Eric Erickson's theory of the division of our life cycle into eight stages is one of the largest contributions to psychoanalysis and to psychology in general. Unlike Freud, Erickson believes that, although a person's character is formed in childhood, but not once and for all, it retains the ability to significantly change further at every stage of life. Ericksonian theory of the "identity crisis" in adolescents has become widespread and outside professional circles.
He describes eight stages of the human life cycle, which at each stage is increasingly faced with new and new problems and conflicts:
The first stage of human development. Trust and distrust. Corresponds to the oral phase of classical psychoanalysis and usually covers the first year of life. During this period, Erickson believes, the parameter of social interaction develops, the positive pole of which is trust, and the negative pole is distrust.
Second stage. Independence and indecision. Covers the second and third years of life, coinciding with the anal phase of Freudianism. During this period, Erickson believes, the child develops independence based on the development of his motor and mental abilities. At this stage, the child learns various movements, learns not only to walk, but also to climb, open and close, push and pull, hold, release and throw. The little ones enjoy and are proud of their new abilities and strive to do everything themselves: unfold the candies, get vitamins from the vial, flush the water in the toilet, etc. If the parents allow the child to do what he is capable of, and do not rush him, the child develops a feeling that he owns his muscles, his motives, himself and, to a large extent, his environment - that is, he gains independence.
Third stage. Entrepreneurship and guilt. Usually occurs between ages four and five. The preschooler has already acquired many physical skills, he knows how to ride a tricycle, and run, and cut with a knife, and throw stones. He begins to invent activities for himself, and not just respond to the actions of other children or imitate them. His ingenuity manifests itself both in speech and in the ability to fantasize. The social dimension of this stage, Erickson says, develops between entrepreneurship at one extreme and guilt at the other. On how at this stage parents react to the child's ideas, which of these qualities will outweigh the child's character. Children who have been given the initiative in the choice of motor activities, who run, wrestle, tinker, ride a bicycle, sled, ice skate at will, develop and reinforce their entrepreneurial spirit. It is strengthened by the parents' willingness to answer the child's questions (intellectual enterprise) and not to interfere with his fantasy and play. But if the parents show the child that his motor activity is harmful and undesirable, that his questions are intrusive, and his games are stupid, he begins to feel guilty and carries this feeling of guilt into later stages of life.
Stage four. Skill and inferiority. Ages six to eleven, primary school years. Classical psychoanalysis calls them the latent phase. During this period, the son's love for his mother and jealousy for his father (in girls, on the contrary) is still in a latent state. During this period, the child develops the ability to deduce, to organized games and regulated activities. Only now, for example, are children learning how to play with pebbles and other games where you have to follow the sequence. Erickson says that the psychosocial dimension of this stage is characterized by skill on the one hand and a sense of inferiority on the other.
Fifth stage. Identity and role confusion. During the transition to the fifth stage (12-18 years old), the child is faced, according to classical psychoanalysis, with the awakening of "love and jealousy" towards his parents. A successful solution to this problem depends on whether he finds an object of love in his own generation. Erickson does not deny this problem in adolescents, but points out that there are others. The teenager matures physiologically and mentally, and in addition to the new sensations and desires that arise as a result of this maturation, he also develops new views of things, new approach to life. An important place in the new features of the adolescent's psyche is occupied by his interest in the thoughts of other people, in what they think of themselves. Adolescents can create for themselves a mental ideal of a family, religion, society, in comparison with which far imperfect, but really existing families, religion and society. The teenager is able to develop or adopt theories and worldviews that promise to reconcile all contradictions and create a harmonious whole.
Sixth stage. Closeness and loneliness. The onset of maturity - in other words, the courtship period and the early years family life, that is, from late adolescence to early middle age. Classical psychoanalysis does not say anything new about this stage and the next one after it, or, otherwise, nothing important. But Erickson, taking into account the identification of the “I” that has already taken place at the previous stage and the inclusion of a person in labor activity, points to a parameter specific for this stage, which is concluded between the positive pole of intimacy and the negative pole of loneliness.
This stage continues to address questions about the self-image, self-completion and intimacy (loved ones, trusting relationship between people, not necessarily sexually active) at home and at work. This means that childhood dreams are compared to the actual situation of a person in an attempt to make life choices, which leads to the growth of self-actualized human relationships.
Ability to be involved in love relationship includes all previous development tasks. The capacity for intimacy becomes perfect when a person is able to build loved ones. partnerships even if they require significant sacrifices and compromises. The ability to trust and love another, to receive satisfaction from a mature sexual experience, seek compromises in common purposes- all this testifies to a satisfactory development at this stage.
The danger of this stage is the avoidance of situations and contacts that lead to intimacy. Avoiding the experience of intimacy for fear of “losing independence” leads to self-isolation and reinforcement of feelings of loneliness.
Seventh stage. General humanity and self-absorption. Mature age, that is, already the period when children became adolescents, and parents firmly tied themselves to a certain occupation. At this stage, a new personality parameter appears with universal humanity at one end of the scale and self-absorption at the other.
Eighth stage. Integrity and hopelessness. The eighth and last stage in Erickson's classification is the period when the main pa6ot of life is over and for a person there comes a time for reflection and fun with grandchildren, if any. The psychosocial dimension of this period lies between wholeness and hopelessness. A feeling of wholeness, meaningfulness of life arises in someone who, looking back at what he has lived, feels satisfaction. The one to whom the lived life seems to be a chain of missed opportunities and annoying blunders, realizes that it is too late to start all over again and it will not be possible to return the lost. Such a person is seized by despair at the thought of how his life could have developed, but did not work out.
It took almost 10 years before Erickson systematized his clinical observations and outlined his concept in the book Childhood and Society. Summarizing 15 years of practical and theoretical work, he put forward three new positions that have become three important contributions to the study of the human "I".
First, Erickson suggested that along with the phases of psychosexual development described by Freud (oral, anal, phallic and genital), during which the direction of attraction changes (from autoeroticism to attraction to an external object). There are also psychological stages of development of "I", during which the individual sets the basic guidelines in relation to himself and his social environment.
· Secondly, Erickson argued that the formation of a personality does not end in adolescence, but stretches over the entire life cycle.
· And finally, Erickson said that each stage has its own parameters of development, which can take on positive and negative values.
The expression “identity crisis,” coined by Erickson more than a quarter of a century ago, has entered everyday life in the United States. The attention that Erickson paid to the problems of adolescence and maturity helped to get rid of a one-sided view of childhood as a period of irreversible personality formation.
It should be emphasized that Erickson does not at all cancel, but develops psychoanalysis, since he accepts the basic premises of Freudianism, and builds new floors on them.
In this, Erickson differs from such early supporters of Sigmund Freud as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler, who departed from Freud, rejected his positions and put forward their own concepts. Erickson also differs from so-called neo-Freudians such as Karen Horney, Abraham Kardiner and Harry Stuck Sullivan, who believed (wrongly, as it turned out) that Freudianism had nothing to say about the relationship between man and society or man and culture. Freud, as you know, emphasized the role of sexual desires in human life, but he did this out of a desire to oppose the severe restrictions imposed by society at that time on gender relations, those taboos that often served as the causes of neuroses. Subsequently, however, Freud paid much more attention to the mental structure of the personality, in particular to its conscious I, which serves as an executive power in the human psyche and keeps its established attitude towards oneself and the world around it.
Erickson's observations and theoretical constructions mainly relate to the psychosocial aspects of the formation of the self. On this path, Erickson was able to develop psychoanalysis without rejecting or ignoring the enormous contribution of Freud.
Eric Erikson, a one-of-a-kind scientist who combined psychoanalytic and humanistic views on development, developed a periodization of mental development from birth to old age, which includes eight stages. He based his theory on the three-part personality structure (id, ego, super-ego), but he saw not biological sexuality as the main factor of development, but the social impact of the family and society. Erickson's concept began as a psychoanalytic, but has become an independent and unique theory that underlies most modern experimental research in developmental psychology.
Adhering to the Freudian interpretation of personality, Erickson built his theory around the task of consistent formation and strengthening of the ego, highlighting such basic components of the self structure as trust, will, purposefulness and competence, which make up the concept of integral identity (Fig. 3.1). Due to the emphasis on ego structure and development, Erickson's concept is sometimes referred to as ego psychology.
Attention to the ego sets a fundamentally different vector in the study of development compared to psychoanalysis. The autonomy of the individual, his social potential, rationality and awareness are emphasized. “We are talking about three processes: somatic, ego-process and social,” wrote Erickson about the unity of human development at different levels, trying to unite these processes into a holistic personality identity.
Eric Homburger Erickson (1902-1994) - American psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, founder of ego psychology. Professor at Harvard University, student of Z. Freud. In the USA, he conducted a private practice in a general hospital, was engaged in child psychoanalysis. He developed the concept of epigenetic development of the personality, was engaged in the therapy of military neuroses; investigated the relationship between culture and identity, the relationship between social upheavals and mass neuroses.
The most significant works: "Childhood and Society" (1950), "Young Luther. Historical and psychoanalytic research ”(1958),“ The Truth of Mahatma Gandhi: On the Origin of Militant Nonviolence ”(1969),“ Adult Period ”(1978),“ Life Involvement in Old Age ”(1986),“ Life Cycle Complete ”(1987).
Rice. 3.1.
Erickson understood development in stages, as a transition from one stage to another in the direction of expanding the social space of the individual and the radius of social interactions. This is an epigenetic developmental principle. Society supports the social formation of the individual and determines the pace and sequence of this process.
Erickson identified eight stages of the life path, on each of which it is decided specific task development, the conflict is resolved. Conflict resolution is aimed at synthesizing the ego, ordering and integrating the experience of the individual. Development tasks are determined by the logic of internal maturation and the expectations of society. Society not only makes demands on development, but also equips the individual with certain mechanisms of development - ritualizations. Sexual energy (or "organ mode"), according to Erickson, sets the primary acceleration of development, and its direction determines the socio-cultural environment, the role of which at each stage gradually expands - from maternal influence in infancy to integration with all of humanity in old age.
Ego identity is understood as the identity of a person to himself (internal identity of a person in time and space), the perceptions of others (identity to the social environment) and the identity of the internal and external sides of identity. A holistic identity is built along all three lines, uniting them into some kind of unity.
Identity is a systemic quality of an individual, including self-awareness through the integration of individual experience, the length of the I and the ability to maintain the identity of the I in changing social situations.
Unlike Freud, who was pessimistic about the possibility of achieving harmony and satisfaction, since numerous unresolved conflicts in childhood are forever buried in the depths of the psyche, Erickson was an optimist. Unsuccessful resolution of the conflict at any of the stages can be overcome in the future (although this is not easy), and a person always retains the opportunity to achieve an integral identity as a guarantee of harmonious existence. The formation of ego identity continues throughout life.
Ego identity at each stage, resolving the crisis, allows you to enter new level interaction with the social environment. Erickson's concept emphasizes a deep connection between the nature of the development of identity and how the individual wants to see society. Conducting a comparative study of different cultures, Erickson found significant differences in the traditions and rituals of personality formation on different stages... Society supports personal development through the mechanism of ritualization.
Ritualization (ritual action) - actions that have a common cultural meaning, implemented in stable but flexible forms and aimed at helping the individual in resolving the psychosocial crisis.
An example of ritualization in preschool age is play, which in understandable ways, but each time with elements of novelty, allows the child to be successful and achieve results in the imaginary space of adult relationships. Play, a fantasy space protects the child from failure (feelings of guilt), but allows him to be active and proactive in a variety of variations (in different roles).
The opposite of ritualizations are ritualisms, which are rigid, rigid schemes that prescribe certain interactions in society. Ritualisms restrict development and impede the resolution of the crisis.
Development is carried out in accordance with the principle of epigenesis, i.e. each stage is universal, obligatory, and based on the resolution of the conflicts of the previous stage. For every crisis, there is a sensitive time when its onset is predetermined by its genesis. The stages of psychosocial development are presented in table. 3.2.
