Ekaterina 2 biography and board. Just Fike. How a poor German provincial became Catherine the Great

Catherine II Alekseevna the Great (née Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna; April 21 (May 2) 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796 Palace, Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia from 1762 to 1796.

The daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine came to power during a palace coup that overthrew her unpopular husband from the throne. Peter III.

The Catherine era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.

Under Catherine Great frontier The Russian Empire was significantly extended to the west (sections of the Commonwealth) and to the south (the annexation of Novorossia).

The system of public administration under Catherine II was reformed for the first time since time.

Culturally, Russia finally became one of the great European powers, which was greatly facilitated by the empress herself, who was fond of literary activity, who collected masterpieces of painting and was in correspondence with French enlighteners.

In general, Catherine's policy and her reforms fit into the mainstream of the enlightened absolutism of the 18th century.

Catherine II the Great (documentary)

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2 in a new style) 1729 in the then German city of Stettin - the capital of Pomerania (Pomorie). Now the city is called Szczecin, among other territories it was voluntarily transferred The Soviet Union, according to the results of World War II, Poland and is the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.

Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the Gottorp sovereign house, was the cousin of the future Peter III. Johanna Elizabeth's lineage goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

His maternal uncle, Adolf-Friedrich, was elected heir to the Swedish throne in 1743, to which he entered in 1751 under the name of Adolf-Fredrik. Another uncle, Karl Eitinsky, according to the plan of Catherine I, was to become the husband of her daughter Elizabeth, but died on the eve of the wedding celebrations.

In the family of the Duke of Zerbst, Catherine received a home education. Studied English, French and Italian languages, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. She grew up as a playful, inquisitive, playful girl, she loved to flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the Stettin streets. The parents were unhappy with their daughter's "boyish" behavior, but they were satisfied that Frederica took care of younger sister August. Her mother called her in childhood Fike or Fikchen (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederica").

In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Russian emperor), remembered that on her deathbed her mother bequeathed her to become the wife of a Holstein prince, the brother of Johann Elizabeth. Perhaps it was this circumstance that tipped the scales in Frederica's favor; Elizabeth had previously vigorously supported her uncle's election to the Swedish throne and exchanged portraits with her mother. In 1744, the Zerb princess, along with her mother, was invited to Russia to marry Pyotr Fedorovich, who was her second cousin. She first saw her future husband at Eitinsky Castle in 1739.

Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she tried to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers, the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher) are distinguished.

In an effort to learn Russian as quickly as possible, the future empress studied at night, sitting at an open window in the frosty air. Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so grave that her mother offered to bring in a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9) 1744 Sophia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name of Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.

The appearance of Sofia with her mother in St. Petersburg was accompanied by a political intrigue in which her mother, Princess Zerbst, was involved. She was a fan of King Frederick II of Prussia, and the latter decided to use her stay at the Russian imperial court to establish his influence on Russian foreign policy. For this, it was planned, through intrigue and influence on the Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, to remove from the affairs of Chancellor Bestuzhev, who pursued an anti-Prussian policy, and replace him with another nobleman who sympathized with Prussia. However, Bestuzhev managed to intercept the letters of the Princess of Zerbst to Frederick II and present them to Elizaveta Petrovna. After the latter learned about the "ugly role of a Prussian spy" played by Sofia's mother at her court, she immediately changed her attitude towards her and subjected her to disgrace. However, this did not affect the position of Sophia herself, who did not take part in this intrigue.

On August 21, 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich, who turned 17 and was her second cousin. Early years life together Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and matrimonial relations between them did not exist.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, September 20, 1754 Catherine gave birth to her son Paul... The birth was difficult, the baby was immediately taken away from the mother by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, and Catherine was deprived of the opportunity to educate, allowing him to see Paul only occasionally. So the Grand Duchess first saw her son only 40 days after giving birth. Several sources claim that true father Pavel was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the Notes of Catherine II, but they are often interpreted this way). Others - that such rumors are groundless, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated the defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity was of interest to society as well.

After the birth of Paul, relations with Peter and Elizabeth Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter called his wife "spare madame" and openly made mistresses, however, without hindering Catherine from doing this, who during this period, thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams, had a relationship with Stanislav Ponyatovsky, the future king of Poland. On December 9, 1757, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which aroused strong discontent with Peter, who spoke at the news of new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife got pregnant again! I'm not at all sure whether this child is from me and whether I should take it personally. "

