There are quite a few definitions of the concept of style. Styles are peculiar registers of a language that allow you to switch it from one key to another. Language style is a set of linguistic means and techniques used depending on the purpose and content of the utterance, taking into account the situation where the utterance occurs. If we compare these definitions, we can highlight the most general provisions: style (from the Greek Stylus - a rod for writing on wax tablets) is a type of literary language that functions (acts) in a certain area social activities, for which it uses specific features of text construction and linguistic means of expressing its content specific to a given style. In other words, styles are the main largest speech varieties. Style is realized in texts. You can determine the style and its features by analyzing a certain number of texts and finding in them common features.

Functional styles- these are varieties of book language characteristic of various areas human activity and having a certain originality in the use of linguistic means, the selection of which occurs depending on the goals and objectives set and resolved in the process of communication.

The functions of language and the corresponding functional styles began to appear in response to the demands of society and social practice. As you know, at first the language existed only in oral form. This is the original and natural quality of language. At this stage, it was characterized by a single function - the function of communication.

But gradually with complication public life, with the natural and natural appearance of writing develops business speech. After all, it was necessary to conclude agreements with warlike neighbors, regulate* life within the state, establishing legal acts. This is how the official business function of the language develops and business speech is formed. And again, in response to the demands of society, the language finds new resources, enriches itself, develops, forming a new variety, a new functional style.

The formation and functioning of styles is influenced by various factors. Since style exists in speech, its formation is influenced by conditions associated with the life of society itself, and called extralinguistic or extralinguistic. The following factors are distinguished:

• a) sphere of social activity: science (respectively scientific style), law (official business style), politics (journalistic style), art (style fiction), household sphere ( conversational style).
• b) form of speech: written or oral;
• c) type of speech: monologue, dialogue, polylogue;
• d) method of communication: public or personal (all functional styles, except conversational, relate to public communication)
• e) genre of speech (each style is characterized by the use of certain genres: for scientific - abstract, textbook, report; for official business - certificate, agreement, decree; for journalistic - article, report, oral presentation; for the style of fiction - novel, story, sonnet);
• f) the goals of communication corresponding to the functions of language. In each style, all functions of language are implemented (communication, message or influence), but one is leading. For example, for scientific style this is a message, for journalistic - impact, etc.

Based on the listed factors, the following five styles of the Russian language are traditionally distinguished: scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial, and fiction style. However, such a classification is controversial; artistic style occupies a special place in the system of functional styles. Its main function is not just the transmission of information, but its transmission artistic means. For this purpose, it can use not only all functional styles of the literary language, but also non-literary forms national language*: dialects*, vernacular*, jargon*, etc. In addition, there is another form of the Russian language - this is a religious-preaching style. It is close to journalistic, but differs from it in expressiveness and phraseological means belonging to the high style, which are often archaic*.

Using these styles, the language is able to express a complex scientific thought, deep philosophical wisdom, outline laws in precise and strict words, sound with light, charming verses, or reflect the multifaceted life of the people in an epic. Functions and functional styles determine the stylistic flexibility of language and diverse possibilities for expressing thoughts. So, the language is poly- or multifunctional - this is evidence of the richness of the language, this highest level its development.

A functional style is a historically established and socially conscious variety of a literary language (its subsystem), functioning in a certain sphere of human activity and communication, created by the peculiarities of the use of linguistic means in this sphere and their specific organization 1 .

The concept of style (or syllable) as a special quality of speech originated in ancient poetics and rhetoric (Greek stylos - a stick pointed at one end, which was used to write on wax tablets; the other end of the stick was shaped like a spatula - it was used to level the wax, erasing what was written). The ancients said: “Turn the stylus!”, which meant in the literal sense, “erase what is written,” and in the figurative sense, “work on the syllable, think about what is written.” With the development of the science of language, scientists' ideas about what style is have changed. Conflicting opinions on this issue are expressed by modern scientists. However, what is common is the recognition of the functional nature of styles, their connection with a specific area verbal communication and types of human activity, understanding style as a historically developed and socially conscious set of methods of use, selection and combination of language units.

The classification of styles is based on extralinguistic factors: the scope of use of the language, the subject matter determined by it and the goals of communication. The areas of application of language correlate with types of human activity corresponding to forms of social consciousness (science, law, politics, art). Traditional and socially significant areas of activity are: scientific, business (administrative and legal), socio-political, artistic. Accordingly, they also distinguish between the styles of official speech (book): scientific, official business, journalistic, literary and artistic (artistic) 2. They are contrasted with the style of informal speech - colloquial-everyday - colloquial), the extralinguistic basis of which is the sphere everyday relations and communication (everyday life as an area of ​​relationships between people outside their direct production and socio-political activities).

The areas of application of language significantly influence the topic and content of the statement. Each of them has its own current topics. For example, in the scientific field, problems are primarily discussed scientific knowledge world, in the sphere of everyday relations - everyday issues. However, in different areas the same topic may be discussed, but the goals are not the same, as a result of which the statements differ in content.

The classification of functional styles is often associated with the functions of language, understood as specific goals of communication. Thus, there is a known classification of styles based on the three functions of language: communication, message and influence. The communication function is best suited to the conversational style, messages - scientific and official business, influence - journalistic and literary-artistic 3. However, with such a classification there is no differentiating basis that allows us to distinguish between scientific and official business, journalistic and literary and artistic styles. The functions of language characterize it as a whole and are inherent to one degree or another in any style. In speech reality, these functions intersect and interact with each other; a specific utterance usually performs not one, but several functions. Therefore, the functions of language in classifying styles can only be considered in combination with other factors.