Stages of psychosocial development according to E. Erickson
Table 3.2
|
Psychosocial conflict (crisis) |
The positive quality of the ego |
Negative ego quality |
|
|
Oral-sensory, up to a year |
Between basal trust and distrust of the outside world |
Hope, belief in the wisdom and reliability of the world |
Distrust of the world, withdrawal, refusal of communication and knowledge of the world |
|
Anal-muscular, 1-3 years |
Between shame and the desire for autonomy |
Will as the ability to autonomously move towards a goal |
Obsession as submission to the will of others |
|
Locomotor-genital, 3-6 years |
Between guilt and initiative |
Purposefulness, the ability to produce goals |
Lethargy passivity |
|
Latent, 6-12 years old |
Between feelings of inferiority and hard work |
Competence, |
Inertia, disbelief in their abilities |
|
Puberty, |
Between Understanding Belonging to Sex and Not Understanding Gender-Specific Behaviors |
Loyalty to your beliefs, values, ideals |
Denial of beliefs and values |
|
Youth, 20-25 years old |
Between the desire for intimacy, trust and a sense of isolation from others |
Intimacy, love as the ability to establish trusting relationships |
And people say it as an inability to entrust oneself to another. |
Without dwelling on all ages, let us consider in more detail only the content of development in the early, childhood stages of growing up.
1.Oral-sensory stage. In infancy, the conflict lies in the area of basal trust in those who are caring for the child, providing his needs. Relations with the mother are projected onto the outside world and become a model of interaction between the individual and society in the future. “A mother creates in her child a sense of faith in a way of treating him that combines sensitive concern for the child’s needs with a strong sense of complete personal trust in him within the life style that exists in her culture.” If the mother or other caregivers turn out to be rejecting and inconsistent, then the child assumes a negative personality trait - distrust of the world. If the parent consistently satisfies the child's needs and his reactions to the infant are predictable and adequate, a positive, strong personality trait is formed - a basal trust in the world.
A key social agent, i.e. the representative of the social environment who plays a decisive role at each particular stage of development is the mother or her substitute guardian. The ritualization of this stage is the "deifying" ritualization aimed at highlighting the special, sacramental role of the mother in the relationship with the baby. She emphasizes the mother's ability to form in the child a belief in justice, rationality and a positive structure of this world, which will allow him to cope with a variety of stresses and frustrations in the future.
2. Anal-muscular stage. The task of the child is to learn to be “autonomous”. Autonomy initially manifests itself in toilet behavior, with personal hygiene becoming the first form of self-regulation. The child must also learn to eat and dress on his own, which forms in him such a structural personality quality as will. Otherwise, subordination to the will of others develops, obsession, which manifests itself in repetitive actions, dependence, inability to separate from the parent, compulsiveness.
If a child is constantly given negative epithets and feels like he is not up to any task, shame and doubt become dominant experiences. Parents play a leading role in resolving the autonomy conflict by helping the child acquire autonomy skills and maintaining self-confidence. A special role is played by the father, who usually realizes the position of normativity in the family, following the rules and sets this model for the child. Ritualization, which helps to resolve the conflict at this age, is judicious, i.e. orientation to order, rules, division general views about good and evil.
3. Locomotor-genital stage. At the age of play, children tend to act like adults and take initiative in the most different areas... Imperfection of skills leads to unsuccessfulness and conflicts of the child with others, which can give rise to feelings of guilt. Successful resolution of the conflict is achieved if the child manages to maintain and make initiative a structural quality of the personality, but learn to be proactive without infringing on the interests of others. Cognition of the world through real and imaginary situations opens up various possibilities for the child's initiative actions.
Much in resolving a contradiction depends on the parents and the broader family environment. The child learns to respect the rights of siblings and grandparents. The ritualization of this age is dramatic, G.E. the ability to model relationships through playing, dramatization and take initiative in a variety of roles and games. The game does not threaten with a sense of guilt and allows you to put forward the most daring goals.
However, if the closest environment, especially significant adults, constantly criticize the child or punish him, he develops a feeling of guilt for his failure, for his actions. An extreme variant of such passive helplessness is the “learned helplessness phenomenon”, which can form both in preschool and school age.
Experiment
Learned helplessness was first discovered in behaviorist experiments on rats. The rat, being an intellectually developed animal, shows activity and focus on achieving goals in any conditions, constantly trying new solutions to problems. But if you beat her constantly and for no reason electric shock, then at first she resists, trying a variety of strategies (run, attack, hide, etc.), and then becomes completely passive. V natural environment such an animal dies quickly. In the laboratory in animals different types exposed to systematic unreasonable stress develop as physiological abnormalities (multiple ulcers gastrointestinal path, disturbances in the activity of the cardiovascular system, hair loss, decreased resistance to infections and tumors), and psychological: motor passivity, decreased motivation, lethargy, inability to form new skills.
For a child who is constantly the target of criticism, punishment and does not see opportunities to prove himself, to find a positive way of self-realization, the phenomenon of learned helplessness is manifested in the refusal to achieve goals, total passivity, disbelief in himself: “I still won't succeed”, “ I can't ”,“ I can't ”. Emotional disorders and neurotic abnormalities appear. Learned helplessness obeys the principle of generalization, i.e. extends to most situations and becomes the dominant model of behavior.
4. Latent stage. The period of mastering social and educational skills is extremely important for the appearance of a sense of productivity, the ability to implement truly important skills, which allows the formation of competence and self-confidence as a person with value. The ego's competence grows thanks to real achievements in various fields. If the school life of a child turns out to be unsuccessful, then the opposite quality may form - a feeling of inferiority or inertia.
The leading social agents at this stage are teachers and peers. The latter play a special role as an object of comparison of competence levels and a realistic criterion for assessing one's own achievements. The ritualization offered by society is technological, i.e. systematic, targeted (based on social technologies) training, the formation of knowledge, abilities, skills (mastering subject disciplines).
The most important virtues Erickson's psychosocial developmental theories are as follows:
- - in the stages of the life path, the central problems of the development of the individual are correctly reflected;
- - the adaptive, social nature of the personality is emphasized;
- - the dynamics of relations between the family and the socio-cultural environment is analyzed;
- - the genetic possibilities of positive resolution of crises have been determined.
Nevertheless, Erickson's approach retains certain restrictions:
- - the theory of ns lacks the certainty of the determinants of development;
- - ways of resolving conflicts are not defined;
- - the meaningful influence of a resolved conflict of one stage on the passage of another is not shown;
- - a number of provisions, for example in relation to ritualizations, need empirical verification.
- See: E. Erickson. Childhood and Society. SPb .: Summer garden, 2000.
- Quoted from: Obukhova L. F. Age psychology. M., 2003.
Introduction
1.3 Epigenetic principle
Conclusion
Applications
Introduction
In Eric Erickson's theory, greater importance has an ego and its adaptive abilities. Other features of his theory, called ego psychology, include an emphasis on developmental changes throughout a person's life; emphasis on a mentally healthy person; the special role of identity and, finally, the combination of clinical observations with the study of cultural and historical factors in the study of personality structure.
Erickson's ego psychology is considered a development of psychoanalysis, but he departed from psychoanalysis on several important points: a shift in emphasis from id to ego; emphasizing the historical conditions for the formation of the ego in the child; his theory covers the entire living space of the individual; finally, his views on the nature and resolution of psychosexual conflicts were different from those of Freud.
Central to Erickson's theory of ego development is the epigenetic principle. According to him, a person during his life goes through several stages that are universal for all mankind. The personality develops in stages, the transition from one stage to another is predetermined by the personality's readiness to move in the direction of the further path. Society is structured in such a way that the development of social opportunities is accepted with approval, society contributes to the preservation of this trend, maintaining its pace and sequence of development.
Erickson described eight stages of psychosocial personality development: infancy (basal trust - basal distrust); early childhood (autonomy - shame and doubt); age of the game (initiative - fault); school age(hard work - inferiority); adolescence (ego identity - role mixing); early maturity (intimacy - isolation); average maturity (productivity - inertia); finally, late maturity (ego integration - despair).
Research problem: what are the features of E. Erickson's theory of psychosocial personality development?
Research object: personality of E. Erickson.
Subject of research: the stage of development of the personality of school age.
Target term paper: To study the essence and content of the theory of personality development by Eric Erickson.
To achieve this goal in the course of writing a term paper, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: - to reveal the essence and content of the theory of personality development by Eric Erickson;
consider a general description of the stages of human development;
to investigate the psychological characteristics of the personality of children of primary school age;
to reveal the personal characteristics of children of primary school age with varying degrees of school maladjustment.
personality erikson psychosocial responsibility
1. Psychosocial theory of personality development e. Erickson
1.1 E. Erickson's theory of psychosocial development
Eric Erikson (1902-1994) is considered a neo-Freudian, because his study of personality development is based on Freud's theory, but later developed into an independent scientific direction... Eric the dream who began his scientific activity under the leadership of Anna Freud, developed a theory that did not come into direct conflict with classical psychoanalysis, but gave ego-functions (perceived) much more importance than unconscious forces. Erickson focused mainly on the role of social interactions in personality formation, therefore his approach is called the theory of psychosocial development. Another difference based on the analysis of individual cases and on observations of people in different cultures Erickson's theory from the traditional psychoanalysis of Freud is that the stages of development presented in it cover the entire human life, and do not end with the child's entry into puberty. The identification of developmental stages is based on what Erickson called the epigenetic principle. This is a biological concept indicating that all living organisms have a certain "basic plan" (groundplan) that determines or at least sets the conditions for development throughout the life of a given organism. Erickson became disillusioned with psychoanalytic theory because he believed it only dealt with extreme forms of behavior. Although he agreed that the development of each person goes through several stages and the early stages he identified were consistent with those proposed by Freud, his research emphasized the way to resolve social "crises" or conflicts in each such period. This differs significantly from Freud's emphasis on psychosexual maturation as the primary determinant of personality development. Although Erickson agreed with Freud that early experience is of paramount importance, he viewed personality development as a dynamic process from birth to death. In addition, although he tacitly supported Freud's view that the gratification of instincts and impulses is one of the driving forces of life, he considered the same important synthesis Ego, ordering and integrating experience. The key concept Erickson's theory is ego identity - the basic sense of understanding who we are, expressed in terms of self-concept<#"center">1.2 Eric Erickson's personality development theory among other approaches
The epigenetic theory of personality development by E. Erickson is one of the most authoritative, proven theories of personality development. At the same time, it is important to understand what approach she implements, which questions she answers, and which she does not.
Personal development is interesting not only for psychologists. Personal development is also important for teachers who develop the personality of children of different ages, personality development is important for businessmen interested in developing the personality of their employees, personality development is important and simple for people who want to develop their personality.
It is important to note that E. Erickson's concept is almost entirely in the psychological field, to a small extent being guided by pedagogical requests. As A.V. Petrovsky, "It is necessary to distinguish between psychological approach to personality development and the periodization of age stages based on it and the pedagogical approach to the sequential isolation of socially determined tasks of personality formation at the stages of ontogenesis.
The first of them is focused on what psychological research actually reveals at the stages of age development in the corresponding concrete historical conditions, what is ("here and now") and what can be in a developing personality under conditions of purposeful educational influences. The second is on what and how should be formed in the personality so that it meets all the requirements that society imposes on it at a given age stage. "
However, in a hidden way, Eric Erickson's model offers some pedagogical solutions. Listing the natural stages of personality development common to all people, Erickson, in fact, prompts his readers at what age to make what decisions so that the next stage of his life passes safely and not crookedly. Since there is no evidence that such choices can be made only unconsciously and cannot be made consciously (really, why not?), Then a certain, disguised pedagogical meaning is contained in E. Erickson's model.
On the other hand, apparently, there is no point in studying this theory for someone who wants to become a Personality with a capital letter, who studies the ways of self-development and self-improvement of a person. Personal development can be the result of both natural, passive, and active personal growth and development of the personality, which occurs as a result of the author's initiatives of the person himself.
In passive personal growth, intelligence and psychological culture grow naturally, just as the human body grows. Together with the body, intellect gradually develops, gradually in the process of life, a general and psychological culture is naturally formed. The psychological picture of this process is described by different psychologists in their own way, but the general line is the same: a person goes his natural path from childhood to adolescence, from adolescence to maturity, and then to old age.
E. Erickson's concept is not a guide for those who want to develop themselves as a person - E. Erickson's concept of personality development describes the natural, passive growth of a natural psychologically healthy personality, fixing only successful passage her important stages and noting when disruptions in psychological health are possible and a person needs psychotherapy.
