fit into the narrow box of classical scientific ideas. I will add: when we describe the chess system, we will need to supplement the traditional two-valued logic, with its classical “yes” and “no”, with a new, third-valued one.
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Answer from insanity[guru]
unknown. there are an endless number of them!
Answer from Qualitative[guru]
CHESS – ancient intellectual game, which has a centuries-old history. Now it is one of the most common board games. Combines elements of sports, science and art. It has educational value: it contributes to the development of personality, teaches you to think logically and plan your actions, develops concentration and perseverance. When playing chess, many features appear human personality Therefore, they are sometimes used as a model for scientific research in psychology and education. They were also used to identify the capabilities of computers in solving problems of the so-called search type, when the best one must be selected from the possible elements of the solution.
IN different countries This game has its own name: in England - chess, in Spain - axedres, in Germany - check (Schach), in France - echecs. The Russian name comes from the Persian “checkmate” - the ruler is defeated.
INDIAN ORIGINS
Exists ancient legend, which attributes the creation of chess to a certain Brahmin. For his invention, he asked the rajah for an insignificant, at first glance, reward: as many wheat grains as would be on the chessboard if one grain was placed on the first square, two grains on the second, four grains on the third, etc. It turned out , that there is no such amount of grain on the entire planet (it is equal to 264 − 1 ≈ 1.845 × 1019 grains, which is enough to fill a storage facility with a volume of 180 km³). It’s hard to say whether it was true or not, but one way or another, India is the birthplace of chess.
No later than the beginning of the 6th century, the first known game related to chess, chaturanga, appeared in northwestern India. It already had a completely recognizable “chess” appearance, but was fundamentally different from modern chess in two features: there were four players, not two (they played pairs against pairs), and moves were made in accordance with the results of throwing dice. Each player had four pieces (chariot (rook), knight, bishop, king) and four pawns. The knight and king moved the same way as in chess, the chariot and bishop were much weaker than the current chess rook and bishop. There was no queen at all. To win the game, it was necessary to destroy the entire enemy army.
ARAB TRANSFORMATIONS
In the same 6th or perhaps 7th century, chaturanga was borrowed by the Arabs. In the Arab East, chaturanga was transformed: there were two players, each received control of two sets of chaturanga pieces, one of the kings became a queen (moved diagonally onto one field). They gave up the bones and began to walk one move at a time, strictly one at a time. Victory began to be recorded not by the destruction of all [the enemy's] pieces, but by checkmate or stalemate, as well as by completing the game with a king and at least one piece against one king (the last two options were forced, since checkmate with weak pieces inherited from chaturanga, it was not always possible). The resulting game was called shatranj by the Arabs, and shatranj by the Persians. Later, when it came to the Tajiks, shatranj received the name “chess” in Tajik (translated as “the ruler is defeated”). The first mention of Shatradzhe dates back to approximately 550. 600 - first mention of Shatranj in fiction- Persian manuscript "Karnamuk". In 819, at the court of Caliph al-Mamun in Khorosan, a tournament was held between the three strongest players of that time: Jabir al-Kufi, Abyljafar Ansari and Zairab Katan. In 847, the first chess book was published, written by Al-Alli.
APPEARANCE OF CHESS IN Rus'
Around 820, chess (more precisely, the Arabic shatranj under the Central Asian name "chess", in Russian turned into "chess") appeared in Rus', coming, it is believed, either directly from Persia through the Caucasus and Khazar Khaganate, or from the Central Asian peoples, through Khorezm. In any case, the Russian name of the game was inherited from the Tajiks or Uzbeks, the names of the figures in Russia are also consonant or similar in meaning to Arabic or Middle Eastern
Answer from Substance[newbie]
If you play chess, then it may seem to you that the number of different games possible in this game is infinite. However, it is quite calculable.
Initially, the player who receives the right to make the first move has a set of 20 possible moves. Then the second player also makes his choice from 20 options. This means that after the first exchange of moves, the number of possible combinations on the board is 400.
After one more round, this number will increase to 20 thousand.
American mathematician Claude Shannon calculated the exact number of all possible combinations. It turned out that the number of different chess games that can be played is 10 to the 120th power. And this number significantly exceeds the number of atoms in the Universe, which is only 10 to the 80th power.
Answer from forward[newbie]
Calculation for one side:
1 move - 20 options
2nd move - a total of 40 options, but there are 12 blocking moves (for example, a knight's move blocks 2 options for a pawn on move 2) as a result, with a certain option for move 1, on the 2nd move there are either 39 or 38 options left, until the 3rd they did not count .