The scope of use of language, the subject matter and purpose of the statement determine the essential features of style, its main style-forming features. For a scientific style, this is a generalized abstract nature of presentation and emphasized logic; for an official style, it is a prescriptive and obligatory nature of speech and accuracy that does not allow for discrepancies; for a conversational style, it is ease, spontaneity and unpreparedness of communication, etc.

Style-forming factors determine the peculiarities of the functioning of linguistic means in a particular style and their specific organization.

Notes:

1. The definition of style is given in the works of: Vinogradov V.V. Results of the discussion of issues of stylistics //VYa. 1955. No. 1. P. 73; Golovin B. N. Fundamentals of speech culture. M., 1988. P. 261; Sirotinina O. B. Stylistics as a science of the functioning of language // Basic concepts and categories of linguistic stylistics. Perm, 1982. P. 12; Kozhina M. N. Stylistics of the Russian language. M., 1983. P. 49; and etc.

3. Vinogradov V.V. Stylistics: Theory of poetic speech. Poetics. M., S. 6; Rosenthal D. E. Practical stylistics of the Russian language. 1987. P. 22.

T.P. Pleschenko, N.V. Fedotova, R.G. Taps. Stylistics and culture of speech - Mn., 2001.

FUNCTIONAL STYLES,

SUB-STYLES OF SPEECH, GENRES

Plan

1. General characteristics of the concept “functional style of speech” (definition, style-forming factors, sub-style and genre originality).

2. Features of conversational style of speech.

3. Features of literary artistic style speech.

4. Features of the social and journalistic style of speech.

5. Features of the scientific style of speech.

6. Features of the official business style of speech.

1. It is known that depending on the purpose of communication, the form of communication, the addressee, speech situations are grouped and correlated with one or another sphere of human activity, for example, educational, business, social, etc. In this sense, speech is also typified: some means of language become preferable in situations business sphere of communication, others - in the scientific sphere, etc.

This is how they are formed functional styles– varieties of literary language. The term “functional style” itself emphasizes that varieties of literary language are distinguished on the basis of the functions(role) performed by language in each specific case. For example, for a scientific article, what is important first of all is accuracy in the designation of concepts, and in fiction and journalism - emotionality and figurativeness of expression. At the same time, in each specific case, special linguistic means are selected, and in some cases, the method of presenting these means is also important.

Word style(Greek stylo) in ancient Greek meant a pointed stick, a rod for writing on wax tablets. Later this word acquired the meaning of “handwriting”, and later began to denote the manner, method, and features of speech.

So, under style In linguistics, it is customary to understand a variety of literary language that serves some aspect of social life, has a special sphere, a certain range of topics, and is characterized by special conditions of communication. It is called functional, since it performs a certain function in society in each specific case.

The doctrine of styles goes back to M.V. Lomonosov, who wrote: “... Russian language through the use of church books in decency has different degrees: high, mediocre and low. This comes from three types of sayings in the Russian language.”

Functional style is created by a combination of neutral language means and special means, used only in this style. Depending on the basis of classification, there are different kinds functional styles. The communicative and everyday function serves as the basis for opposition conversational style bookish style. In turn, according to specific stylistic manifestations, in accordance with the spheres of social activity, specific book functional styles are distinguished. The traditional classification of styles can be presented as the following diagram:

Literary and artistic

Each functional style is a complex system, the features of which are manifested in both oral and written forms of its implementation (albeit to different degrees). At the same time, stylistic differences cover all language levels: pronunciation of words and stress placement, morphological means, lexical and phraseological composition, characteristic syntactic structures.

In functional styles, as a rule, stand out substyles that meet the requirements of a particular type of activity. Thus, the scientific style distinguishes between the scientific substyle (academic sphere), scientific and technical (engineering sphere), educational and scientific (field higher education) and other substyles.

Note that the peculiarity of each style is not only the scope and purpose of communication, General requirements, communication conditions, but also genres, in which it is implemented.

What is a genre? Let's define this concept. A genre is a specific type of text that retains the general features of a particular style (its dominant), but at the same time is characterized by special compositional speech structures and linguistic means.

For example, in the literary and artistic style there are such genres as novel, short story, story, poem; in a journalistic style - essay, report, interview, feuilleton; in official business – statement, order, certificate, letter of guarantee; in a scientific style - monograph, report, abstract, abstract, etc.

From the definition it is clear that each genre (speech work) requires its own linguistic means of expression and a special way of organizing them. At the same time, it is necessary to always remember that the choice of stylistically colored words is justified, so that the linguistic means used belong to the style to which this or that genre belongs. Otherwise, this will lead to misinterpretation, ambiguity and will indicate a low level of speech culture.

Therefore, we can talk about the existence of so-called style-forming factors, which are designed to set parameters for each functional style. In particular, this can be observed in the selection of linguistic means (orthoepic, grammatical, lexical) that form a certain system. This system is manifested in the interaction of neutral (commonly used) units and special (stylistically colored) units. Note that style-forming factors have a strict hierarchy. Among them we highlight three main ones: scope, purpose and method of communication. They determine the choice of the type of speech, its form, the method of presentation and the requirements of certain qualitative characteristics.

Thus, it is customary to distinguish between the following areas of communication: socio-political, scientific, legal, everyday, etc.