1.3 Epigenetic principle
Central to the theory of the development of the ego, created by Eric Erickson, is the provision that a person during his life passes through several stages that are universal for all of humanity. The unfolding process of these stages is regulated in accordance with the epigenetic principle of maturation.
By this Erickson means the following:
) in principle, the personality develops in stages, the transition from one stage to another is predetermined by the personality's readiness to move in the direction of further growth, expanding the perceived social outlook and the radius of social interaction;
) society, in principle, is arranged in such a way that the development of a person's social capabilities is accepted with approval, society tries to help maintain this trend, as well as maintain both the proper pace and the correct sequence of development.
Erickson divided a person's life into eight distinct stages of psychosocial ego development. According to him, these stages are the result of an epigenetically unfolding "personality plan" that is genetically inherited. The epigenetic concept of development is based on the idea that each stage of the life cycle occurs at a specific time for it ("critical period"), as well as that a fully functioning personality is formed only by passing through all stages in its development sequentially. In addition, according to Erickson, each psychosocial stage accompanied by a crisis - a turning point in the life of an individual, which arises as a result of reaching a certain level of psychological maturity and social requirements for the individual at this stage.
All eight stages of development in psychological theory Erickson's are presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 - Eight stages of psychosocial development
No. Stage Age Crisis Strength 1 Oral-sensory up to 1 year Basal trust - basal distrust Hope 2 Muscular-anal 1-3 years Autonomy - shame and doubt Willpower 3 Locomotor-genital 3-6 years Initiative - guilt Goal 4 Latent 6-12 years Diligence - inferiority Competence 5 Adolescent 12-19 years old Ego identity - role mixing Loyalty 6 Early maturity 20-25 years Intimacy - isolation Love 7 Middle maturity 26-64 years Productivity - stagnant Caring 8 Late maturity 65 - death Ego integration - despair Wisdom
The column on the far left lists the stages; the second column indicates the approximate age of their onset; in the third, the positive and negative components of each stage are contrasted; the column on the far right lists strengths ego or dignity; acquired through the successful resolution of each crisis. In accordance with the principle of epigenesis, each stage is based on the resolution and integration of previous psychosocial conflicts. Erickson put forward the assumption that all crises to one degree or another take place from the very beginning of the postnatal period of a person's life and for each of them there is a priority time of onset in a genetically determined sequence of development.
1.4 Psychosocial stages of personality development
Infancy: Basal Trust - Basal Distrust
The first psychosocial stage corresponds to the oral stage according to Freud and covers the first year of life. According to Erickson, during this period, the cornerstone of the formation of a healthy personality is a common feeling trust; other scientists call the same characteristic "confidence." An infant with a basic sense of "inner certainty" perceives the social world as a safe, stable place and people as caring and reliable. This sense of certainty is only partially realized during infancy.
According to Erickson, the degree to which a child develops a sense of trust in other people and the world depends on the quality of the maternal care he receives.
Thus, the feeling of trust does not depend on the amount of food or on the manifestation of parental affection; rather, it is associated with the mother's ability to convey to her child a sense of recognizability, constancy and identity of experience. Erickson also emphasizes that babies must trust not only the outside world, but also the inner world, they must learn to trust themselves and, in particular, must acquire the ability to effectively deal with biological urges in their organs. We see this behavior when the infant can tolerate the absence of the mother without undue suffering and anxiety about "separation" from her.
The question of what is the cause of the first important psychological crisis has been deeply analyzed by Erickson. He connects this crisis with the quality of maternal care for the child - the cause of the crisis is the unreliability, failure of the mother and her rejection of the child. This contributes to the appearance in him of a psychosocial attitude of fear, suspicion and apprehension for his well-being. This setting aimed both at the world in general and at individuals; it will manifest itself in its entirety at later stages of personal development. Erickson also believes that the feeling mistrustcan intensify when the child ceases to be the main center of attention for the mother; when she returns to the activities that she left during pregnancy. Finally, parents who adhere to opposite principles and methods of upbringing, or who feel insecure about the role of parents, or those whose value system is in conflict with the generally accepted lifestyle in a given culture, can create an atmosphere of uncertainty, ambiguity for the child, as a result of which there is a feeling of distrust. According to Erikson, the behavioral consequences of such a dysfunctional development are acute depression in infants and paranoia in adults.
The basic premise of psychosocial theory is that a trust-distrust crisis is not always resolved during the first or second year of life. According to the epigenetic principle, the trust-distrust dilemma will reappear over and over again at each successive stage of development, although it is central to the period of infancy. Adequate resolution of the crisis of confidence has important consequences for the development of the child's personality in the future. Strengthening confidence in himself and in the mother enables the child to endure states of frustration, which he will inevitably experience during the next stages of his development.
As Erikson points out, healthy infant development is not solely the result of a sense of trust, but rather is driven by a favorable balance of trust and distrust. Understand why it does not followtrust is just as important as figuring out what to trust necessary... This ability to anticipate danger and discomfort is also important for coping with the surrounding reality and for effective decision-making; therefore, basal trust should not be interpreted in the context of a scale of achievement. Erickson stated that animals have an almost instinctive readiness to acquire psychosocial skills, while in humans psychosocial abilities are acquired through learning. In addition, he argued that in different cultures and social classes, mothers are taught to trust and distrust in different ways. But the path to acquiring basal trust is inherently universal; a person trusts society in the same way as he trusts his own mother, as if she is about to return and feed him the right time with the right food.
The positive psychosocial quality acquired as a result of the successful resolution of the conflict "trust-distrust", Erickson denotes the term hope... In other words, trust passes into the infant's ability to hope, which, in turn, in an adult can form the basis of faith in accordance with some official form religion. Hope, this is the first positive quality of the ego, maintains a person's conviction in the significance and reliability of a common cultural space. Erickson emphasizes: when the institution of religion loses its tangible significance for an individual, it becomes irrelevant, outdated and, perhaps, even replaced by other, more significant sources of faith and confidence in the future (for example, the achievements of science, art and social life).
2. Early childhood: autonomy - shame and doubt
Acquiring a sense of basal trust sets the stage for achieving certain autonomyand self-control, avoiding feelings of shame, doubt and humiliation. This period corresponds to the anal stage, according to Freud, and continues during the second and third years of life. According to Erickson, a child, interacting with parents in the process of learning toilet behavior, discovers that parental control is different: on the one hand, it can manifest itself as a form of care, on the other, as a destructive form of restraint and a measure of restraint. The child also learns to distinguish between giving freedom like "let him try" and, on the contrary, connivance as a destructive form of getting rid of the hassle. This stage becomes decisive for establishing the balance between voluntariness and stubbornness. The feeling of self-control without loss of self-esteem is the ontogenetic source of confidence in free choice; Feelings of excessive outside control and a simultaneous loss of self-control can serve as an impetus for a constant tendency to doubt and shame.
Until this stage, children are almost entirely dependent on the people who care for them. However, as they rapidly develop neuromuscular systems, speech and social selectivity, they begin to explore and interact with their environment more independently. They are especially proud of their newly discovered locomotor skills and want to do everything themselves (for example, wash, dress and eat). We observe in them a great desire to explore the subject and to manipulate them, as well as the attitude towards parents: "I myself" and "I am what I can."
From the point of view of Erickson, a satisfactory resolution of the psychosocial crisis at this stage depends, first of all, on the willingness of parents to gradually give their children the freedom to exercise control over their actions. At the same time, he emphasizes that parents should unobtrusively, but clearly limit the child in those areas of life that are potentially or actually dangerous for both the children themselves and those around them.
Erickson views the child's experience of shame as akin to self-directed anger when the child is not allowed to develop his autonomy and self-control. Shame can arise when parents impatiently, irritably, and persistently do something for their children that they can do for themselves; or, conversely, when parents expect their children to do what they are not yet able to do. Of course, every parent has at least once pushed their child to take actions that are actually beyond reasonable expectations. But only in those cases when the parents constantly overprotect the child or remain deaf to his needs, he has either a predominant sense of shame in front of others, or doubts about his ability to control the world around him and own himself. Instead of being self-confident and getting along with their surroundings, these children think that others are staring at them, treat them with suspicion and disapproval; or they consider themselves completely unhappy. They have a weak "willpower" - they give in to those who dominate over them or exploit them. As a result, traits such as self-doubt, humiliation and weakness are formed.
Erickson argues that a child's acquisition of a constant sense of autonomy greatly strengthens his sense of trust. This interdependence of trust and autonomy can sometimes slow the future down. mental development... For example, children with an unstable sense of trust may become indecisive, timid at the stage of autonomy, may be afraid to defend their rights, so they will seek help and support from others. In adulthood, such people are most likely to develop obsessive-compulsive symptoms (which provide them with the necessary control) or paranoid fear of persecution.
The social complement to autonomy is the system of law and order. Erickson uses the terms "law" and "order" despite the possible emotional connotations. According to his theory, parents must always be fair and respect the rights and privileges of others if they want their children to be ready for mature age accept limited autonomy.
3. Age of play: initiative - guilt
The conflict between initiative and guilt is the last psychosocial conflict in the preschool period, which Erickson called "the age of play." It corresponds to the phallic stage in Freud's theory and lasts from four years until the child enters school. At this time, the child's social world requires him to be active, to solve new problems and acquire new skills; praise is a reward for success. In addition, children have an additional responsibility for themselves and for what makes up their world (toys, pets, and possibly siblings). They begin to take an interest in the work of others, try new things and admit that other people in their environment have a certain responsibility. Advances in speech and motor skills provide an opportunity to connect with peers and older children outside the home, which allows them to participate in a variety of social games. This is the age when children begin to feel that they are perceived as human beings and reckoned with, and that life has a purpose for them. "I am what I will be" - becomes the child's main sense of identity during the period of play.
After passing this stage, will the child have a feeling initiativessafely transcend feeling guilt, to a large extent depends on how the parents relate to the manifestation of his own will. Children whose independent actions are encouraged feel supported by their initiative. Further manifestation of initiative is also facilitated by the recognition by parents of the child's right to curiosity and creativity, when they do not ridicule and do not hinder the child's fantasy. Erickson points out that children at this stage, starting to identify themselves with people whose work and character they are able to understand and appreciate, are increasingly goal-oriented. They learn vigorously and start making plans. According to psychosocial theory, guilt in children is caused by parents who do not allow them to act on their own. Guilt is also fostered by parents who overly punish children in response to their need to love and receive love from parents of the opposite sex. Erickson shares Freud's opinion about the sexual nature of the developmental crisis (that is, about sexual - role identification and the Oedipus and Electra complexes), but his theory undoubtedly embraces a wider social sphere... In any case, when a child is shackled by a sense of guilt, he feels abandoned and his own worthlessness. Such children are afraid to stand up for themselves, they are usually led in a peer group and overly dependent on adults. They lack the sense of purpose or determination to set realistic goals and achieve them. In addition, as Erickson believes, persistent guilt can subsequently cause pathology, including general passivity, impotence or frigidity, as well as psychopathic behavior.
Finally, Erickson links the degree of initiative acquired by a child at this stage of development with the economic system of society. He argues that the child's potential ability to work productively in the future, his self-sufficiency in the context of a given socio - economic system, significantly depends on his ability to resolve the crisis of the above phase.
4. School age: hard work - inferiority
The fourth psychosocial period lasts from six to 12 years (school age) and corresponds to the latency period in Freud's theory. It is assumed that at the beginning of this period, the child learns basic cultural skills while studying at school. This period of life is characterized by the child's increasing abilities for logical thinking and self-discipline, as well as the ability to interact with peers in accordance with prescribed rules. The child's love for the parent of the opposite sex and the rivalry with the parent of the same sex are usually already sublimated at this age and are expressed in an internal desire to acquire new skills and success. Erickson notes that in primitive cultures, children's education is not too complicated and socially pragmatic. The ability to handle dishes and household utensils, tools, weapons and other things in these cultures is directly related to the future role of an adult. On the contrary, in those cultures where they have their own written language, children are first of all taught to read and write, which in due time will help them acquire the complex skills and abilities necessary in different professions and activities. As a result, although children are taught differently in every culture, they become highly susceptible to technological ethos(temper) of their culture and their identity with it.