The purpose of communication There can be not only the transfer of information, but also persuasion, prescription, aesthetic impact, establishing contact, etc.

Concerning way of communication, then, on the one hand, there are mass and personal methods, and on the other - contact, non-contact and indirect contact.

If the speaker or writer has a good understanding of the characteristics of these factors, it will not be difficult for him to determine or choose a style.

Of course, in practice we often see a mixture of styles. In a live speech stream, styles can interact. This occurs especially often in conversational and everyday style of speech. But in order to understand the degree of permissibility of using different manifestations of language, you need to be well aware of the norms and qualitative characteristics inherent in a particular style. It is for this purpose that we will move on to their brief analysis.

2. Conversational style used for direct everyday communication in various fields of activity: everyday life, informal professional and others. True, there is one peculiarity: in everyday life, the conversational style has oral and written forms, but in the professional sphere - only oral. Compare: colloquial lexical units – reader, teacher, spur and neutral - reading room, teacher, cheat sheet. In professional written speech, colloquial vocabulary is unacceptable.

Conversational speech is uncodified speech, it is characterized by unpreparedness, improvisation, specificity, and informality. Conversational style does not always require strict logic and consistency of presentation. But it is characterized by imagery, emotionality of expressions, a subjective-evaluative character, arbitrariness, simplicity, and even a certain familiarity of tone.

The conversational style differs as follows: genres: friendly conversation, private conversation, note, private letter, personal diary.

Linguistically colloquial speech is distinguished by an abundance of emotionally charged, expressive vocabulary, so-called condensate words ( evening -“Evening Moscow”) and doublet words ( freezer- evaporator in the refrigerator). It is characterized by appeals, diminutive words, and free word order in sentences. At the same time, sentences that are simpler in construction are used more often than in other styles: incompleteness and incompleteness constitute their feature, which is possible due to the transparency of the speech situation (for example: Where are you going? - To the tenth.; Well? - Passed!). They often contain subtext, irony, and humor. Conversational speech carries a lot of phraseological units, comparisons, proverbs, sayings. It gravitates towards constant updating and rethinking of linguistic means, the emergence of new forms and meanings.

Academician L.V. Shcherba called colloquial speech “the forge in which verbal innovations are forged.” Colloquial speech enriches book styles with lively, fresh words and phrases. In turn, book speech has a certain effect on spoken speech: it disciplines it, gives it a more standardized character.

One more feature of the conversational style should be noted: for it great importance has knowledge of speech etiquette both in written and oral form. In addition, for oral colloquial speech it is very important to take into account the specifics of extra-linguistic factors: facial expressions, gestures, tone, environment. This is general characteristics conversational everyday style.

3. Literary and artistic style. Home distinctive feature the language of fiction is its purpose: the entire organization of linguistic means here is subordinated not simply to the transmission of content, but to the influence on the feelings and thoughts of the reader or listener with the help of artistic images.

The main features of the artistic style are imagery, aesthetic significance, manifestation of the author's individuality. In this style, in order to create an artistic image, metaphor, metonymy, personification and other specific features are widely used. means of expression. Note that a work of art may contain some non-literary elements of language (dialectisms, colloquialisms, jargon) or linguistic means of other styles.

As an example, we can cite an excerpt from V. Shukshin’s story “The Freak,” in which the features of the official business style are played out for artistic purposes:

“At the airport, Chudik wrote a telegram to his wife: “I’ve landed. A lilac branch fell on your chest, dear Pear, don’t forget me. Vasyatka." The telegraph operator, a stern, dry woman, having read the telegram, suggested:

- Make it up differently. You are an adult, not in kindergarten.

- Why? - asked the Weird. I always write to her like this in letters. This is my wife! ...You probably thought...

– You can write whatever you want in letters, but a telegram is a type of communication. This is clear text.

The weirdo rewrote: “We landed. Everything is fine. Vasyatka." The telegraph operator herself corrected two words: “We landed” and “Vasyatka.” It became: “We’ve arrived. Basil".

As we see, works of fiction use different possibilities of the national language, therefore the language of fiction is extremely rich and flexible.

The literary and artistic style is realized in the form of prose, drama and poetry, in which the corresponding genres: novel, story, short story, short story; drama, comedy, tragedy; poem, fable and others.

I would like to note one important circumstance: when analyzing the language of fiction, we usually talk not only about the manifestation of the culture of speech as such, but also about the talent and skill of the writer who managed to use in his work all the facets, all the riches of the national language.

4. Journalistic style performs 2 main functions– informational and influencing – and is addressed to the mass reader and listener. It is used in both written and oral forms, which within this style closely interact and come together. This style is quite complex and branched, characterized by numerous inter-style influences. It highlights the following substyles And genres:

1) newspaper and journalistic (article, information note, essay, interview);

2) propaganda (appeals, appeals, leaflets);

3) official political-ideological (party resolutions);

4) mass-political (speeches at meetings and rallies of a political nature), etc.

However, the journalistic style is presented most fully and widely, in all the variety of genres, in newspaper cover. Therefore, the concepts of “newspaper language” and “journalistic style” are often considered identical or close. Let us dwell in some detail on the features of this substyle, which has become the most widespread.

According to academician V.G. Kostomarov, the newspaper substyle is interesting because it combines two opposing trends: a tendency towards standardization, characteristic of strict styles (scientific and official business), and a tendency towards expressiveness, characteristic of colloquial speech and the language of fiction.

Therefore, in the newspaper there are often stable, standard expressions that have expressive coloring. Typical for the newspaper-journalistic substyle are, for example, the following phrases: good tradition, bloody coup, gain political capital, aggravation of the situation, convincing victory etc. In addition, the language of newspapers is replete with so-called “labels” (pseudo-democrat, fascist, retrograde).

The greatest significance in the social and journalistic style is genres, used in means mass media such as: reportage, interview, oratory, public speaking, discussion and some others.

In general, texts of a journalistic style are characterized by information richness, simplicity, accessibility of presentation, logic, appeal, emotionality, social evaluation, and the presence of elements of declarativeness. Important feature It can also be assumed that the journalistic style always strives for imagery and at the same time brevity when expressing thoughts.

Now let’s move on to analyzing the features of the scientific and official business styles, which will be considered in more detail, since they are closely related to university educational activities.

5. Scientific style of speech is intended to communicate scientific information, explain facts both orally and in writing and in to a greater extent designed for a trained reader.

In the scientific style of speech, as in the journalistic style, depending on the nature of the addressee and goals, the following are distinguished: substyles and corresponding genres:

1) actually scientific or academic (monograph, article, report);

2) scientific and informative (abstract, annotation, patent description);

3) scientific reference (dictionary, reference book, catalogue, encyclopedia);

4) educational and scientific (textbook, Toolkit, lecture);

5) popular science (article, essay).

The first three substyles are designed to accurately convey scientific information with a description scientific facts. Their distinguishing feature– academic presentation addressed to specialists. Main features: accuracy of transmitted information, persuasiveness of argumentation, logical sequence of presentation, brevity.

Substyle 4) is addressed to future specialists, therefore it is distinguished by greater accessibility, the presence of a rich illustrative material, numerous examples, explanations, comments.

Substyle 5) has a different addressee. This is a wide readership, so scientific data can be presented not in an academic, but in a more accessible and entertaining form, and it does not strive for brevity.

All substyles of the scientific style are characterized by precise and unambiguous expression of thoughts, which is explained by the nature of scientific knowledge. The scientific style, like the official business style, does not tolerate ambiguity, which can lead to misinterpretation of facts or phenomena.

In addition, scientific thinking is designed to establish patterns. Therefore, the scientific style is characterized by analyticity, emphasized by the logic of presentation, clarity, and argumentation.

It is known that, at its core, scientific speech is written language. This means that it has all the features and all the norms of written speech.

In terms of language, neutral and special vocabulary and terminology are used in a scientific style. In general, the lexical composition of the scientific style is characterized by relative homogeneity and isolation. There is no vocabulary with a colloquial or vernacular flavor.

The scientific style is often called “dry”, devoid of elements of emotionality and imagery. However, it should be remembered that the beauty of a scientific text is not associated with expressiveness, but with logic and high persuasiveness. By the way, it should be noted that in some scientific works, in particular polemical ones, emotionally expressive and figurative means of language are allowed, which (being, however, an additional technique) give scientific prose additional persuasiveness.

Finally, I would like to note that, unfortunately, the language of scientific texts often becomes unjustifiably complicated; in them one can often observe examples of the so-called pseudo-academic style.

Let us cite at least one of them, in which the abuse of borrowings and complex syntactic structures is obvious.

“The category of time, due to its universality, has an integrating function and can be considered... on the basis of isomorphism of knowledge structures, especially in culture and language. ...The universal, invariant, typologically general content of the category of time finds its national-cultural expression in a specific language and receives a subjective, axiologically marked interpretation.”

In our opinion, the main requirement for a culture of proficiency in a scientific style of speech can be formulated as follows: express yourself as complex as the object of research is complex, but no more.

6. Formal business style – This is a type of literary language that functions in the field of management, as well as legal, administrative, public and diplomatic spheres of activity.

The official business style, as well as the scientific style of speech, is divided into substyles: legislative, clerical, business correspondence, diplomatic.

Within each substyle there are the following genre varieties:

1) legislative genres: charter, constitution, resolution, law, decree;

2) stationery genres, which, in turn, are divided into:

a) personal documents: application, autobiography, resume;

b) administrative and organizational documents: contract, agreement;

c) administrative documents: order, order, instruction, resolution;

d) information and reference documents: certificate, act, report (official) note, explanatory letter;

3) genres business correspondence: letter of request, letter of request, letter of response, letter of confirmation, letter of guarantee, commercial letter, complaint, invitation, message, covering letter;

4) genres of the diplomatic substyle: agreement, communiqué, note, statement, memorandum.

Character traits formal business style– standardization, conciseness, accuracy of presentation. The official business style is distinguished by clear, unambiguous wording.

In terms of use linguistic means This style is characterized by a combination of neutral vocabulary and bookish, special vocabulary.

So, we found out what distinguishes one speech style from another, and determined the qualitative indicators of all functional styles. We emphasize that knowledge of stylistic features and the ability to distinguish them is necessary in order to correctly express one’s thoughts in accordance with a specific communication situation.

Questions for self-control:

1. What is a functional style of speech?

2. What is the basis for dividing literary language into functional styles?

3. What functional styles do you know?

4. What do the terms “substyle” and “genre” mean?

5. What substyles and genres are distinguished in each functional style of speech?

6. What are characteristics:

a) colloquial and everyday style;

b) literary and artistic style;

c) social and journalistic style;

d) scientific style;

e) formal business style?