According to Erickson, children develop a sense of hard work when they begin to comprehend the technology of their culture in school. The term "hard work" reflects the main theme this period development, since children at this time are absorbed in the fact that they strive to find out what comes out of what and how it works. This interest is reinforced and satisfied by the people around them and the school, where they are given initial knowledge about the "technological elements" social peace teaching and working with them. The ego-identity of the child is now expressed like this: "I am what I have learned."
The danger at this stage lies in the possibility of a feeling. inferiority... For example, if children doubt their abilities or status among their peers, this may discourage them from studying further (during this period, attitudes towards teachers and learning are gradually acquired). Feelings of inferiority can also develop if children find that their gender, race, religion or socioeconomic background, rather than their level of knowledge and motivation, determines their personal value and dignity. As a result, they may lose confidence in their ability to function effectively in the existing world.
As mentioned above, a child's sense of competence and hard work is highly dependent on school performance. Erickson sees in this limited definition of success possible Negative consequences... Namely, if children perceive school achievement or work as the only criterion against which their merits can be judged, they can become a simple labor force in the role hierarchy established by society. Therefore, true hard work means more than just striving to be a good worker. For Erickson, hard work includes a sense of interpersonal competence - the belief that an individual can have a positive impact on society in pursuit of important individual and social goals. Thus, psychosocial strength competenceis the basis for effective participation in social, economic and political life.
5. Youth: ego - identity - role mixing
Adolescence, which is the fifth stage in Erickson's life cycle diagram, is considered very important period in the psychosocial development of a person. No longer a child, but not yet an adult (from 12-13 to about 19-20 years old in American society), a teenager is faced with different social requirements and new roles. Erickson's theoretical interest in adolescence and his characteristic problems prompted him to analyze this phase more deeply than other stages of ego development.
A new psychosocial parameter that manifests itself in adolescence appears at the positive pole in the form ego - identity, at the negative pole - in the form role mixing... The task that adolescents face is to bring together all the knowledge about themselves that they have by this time (what kind of sons or daughters they are, students, athletes, musicians, choristers, etc.) to integrate these numerous images of themselves into their personal an identity that represents awareness of both the past and the future that logically follows from it. Erickson (1982) emphasizes the psychosocial essence of ego-identity by reversing close attention not conflicts between psychological structures, but rather a conflict within the ego itself - that is, a conflict of identity and role confusion. The main focus is on the ego and how it is influenced by society, especially peer groups. Therefore, ego-identity can be defined as follows.
“Growing and developing youth, experiencing an internal physiological revolution, first of all try to strengthen their social roles. Young people sometimes painfully, often out of curiosity, show concern about how they look in the eyes of others in comparison with what they think of themselves; and how to combine the roles and skills that they cultivated in the past with ideal prototypes today... The emerging integration in the form of ego-identity is more than the sum of the identifications acquired in childhood. This is the sum of the internal experience acquired in all the previous stages, when successful identification led to a successful balancing of the basic needs of the individual with his capabilities and giftedness. Thus, the sense of ego identity represents the increased confidence of the individual that his ability to maintain inner identity and integrity ( psychological significance ego) is consistent with the assessment of his identity and integrity given by others (1963) "
Erickson's definition of identity can be divided into three elements. First, young people and girls should constantly perceive themselves as "internally identical to themselves." In this case, the individual must form an image of himself, formed in the past and merging with the future. Second: significant other people also need to see "identity and integrity" in the individual. This means that young people need confidence that the inner integrity they have developed earlier will be accepted by other people who are significant to them. To the extent that they may not be aware of both their I-concepts and their social images, their emerging sense of self-identity can be resisted by doubt, timidity and apathy. Third, young people must achieve "increased confidence" that the internal and external plans of this integrity are consistent with each other. Their perception of themselves must be confirmed by their interpersonal experience through feedback. Social and emotional maturation of adolescents includes new ways of assessing the world and their relationship to it. They can come up with ideal families, religions, philosophical systems, social structures, and then compare and contrast the conceived with very imperfect individuals and organizations, knowledge of which they have learned from their own limited experience. According to Erickson, "the mind of a teenager, in search of an inspiring unity of ideals, becomes an ideological mind." Thus, the "diffusion of ideals" is a consequence of the fact that the individual cannot accept the values and ideology, which are carried by parents and other sources of authority. An individual suffering from a vague identity never revisits his past ideas about himself and the world, just as he does not come to a solution that leads to a broader and possibly more "appropriate" outlook on life. Thus, the identity crisis becomes a psychosocial problem that requires immediate resolution.
According to Erickson, the foundation for successful adolescence and the achievement of an integrated identity is laid in childhood. However, beyond what adolescents bear from their childhood, the development of personal identity is strongly influenced by the social groups with which they identify themselves. For example, Erickson drew attention to how over-identification with popular heroes (movie stars, super athletes, rock musicians) tears a “burgeoning identity” out of her social environment, thereby suppressing the personality. Also, finding identity can be more difficult for certain groups of people. For example, it is more difficult for young women to achieve a clear sense of identity in a society that views women as "second-class" people. From Erickson's point of view, the feminist movement received a lot of support because society until recently hindered women's efforts to achieve a positive identity), there is a society that was reluctant to provide women with new social roles and new positions in the field of employment). The minority group, too, constantly face difficulties in achieving a clear and coherent sense of identity.
The vulnerability of adolescents to the stresses accompanying dramatic social, political, and technological changes, Erickson sees as a factor that can also seriously interfere with the development of identity. Such changes, in combination with the modern information explosion, contribute to the emergence of a feeling of uncertainty, anxiety and the severing of ties with the world. They pose a threat to many of the traditional and familiar values that adolescents learned in childhood. By at least Some manifestations of this dissatisfaction with generally accepted social values find their expression in the chasm between generations. The best illustration of this is the dishonesty of major political figures and responsible persons in the past decade: the corruption of national leaders has turned the truth of one generation into myths for the next. Therefore, Erickson explains the social protest of youth by her attempt to build own system values to find those goals and principles that will give meaning and direction to the lives of their generations.
The failure of young people to achieve personal identity leads to what Erickson called identity crisis... Identity crisis, or role mixing, is most often characterized by an inability to choose a career or continue education. Many adolescents who suffer from age-specific conflict experience a keen sense of security, mental discord, and aimlessness. They feel their inability, alienation, and sometimes rush towards a "negative" identity - the opposite of the one that parents and peers insist on offering them. In this vein, Erickson interprets some types of delinquent behavior. Failure to achieve personal identity, however, does not necessarily doom the adolescent to endless failures in life. Perhaps even in to a greater extent than the other personologists presented here, Erickson emphasized that life is about constant change. The successful resolution of problems at one stage of life does not guarantee that they will not reappear at the next stages or that a new solution to old problems will not be found.
Ego identity is a "lifelong" struggle.
In many, and perhaps in all societies, a certain part of the adolescent population is allowed and legislatively fixed certain delays in their acceptance of the roles of adults. Erickson coined the term for these intervals between adolescence and adulthood psychosocial moratorium... In the USA and others, technologically developed countries the psychosocial moratorium is institutionalized in the form of a higher education system, which allows young people to try a number of different social and professional roles before they decide what they really want. Other examples include many young people wandering, turning to different religious systems, or trying alternative forms of marriage and family before finding their place in society.
A positive quality associated with a successful exit from the crisis of adolescence is loyalty... Erickson uses the term fidelity to mean "the adolescent's ability to be true to his attachments and promises despite the inevitable contradictions in his value system." Loyalty - Foundation stone identity, it represents the ability of young people to accept and adhere to the morality, ethics and ideology of society. Here it is necessary to clarify the meaning of the term "ideology". According to Erickson, ideology -it is an unconscious set of values and premises, reflecting the religious, scientific and political thinking of culture; the goal of ideology is "to create an image of the world that is convincing enough to sustain a collective and individual sense of identity." Ideology provides young people with simplified yet clear-cut answers to the central questions of identity conflict: "Who am I?" "Where am I going?", "What do I want to become?" Inspired by ideology, young people are involved in different kinds activities that challenge well-established cultural traditions - protests, riots and revolutions. In a broader sense, Erickson believes, the loss of confidence in the ideological system can turn into general confusion and disrespect for those who regulate the set of social rules.
6. Early maturity: intimacy - isolation
The sixth psychological stage marks the formal beginning adulthood... In general, this is the period of courtship, early marriage and the beginning of family life. It continues from late adolescence to early maturity. During this time, young people are usually guided by a profession and a "device". Erickson, like Freud, claims that only now is a person truly ready for an intimate relationship with another person, both socially and sexually. Until this time, most of the individual's sexual behavior was motivated by the search for ego identity. On the contrary, the early achievement of personal identity and the beginning of productive work - what marks a period of early maturity - provide an impetus for new interpersonal relationships. At one pole of this dimension is intimacy, and on the opposite - insulation.
Erickson uses the term "intimacy" as multifaceted in both meaning and breadth. First of all, he means intimacy as an intimate feeling that we have for spouses, friends, brothers, parents, or other relatives. However, he also speaks about intimacy proper, that is, the ability to "merge together your identity with the identity of another person without fear that you are losing something in yourself." It is this aspect of intimacy (that is, the fusion of your own identity with that of another person) that Erickson sees as necessary condition experience until a stable identity is achieved. In other words, in order to be in a truly intimate relationship with another person, it is necessary that by this time the individual has a certain awareness of who he is and what he is. On the contrary, adolescent "love" can be nothing more than an attempt to test their own identity using another person for this purpose. This is confirmed by the following fact: adolescent marriages (between the ages of 16 and 19) are not as long (according to divorce statistics) as marriages among those over twenty. Erickson sees this fact as proof that many, especially women, marry in order to find their own identity in another person and thanks to him. From his point of view, it is impossible to build healthy intimate relationship while striving for identity in this way. Erickson's definition of the capacity for intimacy is similar to Freud's definition of a healthy individual, that is, capable of loving and doing socially useful work. Although Erickson does not intend to expand this formula, it would still be interesting to understand within the framework of his scheme, whether a person who has taken a vow of celibacy (a priest, for example) is capable of a true sense of intimacy. The answer to this question is yes, as Erickson sees intimacy as more than just sexual intimacy, it can also include empathy and openness between friends or, more broadly, the ability to commit oneself to someone.
The main danger in this psychosocial stage is being overly self-absorbed or avoiding interpersonal relationships. Failure to establish calm and trusting personal relationships leads to feelings of loneliness, social vacuum and isolation. Self-absorbed people can enter into completely formal personal interactions (employer-employee) and establish superficial contacts (health clubs). These people shield themselves from any manifestation of true involvement in relationships because the increased demands and risks associated with intimacy pose a threat to them. They also tend to take a position of aloofness and disinterest in relationships with coworkers. Finally, as Erickson argues, social conditions can delay the development of feelings of intimacy - for example, the conditions of an urbanized, mobile, impersonal technological society hinder intimacy. He gives examples of antisocial or psychopathic personality types (that is, people who have no moral sense) encountered in conditions of extreme isolation: they manipulate and exploit others without any regret. These are young people whose inability to share their identity with others makes it impossible for them to enter into deep trusting relationships.
A positive quality that is associated with a normal exit from the crisis intimacy - isolation is love... In addition to its romantic and erotic connotations, Erickson sees love as the ability to commit oneself to another person and remain true to that relationship, even if it requires concessions or self-denial. This type of love manifests itself in a relationship of mutual caring, respect, and responsibility for the other person.
The social setting associated with this stage is ethics... According to Erickson, a moral sense arises when we recognize the value of lasting friendships and social obligations, as well as value such relationships, even if they require personal sacrifice. People with an underdeveloped moral sense are ill-prepared to enter the next stage of psychosocial development.
Average maturity: productivity - inertia
The seventh stage occurs in the middle years of life (from 26 to 64 years); its main problem is the choice between productivityand inertia.Productivity comes along with a person's concern not only for the welfare of the next generation, but also for the state of society in which this future generation will live and work. Every adult, according to Erickson, must either accept or reject the idea of his responsibility to renew and improve everything that could contribute to the preservation and improvement of our culture. Erickson's claim is based on his conviction that evolutionary development "made man equally a learning and learning animal." Thus, productivity acts as the concern of the older generation for those who will replace them - about how to help them gain a foothold in life and choose the right direction. A good example in this case is a person's sense of self-realization associated with the achievements of his descendants. However, productivity is not unique to parents, but also to those who contribute to the upbringing and leadership of young people. Adults who give their time and energy to youth movements such as the Youth League, Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts and others can also be productive. The creative and productive elements of productivity are personified in everything that is passed down from generation to generation (for example, technical products, ideas and works of art). So, the main theme of psychosocial personality development in the second phase of maturity is concern for the future well-being of humanity.