7. How are the functional styles of the Russian literary language related to each other?

Lecture 3 STANDARDS OF MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE (OPTIONS, TYPES OF STANDARDS)

Plan

1. The concept of language norms (literary norms).

2. Variants of norms.

3. Types of norms.

1. The most important quality of speech culture is its correctness, in other words, its compliance language standards.

What is meant by this concept? Let's offer a definition.

The norm of a language (literary norm) is the rules for the use of linguistic means, the uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of literary language in certain period its development.

A linguistic norm is a complex and rather contradictory phenomenon: it dialectically combines a number of opposing features. Let us list the most important of them and give the necessary comment.

1. Relative sustainability And stability language norms are necessary conditions ensuring the balance of the language system over a long period of time. At the same time, the norm is a historical phenomenon, which is explained by the social nature of language, which is constantly developing together with the creator and speaker of the language - society itself.

The historical nature of the norm is due to its dynamism, variability. What was the norm in the last century and even 10-15 years ago may become a deviation from it today. If you turn to dictionaries and literary sources from 100 years ago, you can see how the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words, their (words) meaning and use have changed. For example, in the 19th century they said: cabinet(instead of closet), fat(instead of heat), strict(instead of strict), quiet(instead of quiet), Alexandrinsky theater (instead of Alexandrinsky), returned(instead of returning); at the ball, weather, trains, this beautiful paleto(t) (coat); certainly(instead of Necessarily), necessary(instead of necessary) and so on.

2. On the one hand, the norm is characterized by widespread And universality compliance with certain rules, without which it would be impossible to “control” the element of speech. On the other hand, we can talk about “linguistic pluralism” – the simultaneous existence of several options (doublets) that are recognized as normative. This is a consequence of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and variability, subjective (author of speech) and objective (language).

3. Basic sources of language norms- these are, first of all, works of classical literature, exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, generally accepted, widespread modern usage, as well as scientific research. However, recognizing the importance literary tradition And authority of sources, you should also remember author's individuality, capable of violating norms, which is certainly justified in certain communication situations.

In conclusion, we emphasize that the literary norm is objective: it is not invented by scientists, but reflects the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language. Language standards are mandatory for both oral and written speech. It is necessary to understand that the norm does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”. It indicates the appropriateness of their use in a specific communicative situation.

In general, the literary norm enshrines all the best that has been created in the speech behavior of representatives of a given society. It is necessary because it helps preserve the integrity and general intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from colloquialisms, dialectisms, and jargon.

2. Changes in language norms are preceded by their appearance options(doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as “ Pronouncing dictionary", "Dictionary of Russian Language Difficulties", "Dictionary of Word Compatibility", etc.

Exist 3 degrees of normativity:

– 1st degree norm– strict, tough, not allowing options (for example, put, but not lay down; t, call but not rings; socks, but not sock);

– norm 2nd degree– less strict, allowing equal options, united in a dictionary entry by the conjunction “and” (for example, right And , right blinds(Wed And pl.), immoral And immoral);

– norm 3rd degree– the most flexible, where one option is the main (preferred), and the second, although acceptable, is less desirable. In such cases, the second option is preceded by the mark "additional"(permissible), sometimes in combination with stylistic marks or just a stylistic mark: "colloquial"(colloquial), "poetic"(poetic), "prof."(professional), etc. For example: bank sprat(add. sprats),cup tea(additional colloquial tea), compass(prof. compass).

The 1st degree norm is called imperative norm, norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees – dispositive norms.

Currently, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in social sphere, science, technology. It should be remembered that a language norm is not a dogma: depending on the conditions, goals and objectives of communication, and on the characteristics of a particular style, deviations from the norm are possible. However, these deviations should reflect the variants of norms that exist in the literary language.

3. In accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means, the following are distinguished: types of norms.

1. Orthoepic norms(Greek correct speech ) – norms for stress and pronunciation. Spelling errors make it difficult to perceive the speaker’s speech. Social role correct pronunciation is very important, since knowledge of orthoepic norms greatly facilitates the communication process.

In order not to make mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, such as “Dictionary of Stresses of the Russian Language”, “Spelling Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Difficulties” oral speech" and etc.

Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive notes: “ not rec."(Not recommended), "not right."(wrong), "rude."(rough), "bran."(expletive language), etc.

2. Lexical norms or norms of word usage, are: a) the use of a word in the meanings that it has in modern language; b) knowledge of its lexical and grammatical compatibility; c) correct choice of word from synonymous series; d) the appropriateness of its use in a particular speech situation.

3. Morphological norms regulate the formation and use of grammatical forms of words. Note that morphological norms include, first of all: norms for determining the grammatical gender of some nouns, norms of formation plural nouns, norms of formation and use of case forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms of comparative and superlatives adjectives and adverbs; norms for the formation and use of verb forms, etc.

4. Syntactic norms are associated with the rules of construction and use of phrases and various models offers. When constructing a phrase, you must first of all remember about management; When constructing a sentence, you should take into account the role of word order, follow the rules for using participial phrases, the laws of constructing a complex sentence, etc.

Morphological and syntactic norms often combined under the general name - grammatical norms.

5. Spelling norms (spelling norms) And punctuation norms do not allow distortion of the visual image of a word, sentence or text. To write correctly, you need to know the generally accepted rules of spelling (the spelling of a word or its grammatical form) and punctuation (the placement of punctuation marks).

Questions for self-control:

1. What is a language norm and what are its features?

2. How is the inconsistency of the norm manifested?

3. What differences exist in the degree of normativity?

4. What types of norms can be distinguished in accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means?

Let us move on to a detailed consideration of the types of norms indicated above.