If in adults the ability for productive activity is so pronounced that it prevails over inertia, then the positive quality of this stage is manifested - care... Caring comes from the feeling that someone or something matters; Caring is the psychological opposite of indifference and apathy. For Erickson, it represents "an extension of the commitment made to care for the people, results, and ideas in which a person has an interest." As the primary personal virtue of maturity, caring is not only a sense of duty, but also a natural desire to contribute to the lives of future generations.
Those adults who fail to become productive gradually move into a state of self-absorption, in which personal needs and amenities are the main subject of concern. These people do not care about anyone or anything, they only indulge their desires. With the loss of productivity, the functioning of the individual as an active member of society ceases - life turns into satisfaction of their own needs, they become impoverished interpersonal relationships... This phenomenon - the "old age crisis" - is well known. It is expressed in a sense of hopelessness, meaninglessness of life. According to Erickson, the main psychopathological manifestation in middle adulthood is an unwillingness to care for other people, things, or ideas. It all has the most direct relation to human prejudices, all sorts of destructive phenomena, cruelty and "affects not only the psychosocial development of any individual, but also relates to such distant problems as the survival of the race."
8. Late maturity: ego - integration - despair
The last psychosocial stage (from age 65 to death) ends a person's life. This is the time when people look back and reconsider their life decisions, remember their achievements and failures. In almost all cultures, this period marks the beginning of old age, when a person is overcome by numerous needs: you have to adapt to what is decreasing physical strength and health deteriorates, to a secluded lifestyle and a more modest financial situation, to the death of a spouse and close friends, as well as to establish relationships with people of their own age. At this time, the focus of a person's attention shifts from worries about the future to past experiences.
According to Erickson, for last phase maturity is characterized not so much by a new psychosocial crisis as by the summation, integration and assessment of all past stages of ego development.
A sense of ego integration stems from a person's ability to look over their entire past life (including marriage, children and grandchildren, careers, accomplishments, social relationships) and to humbly but firmly say to themselves, "I am satisfied." The inevitability of death is no longer afraid, since such people see their continuation either in descendants or in creative achievements. Erickson believes that it is only in old age that true maturity and a useful sense of "the wisdom of past years" come. But at the same time, he notes: "The wisdom of old age is aware of the relativity of all the knowledge acquired by a person during his life in one historical period. Wisdom is the realization of the absolute significance of life itself in the face of death itself."
At the opposite pole there are people who see their lives as a series of unrealized opportunities and mistakes. Now, at the end of their lives, they realize that it is too late to start all over again or look for some new ways to feel the integrity of their "I". Lack or absence of integration manifests itself in these people in a latent fear of death, a sense of constant failure and concern about what "might happen." Erickson identifies two prevailing types of mood in irritated and resentful older people: regret that life cannot be lived again and denial of one's own shortcomings and defects in the ways of projecting them onto the outside world. Sometimes Erickson very poetically describes the despair of the elderly: "Fate is not accepted as the skeleton of life, and death as its last frontier. Despair means that there is too little time left to choose another path to integrity; this is why old people try to embellish their memories." Regarding cases of severe psychopathology, Erickson suggests that feelings of bitterness and regret can ultimately lead an older person to senile dementia, depression, hypochondria, severe anger and paranoia. A common fear among these old people is the fear of ending up in a nursing home.
In his co-authored book Living Involvement in Old Age, Erickson discusses ways to help older people achieve a sense of ego integration. The book is based on a study of the stories of many people over the age of seventy. Erickson traced the stories of their lives, analyzed how they coped with life's problems in the previous stages. He concludes that older people should participate in activities such as raising grandchildren, politics, and health and fitness programs if they are to maintain vitality in anticipation of declining physical and mental abilities. In short, Erickson insists that older people, if they are interested in maintaining the integrity of their self, should do much more than just reflect on their past.
2. Empirical research psychological characteristics of the personality of primary school age
2.1 Goals, objectives and research methods
The aim of the study is to identify the psychological characteristics of the personality of primary schoolchildren with varying degrees of school maladjustment.
Research objectives:
Determine the degree of school maladjustment in children of primary school age.
Reveal the personality traits typical for children of primary school age.
Reveal the personality traits characteristic of children with varying degrees of school maladjustment.
Reveal the relationship between personality traits and the degree of SD in younger schoolchildren
Determine the level of responsibility formation among junior schoolchildren.
To reveal the relationship between the level of responsibility formation and the degree of school maladjustment in primary schoolchildren.
The object of the research is the phenomenon of school maladjustment.
The subject of the research is the personal characteristics of primary school children with varying degrees of school maladjustment.
Theoretical hypothesis: the degree of school maladjustment is associated with the severity of certain personal characteristics of the child.
Empirical hypotheses:
.In children of primary school age, a significant direct or inverse relationship between indicators for the degree of school maladjustment and indicators for the Cattell questionnaire will be revealed.
2.In children of primary school age, a significant inverse relationship will be revealed between indicators for the degree of school maladjustment and indicators for responsibility.
The sample of this study was composed of junior schoolchildren of the parallel of the first grades of school No. 1 in Buinsk in the amount of 72 people and their parents. The total number is 144 people.
In our research, we used the following methods: R. Kettel's children's personality questionnaire; a questionnaire for a teacher to diagnose the adaptation of a 1st grade student to school (NI Kovaleva); a questionnaire aimed at determining the level of responsibility formation in children of primary school age (for parents). The techniques used are presented in the appendix.
The main method in the study was a natural ascertaining experiment, which was implemented using the experimental situation "Making bookmarks for kindergarten"The situation was aimed at studying the real manifestations of responsibility in children of primary school age and was carried out taking into account the distinguished criteria of responsibility.
Pearson's correlation coefficient was used as a method for mathematical processing of the obtained data.
2.2 Research of personality traits characteristic of children of primary school age
Study of the degree of school maladjustment in younger schoolchildren.
All data obtained in the study, after initial processing, were entered into a general table (Appendix 1). When studying the degree of school maladjustment, the following results were obtained, which were entered in Table 1 (for clarity, the data are presented in the diagram, Appendix 2).
Table 2.1 - The number of junior schoolchildren with varying degrees of school maladjustment
Degree of school maladjustment ABCD Number of primary school students 442 236 Number of primary school students (%) 592 948
The table shows that the majority of children belong to the degree of maladjustment A - 59% of 72 children are low degree maladjustment, which makes it impossible to talk about any trouble. 29% of children have a degree of maladjustment B - this is an average degree of maladjustment, 4% of children have a serious degree of maladjustment C and 8% of children need a consultation with a neuropsychiatrist - degree of maladjustment D. will be designated as "risk group".
School maladjustment is a serious problem that most children face when starting school, but despite this, some children, thanks to the support of parents and teachers, successfully cope with this problem already at the initial stage of education. For other children, the period of adaptation to school is protracted, and even by the end of the first grade there are children who are maladjusted to one degree or another. This is well reflected by the results obtained in our study.
Study of personality traits characteristic of primary school children
At this stage of the study, personal qualities junior schoolchildren, whose characteristics are reflected in the factors according to the Cattell method.
The data obtained by the Cattell method are presented in the diagram (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Average values of indicators by factors
When identifying personal qualities characteristic of younger schoolchildren, it turned out that the most represented factors were I, Q 3and D, since the average values for these factors, in comparison with the values for other factors, significantly deviate in the direction of increasing or decreasing from the average score according to the method. Recall that each personality factor is considered as a continuum of a certain quality and is characterized bipolar by the extreme values of this continuum, with the minimum value being 1 point, the average being 5.5 points and the maximum being 10 points. Thus, based on the characteristics of these factors, we can say that children of primary school age in this sample are characterized by the severity of the following qualities: sensitive, gentle, dependent on others, restrained, phlegmatic, possessing high self-control. In addition, they have a rich imagination, aesthetic inclinations, they are emotionally balanced, have a good understanding of social norms and successfully master the requirements of the environment.
All these qualities correspond to the characteristics of primary school age as a stage of development. It is well known that the beginning of schooling leads to a radical change in the social situation of a child's development. He becomes a "public" subject and acquires socially significant responsibilities, the implementation of which receives a public assessment. In addition, during this period, the capacity for voluntary regulation of behavior changes qualitatively. The child now does not act directly, but is guided by conscious goals, socially developed norms, rules and methods of behavior. Younger school age is a period of positive changes and transformations, while most of the positive achievements in children of this age, such as organization, self-control, an interested attitude to learning, etc., are cultivated by adults.
A study of personality traits characteristic of younger schoolchildren with varying degrees of school maladjustment.
At this stage of the research, data on the degree of school maladjustment (A, B, C and D) were compared with data on the personal characteristics of younger students. The results obtained when comparing indicators for each degree of SD with indicators for factors according to the Cattell method are presented in the diagrams (Figures 2, 3,4). When assessing the severity of factors, a qualitative analysis was used.
Fig. 2. Average values of indicators by factors in children with a degree of school maladjustment A
In junior schoolchildren with a low degree of school maladjustment A, the most pronounced factors were D, F, I and Q 3(the average values for these factors, in comparison with others, significantly deviate in the direction of increasing or decreasing from the average score according to the method).
Based on the characteristics of these factors, it follows that the following personal qualities are most pronounced in these children: unhurried, restrained, prudent, reasonable, careful, sensitive, dependent on others, trusting, in need of support. In addition, such children successfully master the requirements of the environment, understand social norms well, and have high self-control.
Fig. 3. Average values of indicators by factors in children with a degree of school maladjustment B
As in children with a low degree of school maladjustment A, factors D, F, I and Q 3turned out to be the most pronounced in children with an average degree of school maladjustment B, that is, these children are characterized by the severity of the same personal qualities as the previous group of children.
However, in this case, we can also note some severity of factors E and H. Consequently, younger students with a degree of school maladjustment B may also have an inherent severity of other personal qualities, namely: obedient, compliant, timid, shy, sensitive to threat. In addition, these children can demonstrate their dependence on adults and other children, it is easy to obey them.
Fig. 4. Average values of indicators by factors in children of the "risk group"
In junior schoolchildren from the "risk group" (the degree of SD - C and D), the most pronounced are factors D, E, F and H (the mean values for these factors, in comparison with others, significantly deviate in the direction of method).
If we rely on the characteristics of these factors, we can conclude that the following personal qualities are most pronounced in children of this group: dominant, independent, assertive, inclined to take risks, carefree, brave. They tend to assert themselves, oppose themselves to both children and adults, and, as a rule, they tend to overestimate their capabilities.
In addition, these children are distinguished by their energy, activity, lack of fear in the situation. high risk as well as striving for leadership and domination. The manifestation of this property in children is often accompanied by behavioral problems, the presence of aggression, but leadership tendencies often do not find real embodiment, because they have yet to learn many forms of social interaction.
Study of the relationship between personality traits and the degree of school maladjustment in primary schoolchildren .
At this stage of the study, a correlation analysis (Pearson's correlation coefficient) was carried out between indicators for personality traits and indicators for the degree of school maladjustment. The analysis results are presented in the general table (Appendix 1).
As a result of the correlation analysis, it was found that a significant direct relationship with p<0,05, при n=72 (с фактором Е r = 0,28; с фактором F r = 0,28), а значимая обратная взаимосвязь на том же уровне была получена с фактором I (r = - 0,28). Это говорит о том, что высоким показателям по степени школьной дезадаптации соответствуют высокие показатели по факторам E и F, и низкие по фактору I. Таким образом, чем выше степень школьной дезадаптации, тем в большей степени для детей характерны такие личностные особенности как, доминирующий, независимый, напористый, склонный к риску, беспечный, храбрый, веселый, реалистичный, практичный, полагающийся на себя. Такие дети имеют выраженную склонность к самоутверждению, противопоставлению себя как детям, так и взрослым, отличаются стремлением к лидерству. Это нередко сопровождается поведенческими проблемами, наличием агрессии и отсутствием страха в ситуации повышенного риска. Эти дети энергичны, активны и, как правило, им присущи переоценка своих возможностей, а также практицизм, мужественная независимость.