B. SPELLING NORMS

Plan

1. Norms for setting stress (accentological norms).

2. Norms for pronunciation of vowel sounds.

3. Norms for pronunciation of consonant sounds.

4. Features of pronunciation of foreign words.

1. Orthoepic correctness of speech- this is compliance with the norms of literary pronunciation and stress. Correct placement of stress and correct, exemplary pronunciation are important indicators of a person’s general cultural level. For an oral presentation to be successful, it must be expressive, and expressiveness is achieved through competent, clear and precise pronunciation, correct intonation and stress. Let's analyze it sequentially main aspects of Russian orthoepy, namely: stress norms, rules for the pronunciation of stressed and unstressed vowels, hard and soft, voiced and voiceless consonants, rules for the pronunciation of individual grammatical forms and words of foreign language origin.

Due to the variety of places and mobility of stress in the Russian language, there are words with the so-called double stress, or accentological options. Some of them are equal. For example: rust And rust, meatballs And meatballs, sparkling And sparkling, loop And loop´, pale And , the waves are pale And waves. However, most often stress options are characterized as unequal, i.e. one of them is basic (preferred), and the other is acceptable (additional). For example: cottage cheese[add. cottage cheese],satiation[add. ta dosy], otherwise[add. otherwise], phenomenon[add. phenomenon],briefly[add. briefly].

If the dictionary contains two unequal accentological options without markings, then the main option is put in first place, followed by an acceptable, less desirable option.

There is also the problem of distinguishing between the so-called semantic options– pairs of words in which the different places of stress are intended to distinguish the meaning of the words: flour And flour, spiciness And sharpness, cowardice And shake, lock And castle, submerged And immersed and so on. Such pairs of words are called homographs.

Sometimes the different places of stress slightly modify the endings of words that are semantic variants. For example: big prizes(cry) – conscript(age), developed(about activities) – developed(child), linguistic(about sausage) – linguistic(about an error).

Among the unequal options, one should distinguish stylistic options. These are pairs of words that, depending on the place of stress, are used in different functional styles of literary language or narrow areas of communication, or relate to professionalism. In these cases, stylistic options are accompanied in dictionaries by the corresponding marks: "specialist."(special use), "poetic"(poetic speech) "tech."(technical term) "prof."(professionalism), etc., in contrast to "common use"(commonly used version). Compare: bite(common use) – bite(specialist.), silk(common use) – silk(poet.), nuclear(common use) – atomic(prof.), compass(common use) – compass(for sailors) stroke(common use) – consultation(honey.).

Unequal options include normative-chronological options. These are pairs of words in which the different places of stress are related to the time period of use of this word in speech. An obsolete version that is going out of use is accompanied in dictionaries by the mark "outdated". For example: industry(modern) – industry(obsolete), Ukrainian(modern) – Ukrainian(obsolete), angle(modern) – angle(obsolete), waited(modern) - waited(obsolete), visible(modern) – vúdny(obsolete), needed(modern) - needed(obsolete), apartments(modern) – apartments(obsolete).

According to L.I. Skvortsov, in the Russian language, researchers count more than 5 thousand commonly used words in which fluctuations in stress are recorded.

The ability to determine the style of a text is the first level of mastering stylistics, the initial stage of mastering the concept of style.

Style is a speech concept, but it can be correctly defined only by going beyond the boundaries of the language system, taking into account such circumstances as the tasks of speech and the sphere of communication. Taking into account these factors, certain Russian languages ​​are formed.

Each of us uses various functional functions in our lives. As a result, principles for the selection of linguistic means are formed in people’s minds in accordance with the conditions and objectives of communication, leading trends in style and internal attitudes towards the use of certain

The stylistic stratification of speech begins with the differentiation of the most contrasting types. These, without a doubt, are the colloquial type of speech, the core of which is the colloquial style, and the opposing literary type of speech, which unites all other functional styles of the Russian language (artistic, scientific, journalistic, official business). This distinction is based on several factors, the main one being the spheres of communication. Sphere individual consciousness The sphere of public consciousness forms the functional styles of the Russian literary language.

The differences between colloquial and literary speech are largely determined by its form, oral or written. Although all functional ones can be realized in one form or another of speech, the probability of these realizations in different types is different. For all literary styles, written language is more often used, for colloquial - oral. The habitual leaves its mark on the structure of the style. To better understand the specifics, a system of functional styles of the Russian language has been developed.

1. Conversational - used in an informal one-on-one setting for the purpose of communication (talk). Main features: vagueness, ease.

2. Scientific - used in an official setting, presupposes the presence of a large audience. The purpose of speech is to communicate (explain). Main features: logic, accuracy, abstraction.

3. Official business - used in an official setting, presupposes the presence of a large audience. The purpose of speech is to communicate (to instruct). Main features: dispassionateness, accuracy, formality.

4. Journalistic - used in an official setting, presupposes the presence of a large audience. The purpose of speech is to influence (to convince). Main features: emotionality, appeal.

5. Artistic - used in an official setting, presupposes the presence of a large audience. The purpose of speech is to influence (depict). Main features: emotionality, imagery, logic.

Some features of the communication situation are common to official business and artistic language; these functional styles of the Russian language are used when addressing many people at once, usually in an official setting and mainly in writing. Therefore, these four styles constitute the literary (book) type of speech. It is contrasted with the conversational type (conversational style), which is used in communication with one or more familiar persons, in a relaxed, informal atmosphere and mainly orally.

The system reveals the dependence of the type and the functional on the characteristics of the speech situation; it helps to understand why the functional styles of the literary Russian language have certain features. Based on it, it is easy to create a description of the functional style of speech (style model), including four main features: the scope of application of the utterance, the task of speech, linguistic means, and stylistic features.

As is known, style – one of the most polysemantic terms of modern linguistics. Describing the principles of selection and systematization of linguistic means, the concept of “style” varies depending on which principles from among the extralinguistic and linguistic are chosen as basic in the proposed definitions of the concept.

The doctrine of style - the final section elocution in ancient rhetoric that determined style as a system of purposefully selected and coordinated means that are used to express certain meanings . The concept of the relationship between style (tone) and genre of speech developed in antiquity (“the wheel” of Virgil, the theory of genres of Aristotle and Horace), according to which a certain genre corresponds to a certain tone, style), and a certain tone - a certain set of figures, allowed the linguistics of the XVIII- XX centuries indicate linguistic understanding style as a method, principle, manner of linguistic (speech) thinking and interaction . So, Yu.S. Stepanov lists five definitions of essence style as a manner of performing speech acts : 1) language style , or a variety of language traditionally assigned to one of the most general spheres of public life (according to which three styles are distinguished: “neutral”, “high”, or “bookish”, “low”, or “colloquial”, “familiar-colloquial” ", "colloquial"); 2) generally accepted manner of performing speech acts (oratory speech, judicial speech, everyday dialogue, friendly letter, etc.); 3) individual manner of performing speech acts (idiostyle); 4) language paradigm of the era , or the stylistic state of a language in a certain historical period of its development; 5) functional style , or a type of codified literary language in which the codified literary language appears in one or another socially significant sphere of performance of speech acts and the features of which are determined by the communicative originality of this sphere. The last version of the definition made it possible to expand the linguistic understanding of style, placing it in the broad context of the concept of communication, which “highlighted” the connection of stylistics with the linguistics of the text, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, semiotics, indicating the social and communicative orientation of the concept, correlating the category of style with the functioning of language, the function of linguistic communication and standardized use of language.

“...each person can own several individual "languages" , differing from each other both in the sphere of pronunciation and in the auditory sphere: everyday language, official language, the language of church sermons, the language of university departments, etc. (depending on the social status of the individual),” wrote I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (emphasis mine – ed.). At the same time: “All people use different languages at various points in your life; it depends on different states of mind, from different times of day and year, from different age periods of a person’s life, from memories of the previous individual language and from new language acquisitions” [ibid.: 200]. It is in this sociologized direction of anthropocentric linguistics that the concept of “style” develops in the twentieth century, representing not only the significance of the structural relationships of linguistic signs in the system, but also rules of a different order - functional relationship linguistic units in the process of socially significant communication, synthesizing the categories of extralinguistic and linguistic, objective and subjective.

As a special manner of performing speech acts, assigned to a certain socially significant sphere, the concept functional style has an ambiguous content volume in modern style. First of all, attention is drawn to the interpretation this concept in the Russian and Czech linguistic traditions, because it is with these national schools of linguistics that the history of stylistics as a functional (communicative) section of the science of language is primarily correlated.

1. In the concept of Prague scientists (V. Gavranek, V. Mathesius, etc.), functional style was defined as the manner of performing speech acts, determined by supra-individual taste, convention, or norm, which depends: 1) on the purpose of the utterance; 2) type of statement and 3) situation. In accordance with these style-forming factors functional style – this is a type of organization of linguistic expressions, depending on the characteristics of the communication process and, therefore, connecting the communicative aspect of language with a specific speech, text embodiment, extralinguistics and linguistics of speech It was believed that “...functional style is determined by the specific purpose of a particular utterance and represents the function of the utterance, that is, “speech” (parole)” [Gavranek 1967: 366]. In accordance with this definition, the following classification of functional styles was proposed [ibid.]:

Functional styles of literary language

A. Depending on the specific purpose of the statement:

1) practical message, 2) challenge (appeal), persuasion, 3) general presentation (popular), 4) special presentation (explanations, evidence), 5) codifying formulas.

B. Depending on the method of expression:

intimate - public, oral - written;

oral: 1) intimate: (monologue) - dialogue, 2) public: speech - discussion; written: 1) intimate, 2) public: a) announcement, poster, b) newspaper speech, c) book.

System (language) aspect, according to Prague scientists, does not reflect the concept of functional style (as the concept functional aspect speech), and the concept "functional language" , which is determined by “...the general tasks of the normative complex of linguistic means and is a function of the language (langue)” [ibid.]. Wed. [ibid: 365]:

Functions of literary language Functional languages

1) communicative 1) conversational

2) practically special 2) business

3) theoretically special 3) scientific

4) aesthetic 4) poetic.

“In a linguistic utterance, we are therefore faced with functional languages ​​in various types functional styles"[ibid]. Thus, the dichotomy of structural linguistics language/speech is justified functionally - by the clarity of the opposition of language/speech functions, reflected in the opposition of language (general, standard) and speech (specific, variant) spheres of communication, functional languages And functional styles .