The lower the degree of school maladjustment, the more characteristic of the child are the following personality traits: obedient, dependent, compliant, prudent, judicious, careful, sensitive, gentle, sentimental, dependent on others. Such children demonstrate dependence on adults and other children, they easily obey them, they are gullible and need support. A significant inverse relationship with p<0,01, n = 72 - коэффициент корреляции между этими данными оказался равным - 0,38 (r = - 0,38). Это подтверждает наше предположение, сделанное выше о том, что чем более дезадаптированы дети, тем они менее ответственны и наоборот.
2.3 Research of the level of formation of responsibility among junior schoolchildren
Next, we determined the level of responsibility formation among younger schoolchildren (using questionnaires for parents and an experimental situation). The results were entered in Table 2 (for clarity, the data are presented in the diagrams, Appendix 2).
Table 2.2 - The number of junior schoolchildren with different levels of responsibility formation
Level of responsibility formation Number of Children (according to the questionnaire for parents)% Number of children (according to the experimental situation)% High 11152837 Medium 44591824 Low20262939
Investigating the level of responsibility formation according to the questionnaire for parents, we got the following: out of 72 children, 15% of children have a high level of responsibility, an average - 59%, a low - 26%.
According to the experimental situation: a high level of responsibility was found in 37% of children, an average level in 24% and a low level in 39% of children.
Thus, in the first case (the results of the questionnaire for parents), the average level of responsibility prevails. This may indicate that at this age, responsibility is at a certain stage of formation, i.e. it is not yet a fully formed, stable quality. And according to the results of the experimental situation, a low level of responsibility prevails and, to a lesser extent, a high level of responsibility. This can be explained by the fact that the experimental situation determines the level of the child's responsibility in a given, concrete case, and above all from the point of view of the behavioral criterion of responsibility. Those. children with an average and low level of responsibility formation completed the experimental task later than the specified period or with any shortcomings, or did not complete it at all, and children with a high level of responsibility formation completed the task on time, efficiently and in the required quantity. As for the questionnaires, we can say that they determine the responsible behavior of the child in his life as a whole, i.e. comprehensively cover this personality trait.
Investigation of the relationship between the level of responsibility formation and the degree of school maladjustment in primary schoolchildren.
Further, the results for each degree of SD were compared with the results for responsibility. In this case, we did not use the data obtained as a result of the experimental situation, since a significant direct relationship with p<0,01, при n=72 (r=0,39), что позволяет применять их как совместно, так и самостоятельно. Но как уже было отмечено выше, экспериментальная ситуация определяет уровень ответственности ребенка в данном, конкретном случае, а опросник позволяет отследить уровень ответственности ребенка во всех её проявлениях. Поэтому, при решении этой задачи были использованы данные опросника для родителей.
The results obtained during the comparison were entered in Table 2.3 (diagram, Appendix 3).
When comparing the data on responsibility obtained from the questionnaire for parents and data on the degree of school maladjustment, we found that out of 44 children with a degree of maladjustment A, 23% have a high level of responsibility, 61% have an average level of responsibility and 16% have a low level of responsibility. ...
Table 2.3 - The results of comparing data on the degree of school maladjustment and responsibility
Level of responsibility formation Number of primary schoolchildren (%) Degree of school maladjustment - A Degree of school maladjustment B Risk group degree of school maladjustment C and D High 2350 Medium 616 333 Low 163267
Out of 22 children with a degree of maladjustment B - 5% have a high level of responsibility, 63% - an average level of responsibility and 32% - a low level of responsibility.
Out of 9 children belonging to the "risk group" 33% have an average level of responsibility and 67% have a low level of responsibility; a high level of responsibility was not revealed in children of this group.
Analyzing the results obtained, the following can be noted: among children of primary school age with a low degree of school maladjustment A, the average level of responsibility formation prevails. Children with an average degree of school maladjustment B also have an average level and a rather high percentage of a low level of responsibility formation, and among children of the "risk group", a low level of responsibility formation prevails to the greatest extent.
That. it can be assumed that the higher the degree of school maladjustment, the lower the level of responsibility and, accordingly, the lower the degree of school maladjustment, the higher the level of responsibility. Next, we will check the reliability of this assumption using correlation analysis.
A significant inverse relationship with p<0,01, n = 72 - коэффициент корреляции между этими данными оказался равным - 0,38 (r = - 0,38). Это подтверждает наше предположение, сделанное выше о том, что чем более дезадаптированы дети, тем они менее ответственны и наоборот.
The results obtained in the study allow us to draw the following conclusions:
Among children of primary school age of this sample (72 people) - 59% have a low degree of school maladjustment A; 29% have an average degree of school maladjustment B; 4% are children with a serious degree of school maladjustment C and 8% of children require consultation with a neuropsychiatrist - degree of maladjustment D, (according to the classification of N.I. Kovaleva).
In children of primary school age in this sample, the most pronounced are the following personal qualities (according to the characteristics of factors according to the Cattell method): sensitive, gentle, dependent on others, restrained, phlegmatic, possessing high self-control. In addition, they have a rich imagination, aesthetic inclinations, they are emotionally balanced, they understand social norms well and successfully master the requirements of the environment (factors I, Q3 and D).
In junior schoolchildren with a low degree of school maladjustment A (44 people) - the most pronounced are the following personal qualities (according to the characteristics of factors according to the Cattell method): unhurried, restrained, phlegmatic, prudent, reasonable, cautious, sensitive, dependent on others, trusting, needy in support. In addition, such children have good social adaptation, successfully master the requirements of the environment, understand social norms well, and have high self-control (factors D, F, I and Q3 ).
Children with an average degree of school maladjustment B (22 people) - are characterized by the severity of the same personal qualities as the previous group of children, but they also have other qualities: obedient, compliant, timid, shy, sensitive to threat. These children can demonstrate their dependence on adults and other children, it is easy to obey them (factors E and H).
In children from the "risk group" - the degree of school maladjustment C and D (9 people) - the most pronounced are such qualities as: dominant, independent, assertive, inclined to take risks, careless, brave. They tend to assert themselves, oppose themselves to both children and adults, and, as a rule, they are characterized by overestimation of their capabilities and excessive optimism.
In addition, these children are distinguished by energy, activity, lack of fear in high-risk situations, as well as a desire for leadership and domination.
A significant direct relationship with p<0,05, при n=72 (с фактором Е r = 0,28; с фактором F r = 0,28), а значимая обратная взаимосвязь на том же уровне была получена с фактором I (r = - 0,28). Это свидетельствует о том, что наша первая эмпирическая гипотеза относительно того, что у детей младшего школьного возраста будет выявлена значимая прямая или обратная взаимосвязь между показателями по степени школьной дезадаптации и показателями по опроснику Кеттела подтвердилась.
The dominant level of responsibility, according to the questionnaire for parents, is medium (59%), according to the experimental situation, a low level of responsibility formation prevails (39%).
Among junior schoolchildren with a low degree of school maladjustment A, the average level of responsibility formation prevails - 61%, in children with an average degree of school maladjustment B, the average level of responsibility formation prevails - 63%, children from the "risk group" (degree of school maladjustment C and D) are characterized to a greater extent by a low level of responsibility formation - 67%.
A significant inverse relationship with p<0,01, n=72. Коэффициент корреляции между этими данными оказался равным - 0,38 (r = - 0,38), т.е. наша вторая эмпирическая гипотеза о том, что у детей младшего школьного возраста будет выявлена значимая обратная взаимосвязь между показателями по степени школьной дезадаптации и показателями по ответственности также подтвердилась.
Conclusion
Eric Erickson, one of the most prominent ego psychologists, focused on the dynamics of ego development throughout the life cycle. He viewed the personality as an object of influence of social and historical forces. Unlike Freud, Erickson presents the ego as an autonomous personality structure. His theory focuses on ego qualities that appear at predictable times in life.
Erickson argues that the ego goes through several universal stages in its development. According to his epigenetic concept of human development, each stage of the life cycle occurs at an optimal time.
The sequential development of life stages is the result of the interaction of the biological maturation of the individual with the expanding space of his social connections.
From the point of view of Erickson, the human life cycle includes eight psychosocial stages. Each of them is characterized by a certain type of crisis or a decisive stage in a person's life. The individual identity of the personality depends on the resolution of these conflicts.
Summing up our research, we can say that children of primary school age with varying degrees of school maladjustment have a wide variety of personality traits. And therefore, when developing correctional programs, it is imperative to take into account these personal characteristics of children in order to carry out correction in the right direction.
A prospect for the development of this topic in the future may be the study of the influence of other personal characteristics of children of primary school age on the development of school maladjustment, which have not been studied in this work.
List of used literature
1.Golovin S.Yu. Psychologist's Dictionary - Practice. - 2nd ed., Non-rework. And add. - Minsk: Harvest, - Moscow: AST, 2001 .-- 976 p.
2.Karabanova O.A. Adult psychology: Lecture notes. - M .: Ayris-press, 2005 .-- 240 p.
.E.P. Krupnik, E.N. Lebedeva Psychological stability of personality constructs in the period of adulthood // Psychological journal. - 2000.Vol. 21. - No. 6 - С.12-23.
.Calvin S., Lindsay, Gardner. / Per. from English I.B. Grineipoon. - M .: Eksmo - Press, 1999 .-- 592 p.
.Maddy S., Salvatore R. Personality Theories: A Comparative Analysis. - SPb .: Rech, 2002 .-- 538 p.
.Meshherekov B. Zinchenko V. Big psychological dictionary. - SPb .: Prime - EVROZNAK, 2003 .-- 672 p.
.Pavlenko V.N. Ideas about the relationship between social and personal identity in modern Western psychology // Questions of psychology. - 2000 - No. 1 - P.135-141.
.Raigorodsky D.Ya. Personality Theories in Western European and American Psychology .: Reader in Psychology. - Samara: Ed. house "Bakhtar, 1996. - 480 p.
.Sokolova E.T., Burlakova N.S. Leontiu F. On the substantiation of the clinical and psychological study of gender identity disorder // Questions of psychology. - 2001. - No. 6 - С.3-15.
.Frager R., Feydimen D. Personality: Theories. Experiments. Exercises. - SPb .: Prime - EUROZNAK; - M .: OLMA - Press, 2001 .-- 864 p.
.Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. - 3rd ed. - SPb .: Peter, 2006 .-- 607 p.
Applications
Annex 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Children's personality questionnaire by R. Cattell
The modified version of the children's personality questionnaire includes 12 factors or scales that reflect the characteristics of some personality traits - these are factors A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, O, Q 3, Q 4... Each personality factor is considered as a cantinuum of a certain quality or "primary trait" (in the questionnaire it is measured in walls - scale units with a minimum value of 1 point, a maximum of 10, and an average of 5.5 points) and is characterized bipolarly by the extreme values of this cantin. The children's personal questionnaire contains 120 questions that relate to the most varied aspects of the child's life: relationships with classmates, family relationships, behavior in the lesson, on the street, social attitudes, self-esteem, etc. For each test question, there are two choices and only to the questions factor B - three answer options. The questionnaire is divided into 2 identical parts of 60 questions, all 12 scales contain 10 questions (5 in each part), a significant answer to each of them is estimated at 1 point. The sum of points on each scale with the help of special tables is translated into special marks - "walls".
Questionnaire for a teacher on diagnosing the adaptation of a 1st grade student to school
This questionnaire was developed by N.I. Kovaleva. Allows you to identify the coefficient of disadaptation (K) and the corresponding degree of disadaptation. In total, there are 4 degrees of maladjustment:
Grade A - K up to 14% - is normal, does not make it possible to talk about any trouble (low degree of maladjustment);
Grade B - K from 15 to 30% - the average degree of maladjustment;
Grade C - K above 30% - a serious degree of maladjustment;
Grade D - K above 40% - children need the advice of a neuropsychiatrist. (Questions and treatment of results are presented in Appendix 7).
Questionnaire aimed at identifying the level of responsibility formation among children of primary school age (for parents)
This questionnaire was developed on the basis of the highlighted criteria of responsibility, which were presented in the form of separate statements. There were 16 such statements in total. Each statement presented two opposite manifestations of the same behavior characteristic (in the right and left columns).
Parents were asked to mark the degree of expression of each characteristic in the child's usual behavior. For this, a bipolar scale (3210123) was used, where:
Often meets;
Occurs, but in rare cases;
I am at a loss to answer.
Parents needed to mark only one number in the number row.
In accordance with the results obtained, the following norms were identified:
< 4,5 - низкий уровень ответственности,
5 - 6.0 - average level of responsibility,
> 6.0 - high level of responsibility.
The text of the questionnaire is attached (see Appendix 6).
Appendix 4
Experimental situation. "Making bookmarks for kindergarten"
The experimental situation was carried out as follows: on Friday, the children were given the task to make bookmarks for the kindergarten for the book holiday. At the same time, the following instruction was offered: "In the kindergarten" Alyonka "there will be a book festival. In order for this holiday to go well, so that all the children are happy, we must help them. For this, bookmarks must be made. That is, each of you must make 5 bookmarks, if someone wants, can make more, but not less than 5. Bookmarks can be made of any material, but they must be beautiful and you must make them yourself, without anyone's help. Bookmarks cannot be bought. "
The deadline for the bookmarks is 3 days (Friday, Saturday and Sunday), that is, the children had to bring the bookmarks on Monday.
Another prerequisite for the experiment was that no notes were made, that is, the children had to memorize the task without any aids, without the control of their parents and teachers.
The work of children was assessed according to the following parameters:
Norm: 3 points -> 5 bookmarks
points - 5 bookmarks
score -< 5 закладок
points - not done at all
Quality: 3 points - colored bookmarks with pictures
points - simple, no pictures
point - colorless
points - non-independent execution (bought), did not.
Deadline:
points - on Monday
points - on Tuesday
score - a few days after the reminder
points - did not bring
As a result of assessments of children's work, the following standards were obtained:
3 points - low level of responsibility;
6 points - the average level of responsibility;
9 points - a high level of responsibility.
Appendix 5
Questionnaire aimed at identifying the level of formation of responsibility among younger students (for parents)
Child's name: ________________
Older or younger child,
if the family has several children ____________
Class: _____________________
F.I. About parents: ____________________
Education: _________________
Age (parents): ____________
Number of children in the family: _______________
Instructions: "Your attention is invited to 16 statements concerning some aspects of children's behavior. Each statement presents 2 opposite manifestations of the same behavior characteristic (in the right and left columns). Please indicate on the form the degree to which each characteristic is expressed in your child's usual behavior. To do this, you need to circle the corresponding score in the middle column of the questionnaire, noting only one digit in a number row:
Almost always found;
Often meets;
- occurs, but in rare cases;
0 - find it difficult to answer.
For example:
The child performs the task well, even if it is not checked and the progress is not monitored 3 2 1 0 1 2 3The child will not begin to carry out the assignment until you remind him (her) of this and follow the process of execution
Selecting the number 3 on the right side means that the child almost always does not start the task until you remind him of it.
Try to use the neutral answer as little as possible. When answering, your first reaction is important.
Thank you in advance for your sincere answers!
Questionnaire text
1 The child performs the task well, even if it is not checked and the progress is not monitored 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 The child will not begin to carry out the assignment until you remind him (her) of this and follow the process of execution 2 While working on the task, the child able to give up any entertainment in order to do the job well. 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Even the most important task cannot force a child to give up what he loves (watching TV, computer, walking, etc.) 3 The child fulfills the request after the first presentation 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 To fulfill the request, the child needs repeated reminders on the part of parents or teachers4 “Promising” for a child means doing 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Keeping a promise by a child depends on the degree of difficulty of the promised, the attractiveness of the task or his mood 5 Without a parent's request, on his own initiative, the child helps with housework 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 The child does only what he was instructed to do 6 If the child was given a task, he immediately proceeds to it, without putting it on the back burner 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 The child performs the task at the last moment, constantly finding reasons to postpone, and as a result is late with its delivery on time 7 When preparing homework, the child is not limited to a textbook, asks questions, reads encyclopedias, etc. Additional literature 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 The child often has to be asked to redo his homework, because the quality of its execution suffers. 8 When completing an assignment, the child does not stop work until absolutely everything is done 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 The child can go to school without completing his homework to the end. understanding the process of its implementation 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 The child can perform the task poorly, because from the very beginning of the work he did not understand its essence 10 If the child did not fulfill the promise or the order, he unquestioningly takes all measures of reprimand, understanding the need to be responsible for his actions 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Not having completed the assigned task, the child does not realize his guilt and often considers the punishment unfair 11 In exceptional cases of refusal of an assignment, the child can explain his real reasons 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Regularly refusing difficult tasks, the child is not able to explain the real reasons for his refusal 12 When carrying out any assignment, the child understands why and for whom the result of his work is needed 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 The child performs the task automatically, without thinking about the purpose of its results
Appendix 6
Questionnaire for a teacher on the diagnosis of adaptation of a 1st grade student to school (Kovaleva N.I.)
Instructions:On the answer sheet, cross out the numbers of the statements that you think apply to the student.
1. Parents have completely withdrawn from upbringing, they almost never go to school.
Upon entering school, the child did not possess elementary educational skills (he could not count, did not know the letters, etc.).
Doesn't know much of what most children of his age know (for example, days of the week, seasons, fairy tales, etc.).
Small arm muscles are poorly developed (writing difficulties, uneven letters, tremors, etc.).
He writes with his right hand, but according to his parents, he is a retrained left-hander.
Writes with his left hand.
Move his arms aimlessly.
Blinks frequently.
Sucks on a finger or a pen.
Sometimes he stutters.
She bites her nails.
The child has a large build, small stature.
The child is clearly "home", needs a friendly atmosphere, loves to be stroked, hugged.
He loves to play, plays even in the classroom.
It seems that he is younger than the others, the children, although they are of the same age.
The speech is infantile, reminiscent of the speech of a 4-5 year old child.
Excessively anxious in class.
Quickly tries on failures.
Loves noisy outdoor games at recess.
He cannot concentrate on one task for a long time, he always tries to make it faster, not caring about quality.
After an interesting game, physical education pause, it is impossible to set him up for serious work.
Failures for a long time.
When asked unexpectedly, the teacher is often lost. Given time to think, it can answer well.
Performs any task for a very long time.
She does homework much better than class members (the difference is very significant, more than that of other children).
It takes a very long time to rebuild from one activity to another.
Often he cannot repeat the simplest material after the teacher, while demonstrating excellent memory when it comes to things of interest to him (for example, he knows the brands of cars, but cannot repeat the simplest rule).
Requires constant attention from the teacher. Almost everything is done only after a personal appeal: "Write!" etc.
Makes a lot of mistakes when cheating.
To distract him from the task, the slightest reason is enough: a door creaked, something fell, etc.
Brings toys to school and plays in class.
He will never do anything in excess of the prescribed minimum: he does not seek to learn something, to tell.
Parents complain that it is difficult for him to sit down for lessons.
The impression that he feels bad during the lessons comes to life during the breaks.
He doesn’t like any effort, if something doesn’t work out, throws it up, looks for some excuse: the hand hurts, etc.
Not quite healthy looking (pale, thin).
By the end of the lesson, he works worse, often, is distracted, sits with an absent look.
If something doesn't work out, he gets irritated, cries.
Works poorly in limited time environments. If you rush him, he can completely "disconnect", quit his job.
Often complains of fatigue, headache.
Almost never answers correctly, requires quick wits.
Answers get better if there is support on external objects (counting fingers, etc.)
After the explanation, the teacher cannot complete a similar task.
Difficulty applying previously learned concepts and skills when explaining
teacher of new material.
Often answers are not to the point, cannot highlight the main thing.
It seems that it is difficult for him to understand the explanation, since the basic skills and concepts are not formed.
When working with the questionnaire, the teacher crosses out numbers on the answer sheet that describe fragments of behavior that are characteristic of a particular child. The form is divided by a vertical line. If the number of the crossed out fragment is to the left of the line, one point is counted during processing, if to the right, then two points. The maximum possible amount of points is 70 points. By calculating the amount the child scored, one can determine his disadaptation coefficient: K = 100% * n / 70, where n is the number of points scored by the child.
Interpretation of coefficient values:
A - an indicator of up to 14% is normal, does not make it possible to talk about any trouble;
B - an indicator from 15 to 30% indicates an average degree of maladjustment;
C - an indicator over 30%, a serious degree of maladjustment;
D - if the coefficient is more than 40%, then children, as a rule, need the consultation of a neuropsychiatrist.
In the answer sheet, all available behavioral factors are grouped in a certain way. Such a construction of the form makes it possible to quickly orientate yourself, to determine which factor is the basis of maladjustment.
RO - parental relationship.
НГШ - unpreparedness for school.
L - left-handedness.
NS - neurotic symptoms.
And - infantilism.
GS - hyperkinetic syndrome, excessive disinhibition.
ANN - inertia of the nervous system.
NP - insufficient arbitrariness of mental functions.
NM - low motivation for learning activities.
AS - asthenic syndrome.
NID - violation of intellectual activity.
Tutoring
Need help exploring a topic?
Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Send a request with the indication of the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.
Eric Erickson was born near Frankfurt. Until the age of 25, he had no inclination to work, he was a mediocre student and could not find his place in life. After traveling around Europe and studying at an art school at the age of 25, he got a job at a school organized by Anna Freud. From this moment he begins to actively engage in psychoanalysis and as a result receives a diploma from the psychoanalytic society.
However, Erickson was able to move beyond psychoanalysis by looking at the development of the child in a wider system of social relations. He researched Indian tribes Sioux, former buffalo hunters, and Yurok- fishermen and gatherers of acorns; and came to the conclusion that the reason for the behavior and personality traits of the child lies not in the depths of the unconscious, but in Ego.
The development of personality in its content is determined by the fact that society expects from a person what values and ideals he offers him, what tasks he sets before him at different age stages. But the sequence of developmental stages of a child depends on the biological principle. Those. sequence is the result of biological maturation, but the content of development is determined by what society expects from a person to which he belongs. According to Erickson, any person can go through all these stages, no matter what culture he belongs to, it all depends on how long his life is.
Erickson's concept is called epigenetic... As you know, the epigenetic principle is used in the study of embryonic development. According to this principle, everything that grows has a common plan. Based on this general plan, the individual parts develop. Moreover, each of them has the most favorable period for preferential development. This happens until all the parts, having developed, form a functional whole. Epigenetic concepts in biology emphasize the role of external factors in the emergence of new forms and structures.
Erickson described eight stages of personal development and corresponding changes in ego identity. He defines ego identity as a "subjective feeling of continuous self-identity" that charges a person with psychic energy. According to Erickson, a person during his life seeks his identity (moreover, not only personal, but also social, national, gender, etc.).
Identity is not just the sum of the roles accepted by the individual, but also certain combinations of the individual's identifications and capabilities, how they are perceived by him based on the experience of interacting with the outside world, as well as knowledge about how others react to it. Ego identity is psychosocial in nature because is formed in the process of interaction of the individual with his socio-cultural environment.