2. In the domestic linguistic tradition (V.V. Vinogradov, G.O. Vinokur, B.A. Larin, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherba, L.P. Yakubinsky, etc.) functional style is defined as a functional variety of literary language , and the main problem is the choice of the basis for the selection and principles of classification of functional styles. At the same time, the “broad” and “narrow” definition of the concept (cf., for example, the behavior of all spheres of literary language under the term "functional style" in the concept of V.V. Vinogradov and the differentiation of terms "functional varieties of language" And "functional styles" in the concept of D.N. Shmelev) are correlated in Russian stylistics with the central problem of stylistic analysis of language in the functional aspect - to generalize real texts as defined by a system of differentiated linguistic means by those boundaries that are defined in the existing stylistic system of the language. So, according to V.V. Vinogradov, functional styles are differentiated, on the one hand, by the social functions of language (the function of communication is performed by the everyday style; messages - everyday business, official documentary and scientific; influences - journalistic and artistic-fiction), and on the other - by communicative functions (the communicative and everyday function is performed by conversational, book, everyday business and everyday life; scientific and communication - scientific and business and scientific and special; propaganda and communication - newspaper and magazine journalistic). According to D.N. Shmelev, the main functional types of literary language (“functional varieties of language”) include oral-colloquial speech, artistic speech and a set of functional styles enshrined in writing (scientific, official business and journalistic speech). Functional styles are areas of literary language that, in the principles of their systemic organization, differ significantly from the language of fiction and colloquial speech (the special aesthetic function of the language of fiction and the uncodified nature of colloquial speech as an “individual”, “personal” “language”). However, in any case, issues of functioning are correlated with the principle of systematicity and the need to represent this systematicity as a standard of real functioning in the language, to draw up a functional classification of the system of stylistic means of language, to implement any communicatively significant unit, a unit that marks certain stylistic relationships. Although the “pre-text” units of communicative motivation of linguistic signs themselves are not clearly fixed enough in this paradigm of stylistics, since, subordinate to the solution of problems of representing units of the stylistic system, the very factors of language conditioning are, as it were, accepted a priori, which implements a structural-functional approach, but not a communicative one. Hence the definition functional style as a phenomenon of the functional aspect of language , which consolidates in the Russian philological tradition the idea of ​​simultaneous fixation in the term “functional style” of “linguistic” and “speech” relevant content. Therefore, in Russian stylistics, a “synthesizing” model of functional style is implemented, considered simultaneously both as a style of language (a certain linguistic standard, an invariant of a separate functional sphere of socially significant communication), and as a style of speech (specific implementation, variant dynamic nature language, its functioning in the process of speech activity) (cf. [Kozhina 1993; Stepanov 1990]).

3. Special meaning has a synthesis of two traditions of functional stylistics in their relationship with the latest trends in functionalism and, above all, with discourse theory .

In modern linguistics, the classification and description of text-forming means is the most important task of both functional stylistics and text linguistics, discourse linguistics. Fulfilling this task requires a synthesis of the theory of functional styles and the theory of text, the theory of speech activity, psycholinguistics, and linguistic pragmatics. Since the functional style is realized in the form of texts of the same type of extralinguistic conditioning and communicative task, its speech systematicity is manifested, firstly, in the selection and frequency of units of different levels, and secondly, in the set of textual features themselves, which reflect the facets of the communicatively determined author's intention. Thus, the appeal of functional stylistics to the theory of discourse is natural, since the functional style generalizes certain texts that represent real participants and episodes of the communication process, and the actual communicative components of speech acts are associated primarily with the concept of discourse and the discursive process of speaking and understanding language, generating speech and its real exhibitors - texts. Discourse Usually a communicative event is defined as having the form of a text. In addition, it should be noted that the term discourse itself was originally used precisely in the meaning of “functional style.” The reason for the appearance of the new term lies in the features national schools language learning [Stepanov 1995]. If in the Russian tradition, thanks to the development of functional stylistics, the idea of ​​a functional style as a special type of texts and a speech system corresponding to each text was formed, then in the Anglo-Saxon tradition there was nothing similar, since there was no stylistics as a sphere of linguistics. However, the need to study the text-forming “forces” of language could not fail to be realized in connection with the debunking of the dogmas of anti-mentalism, which was reflected by the emergence of a new term “discourse”, which describes the functioning of a linguistic sign as a specific communicative event that generalizes the speech behavior of a linguistic personality. Moreover, modern approaches to discourse seem to repeat the logic of the formation of the concept of functional style: from language to communication and vice versa. Discourse is understood as a synonym for a text or an act of utterance, as well as “the originally special use of language to express a special mentality” (P. Serio). Wed: discourse – this is 1) the “givenness of the text” or the system (grammar) behind this givenness; 2) an arbitrary fragment of text consisting of more than one sentence or independent part of a sentence; 3) a communicative event that recreates the situation of “full semiotics” of natural language in the triad “language – world – consciousness”, etc. In accordance with the principles of the structure of discourse, a supporting concept is identified - the focus of the concentration of discourse created by the general context - a description of characters, objects, circumstances , times, actions and determined by a world common to the creator and interpreter - a reality “created” as the discourse unfolds (V.Z. Demyankov, T.A. van Dijk, V. Kinch, etc.). V.Z. Demyankov, in the dictionary of English-Russian terms for applied linguistics and automatic text processing, gives the following definition of discourse: “Discourse is a discourse, an arbitrary fragment of text consisting of more than one sentence or an independent part of a sentence. Often, but not always, centered around some Oprah concept; creates a general context that describes characters, objects, circumstances, times, actions... Elements of discourse: the events being presented, their participants, performative information, and “non-events”, i.e.: a) circumstances accompanying the events; b) background explaining the events; c) assessment of the participants in the events; d) information correlating discourse with events.”