From each stage, a positive or negative outcome is possible, depending on which certain personality traits are formed. Unlike classical psychoanalysis, Erickson did not believe that a negative outcome is fatal - he said that it is possible to return to an earlier stage and solve its problem for further development. At the same time, the successful resolution of problems at a certain stage of life does not guarantee that they will not reappear at the next stages or that a new solution to old problems will not be found; ego identity is a "struggle of a lifetime."
| Stage | Content | Positive / negative outcome |
| 1.Oral sensory stage (0 - 18 months) | Developing the foundations of trust. A sense of trust in the world around us is the basis for the formation of a positive self-awareness, it serves as a support for the acquisition of new experience, a guarantee of the correct transition to the next phases of development. Otherwise, he will not be able to easily and willingly turn to new activities. In an environment conducive to trust, the child feels that he is loved, that he is always ready to be accepted; he lays a solid foundation for future interactions with other people and for the formation of a positive attitude towards himself. | Basic trust / distrust in the world |
| 2.Slider stage (1.5 - 3 years) | Development of autonomy... The child is aware of his individual origin and himself as an actively acting being. But the child's life activity may not be perfect, as a result of which he may face the disapproval of others. The child must move from a state of complete dependence on adults to relative independence. During this period, the child especially needs benevolent support and inspiration. A nascent sense of autonomy must be encouraged so that conflicts over adult prohibitions do not lead to excessive shyness and self-doubt. The development of self-control must occur without compromising the formation of positive self-esteem. | Autonomy / shame and doubt |
| 3.Oedipus or locomotor-genital stage (4-6 years) | Development of initiative. The child has the first ideas about how he can become a person. At the same time, he defines the boundaries of what is permissible for himself. The main driving force behind the energetic cognitive activity of a child is his curiosity, as a result, new opportunities open up before him. He already feels more confident, tk. can move freely, speaks. The reaction of the parents to all manifestations of the child's exploratory behavior is very important for further development. Erickson believes that the main danger of this period is the possibility of a child's feeling of guilt for his curiosity and activity, which can suppress the feeling of initiative. | Initiative / guilt |
| 4.Prepubertal age (6-11 years old) | Development of industriousness. The child is involved in organized systematic activity and carries out it independently or in interaction with other people. The child masters various tools and schemes of activity, which, in essence, are standard. As a result, he develops a sense of hard work, the ability to express himself in productive work. If the child does not develop a sense of hard work, he cannot master the skills of instrumental activity. As a result, he may completely lose faith in his abilities to participate in any kind of work. Thus, the development that takes place during school years has a very significant effect on a person's idea of himself as a competent, creative and capable worker (prerequisites for professional self-esteem). | Hard work / feelings of inferiority |
| 5. Youth (11 - 20 years old) | Ego identity or role mixing. The task with which adolescents meet at this stage is to bring together all the knowledge about themselves that they have by this time (what kind of sons or daughters they are, students, athletes, musicians, etc.) and to integrate these numerous images of themselves into personal identity, which represents an awareness of both the past and the future, which logically follows from it. The main focus is on ego and how it is influenced by society, especially peer groups. Failure to achieve personal identity leads to what Erikson called an identity crisis (role confusion). Teenagers feel their inability, depersonalization, alienation, and sometimes rush towards a "negative" identity - the opposite of the one that parents and peers insist on offering them. | Self-identity / role mixing |
| 6.Early maturity (21 - 25 years old) | Proximity or isolation. A person who successfully resolved this conflict is not afraid and knows how to establish close trusting relationships with the opposite sex, he is able to give part of himself to another person, without fear of losing his own identity, his I. on the contrary - "sticking" to a partner, inability to let children go from themselves, even when they are already adults, strong emotional dependence on a partner and loss of self. | Intimacy / isolation from others |
| 7. Mature age (25 - 50-60 years old) | Generative or stagnant... The central contradiction at this stage is the conflict between awareness of the needs of society and excessive self-absorption. Unsuccessful resolution of previous conflicts leads to the fact that a person is aimed at satisfying more of his needs, is too busy with his health and peace. Such a person reacts painfully to any "encroachment" on his personal space, which objectively goes far beyond the latter. Erickson called this outcome stagnation... Obsession with his own well-being and safety does not allow a person to reveal his creative abilities, does not allow him to fully realize himself either as a professional or as a parent. Often, a person further enhances this inability, falsely mistaking it for a manifestation of individuality and exclusivity. If the conflict is resolved quite successfully, then the person tends to pay more attention to other people. | Defined place in society / stagnation |
| 8.Late maturity (over 60 years) | EGO integrity or despair... Here the central conflict is between the acceptance of one's life, oneself and the feeling of vain, meaninglessness of the life lived. If a person, looking back at his life, feels satisfaction, because it was filled with meaning and active participation in events, then he comes to the conclusion that he did not live in vain and fully realized what was released by fate. Then he takes life entirely as it is. But if life seems to him a waste of energy and a series of missed opportunities, he has a feeling of despair. | Being at one with the world / feeling of despair |
So, the main provisions of Erickson that distinguish him from classical psychoanalysis are:
1. Shift to the study of EGO, the problem of free will, responsibility and initiative
2. The influence of society on a person (moreover, not only the immediate environment, but also historical conditions refracted through the family)
3. Personal development, according to Erickson, does not stop throughout life.
4. Crises have a positive meaning; they are not just a barrier, but the prospects for personal development.
The main content of the sociogenetic approach is most clearly presented in the concept E. Erickson(1902-1994), He revised some important psychoanalytic propositions, with an emphasis on the development of the individual's self. On the one hand, Erickson adhered to psychoanalytic ideas about the importance of human adaptation to his social environment, recognized the biological and sexual foundations of the emergence of motivational systems and personal qualities, relied on the structural model of personality developed by Freud. Just like Freud, Erickson believed that the stages of personality development are genetically predetermined, the order of their deployment as they mature is unchanged.
However, in contrast to the Freudian approach, the main focus in ego psychology is given to normal, healthy personal development, which is associated with the conscious solution of life's problems. Erickson emphasized the importance of the historical and cultural context of personality development, its irreducibility to individual relationships with parents at an early age.
The central position of Erickson's theory is that each person goes through eight stages during his life, at each of which a social demand is put forward to him. The problem facing the individual in his social development creates a crisis situation. Successful resolution of the crisis is associated with the establishment of a certain compromise between extremes, between opposite states of consciousness, a balance in favor of a positive component. A favorable result is the inclusion in the Ego of a new positive quality (for example, initiative or hard work). But the outcome of the conflict may turn out to be unsuccessful, and then a negative component (basic distrust or guilt) is built into the structure of the ego. The unsolved problem is carried over to the next stage, where it is also possible to cope with it, but it is much more difficult and requires more effort. Thus, people overcome the characteristic contradictions of stages with different degrees of success and at different speeds - this is the principle of Erickson's concept.
Let us consider in more detail the ones highlighted by Erickson psychosocial stages of personality development, life stages:
1. Infancy: basal trust - basal distrust. The first psychosocial stage - from birth to the end of the first year - corresponds to the oral stage, according to Freud. During this period, the foundations of a healthy personality are laid in the form of a general feeling of trust, "confidence", "inner certainty." Erickson considers the quality of maternal care to be the main condition for developing a sense of trust in people.
2. Early childhood: autonomy is shame and doubt. This period lasts from one to three years and corresponds to the anal stage, according to Freud. Biological maturation creates the basis for the emergence of new possibilities for the child's independent action in a number of areas (for example, standing, walking, climbing, washing, dressing, eating). From the point of view of Erickson, a child's clash with the requirements and norms of society does not occur only when the child is potty trained, parents should gradually expand the possibilities of independent action and the implementation of self-control in children. The identity of the child at this stage can be indicated by the formula: "I myself" and "I am what I can." Reasonable permissiveness contributes to the development of the child's autonomy. In the case of constant excessive care, or, on the contrary, when parents expect too much from the child, what lies beyond his capabilities, he experiences shame, doubt and self-doubt, humiliation, weakness. Thus, with a successful resolution of the conflict, the Ego includes will, self-control, and with a negative outcome, weakness,
3. Age of the game: initiative is guilt. In the preschool period, which Erickson called "the age of play," from 3 to 6 years, a conflict between initiative and guilt unfolds. Children become interested in various labor activities, try new things, and make contact with peers. At this time, the social world requires the child to be active, to solve new problems and acquire new skills. he has additional responsibility for himself, for younger children and pets. This is the age when the main sense of identity becomes “I am what I will be”. Parents, encouraging energetic and independent beginnings of the child, recognizing his rights to curiosity and imagination, contribute to the formation of initiative, expanding the boundaries of independence, and the development of creative abilities. Parents who severely restrict freedom of choice, overly control and punish children, cause them to feel too strong a sense of guilt. Guilt-ridden children are passive, constrained, and in the future are not capable of productive work.
4. School age: hard work is an inferiority. The fourth psychosocial period corresponds to the latency period in Freud's theory. At the age from 6 to 12 years, the child leaves the family and begins systematic education, including familiarization with the technological side of culture. Erickson's concept is universal in the desire and susceptibility to learning something that is significant within the framework of a given culture (the ability to handle tools, weapons, handicrafts, gram-mot and scientific knowledge). The term "hard work", "taste for work" reflects the main theme of this period, children at this time are absorbed in trying to find out what comes out of what and how it works. The ego-identity of the child is now expressed like this: "I am what I have learned."
While studying at school, children become familiar with the rules of conscious discipline and active participation. The ritual associated with school orders is the perfection of performance. The danger of this period consists in the emergence of a feeling of inferiority, mi incompetence, doubts about one's abilities or status among peers.
5. Youth: ego identity - role-mixing. Adolescence, the fifth stage in Erickson's life cycle scheme, is considered the most important period in human psychosocial development. A spontaneous search for new answers to important questions is being carried out: “Who am I?”, “Where am I going? ", "Whom I want to become?". The adolescent's task is to collect together all the knowledge about himself that is available by this time and create a single image of himself (ego-identity), including awareness of both the past and the anticipated future. The perception of oneself as a young person should be confirmed by the experience of interpersonal communication.
Erikson considers abrupt social, political and technological changes, dissatisfaction with generally accepted social values as a factor that can also seriously interfere with the development of identity, contributing to the emergence of a feeling of uncertainty, anxiety and the severing of ties with the world. Adolescents experience a sense of their uselessness, mental discord and aimlessness, sometimes rushing towards a "negative" identity, deviating behavior. In the case of a negative resolution of the crisis, “role confusion” arises, the vagueness of the individual's identity. Identity crisis, or ro-left confusion, leads to an inability to choose a career or continue education, sometimes to doubts about one's own gender identity.
6. Youth: achieving closeness is isolation. The sixth psychosocial stage lasts from late adolescence to early maturity (20 to 25 years) and marks the formal beginning of adulthood. In general, this is the period of obtaining a profession ("device"), courtship; early marriage, the beginning of an independent family life.
The main danger at this psychosocial stage is being too self-absorbed or avoiding interpersonal relationships. Failure to establish calm and trusting personal relationships leads to feelings of loneliness, social vacuum and isolation.
A positive quality that is associated with a normal way out of the intimacy-isolation crisis is love. Erickson emphasizes the importance of romantic, erotic, sexual components, but considers true love and intimacy more broadly - as the ability to entrust oneself to another person and remain true to this relationship, even if they require concessions or self-denial, the willingness to share all difficulties with him. This type of love manifests itself in a relationship of mutual caring, respect, and responsibility for the other person.
7. Maturity: productivity is inertia. The seventh stage occurs in the middle years of life (from 26 to 64 years); its main problem is the choice between productivity and inertia. Productivity acts as the concern of the older generation for those who will replace them, — about how to help them establish themselves in life and choose the right direction. A good example in this case is a person's sense of self-realization associated with the achievements of his descendants,
If in adults the ability for productive activity is so pronounced that it prevails over inertia, then the positive quality of this stage is manifested - care.
8. Old age: integrity is despair. The last psychosocial stage (from age 65 to death) ends a person's life. According to Erickson, this last phase of life is characterized not so much by a new psychosocial crisis as by the summation, integration and assessment of all the past stages of ego development.
The sense of ego integration is based on the person's ability to look over their entire past life (including marriage, children and grandchildren, careers, achievements, social relationships) and to humbly but firmly say to themselves, "I am satisfied." The inevitability of death is no longer afraid, because such people see; continuation of oneself or in descendants, or in creative achievements. Erickson believes that it is only in old age that true maturity and a useful sense of "the wisdom of past years" come.
At the opposite pole are people who view their lives as a series of unrealized opportunities and mistakes. At the end of their lives, they realize that it is too late to start all over again or look for some new ways to feel the integrity of their Self. Lack or lack of integration manifests itself in these people in a latent fear of death, a feeling of constant failure and concern that “may happen. " Erickson identifies two predominant types of mood in irritable and irritable elderly people; regret that life cannot be lived anew, and denial of one's own shortcomings and defects by projecting them onto the outside world.
The personality development model of E. Erickson is of considerable interest for personality psychology and developmental psychology:
The possibilities and difficulties of healthy development, adaptive functions of the Ego are analyzed;
It is shown that not only the family context is important for the formation of the Ego, but also broad cultural and historical conditions;
This theory covers the entire living space of the individual: from infancy to old age with the allocation of qualitatively different stages;
Criteria for psychosocial health are formulated, behavioral and social indicators of development are outlined.