During this period, the British ambassador Williams was a close friend and confidant of Catherine. He repeatedly provided her with significant amounts in the form of loans or subsidies: in 1750 alone, 50,000 rubles were transferred to her, for which there are two of her receipts; and in November 1756 44,000 rubles were transferred to her. In return, he received various confidential information from her - orally and through letters that she quite regularly wrote to him as if on behalf of a man (for conspiracy purposes). In particular, at the end of 1756, after the start of the Seven Years War with Prussia (of which England was an ally), Williams, as follows from his own dispatches, received from Catherine important information about the state of the belligerent Russian army and about the plan of the Russian offensive, which he transferred to London, as well as to Berlin to the Prussian king Frederick II. After Williams left, she received money from his successor, Keith. Historians explain Catherine's frequent appeal to the British for money by her wastefulness, because of which her expenses far exceeded the amounts that were allocated for her maintenance from the treasury. In one of her letters to Williams, she promised, as a token of gratitude, “To bring Russia to a friendly alliance with England, to render her everywhere the assistance and preference necessary for the good of all of Europe, and especially Russia, over their common enemy, France, whose greatness is a shame for Russia. I will learn to practice these feelings, base my glory on them and prove to the king, your sovereign, the strength of these feelings of mine ".

Already starting in 1756, and especially during the period of Elizabeth Petrovna's illness, Catherine hatched a plan to remove the future emperor (her husband) from the throne by conspiracy, which she repeatedly wrote to Williams. To this end, Catherine, according to the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, “begged for a loan of 10 thousand pounds sterling from the honest word to act in common Anglo-Russian interests, began to think about involving the guards in the case in the event of Elizabeth's death, entered into a secret agreement on this with Hetman K. Razumovsky, the commander of one of the guards regiments. " Chancellor Bestuzhev was also dedicated to this plan of the palace coup, who promised assistance to Catherine.

At the beginning of 1758, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna suspected of treason the commander-in-chief of the Russian army Apraksin, with whom Catherine was in friendly relations, as well as Chancellor Bestuzhev himself. Both were arrested, interrogated and punished; however, Bestuzhev managed to destroy all his correspondence with Catherine before his arrest, which saved her from persecution and disgrace. At the same time, Williams was recalled to England. Thus, her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end Winter Palace... When Catherine became pregnant by Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when it came time to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the courtyard left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Aleksey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I later awarded the title of count.

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him in the officer corps. So, he concluded an unprofitable treaty for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over her during the Seven Years War, and returned to her the lands seized by the Russians. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia's ally), in order to return Schleswig, which she had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to march at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land tenure and shared with the surrounding plans to reform church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife who was persecuted by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband finally deteriorated and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guards increased, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her associates, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, sergeant-major Potemkin and adjutant Fyodor Khitrovo, engaged in agitation in guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate reason for the start of the coup was the rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the disclosure and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

Apparently, foreign participation was also involved here. As A. Troyat and K. Walishevsky write, planning the overthrow of Peter III, Catherine turned to the French and British for money, hinting at what she was going to accomplish. The French reacted with suspicion to her request to borrow 60 thousand rubles, not believing in the seriousness of her plan, but from the British she received 100 thousand rubles, which later, possibly, influenced her attitude towards England and France.

In the early morning of June 28 (July 9) 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died under unexplained circumstances. In her letter, Catherine once pointed out that before his death, Peter suffered from hemorrhoidal colic. After death (although facts indicate that even before death - see below), Catherine ordered an autopsy to be done in order to dispel suspicions of poisoning. An autopsy showed (according to Catherine) that the stomach is absolutely clean, which excludes the presence of poison.

At the same time, as the historian N.I. Pavlenko writes, "The violent death of the emperor is irrefutably confirmed by absolutely reliable sources" - Orlov's letters to Catherine and a number of other facts. There are also facts indicating that she knew about the impending assassination of Peter III. So, already on July 4, 2 days before the death of the emperor in the palace in Ropsha, Catherine sent the doctor Paulsen to him, and as Pavlenko writes, "It is indicative that Paulsen was sent to Ropsha not with medicines, but with surgical instruments for opening the body.".

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as the reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, issuing a manifesto in which the basis for the removal of Peter indicated an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To substantiate her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to "the desire of all Our loyal subjects is obvious and unhypocritical." On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow. As V.O. Klyuchevsky described her accession to the throne, "Catherine made a double seizure: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father.".

The policy of Catherine II was characterized mainly by the preservation and development of the trends laid down by her predecessors. In the middle of the reign, an administrative (provincial) reform was carried out, which determined the territorial structure of the country until 1917, as well as judicial reform... Territory The Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), in terms of population Russia became the largest European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities.

Klyuchevsky on the reign of Catherine the Great: "The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 ships of the line and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 ships of the line and 40 frigates and 300 rowing ships, the amount of state revenues from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic - in increasing imports and exports, from 9 million to 44 million rubles., the Black Sea, Ekaterina and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1 million 900 thousand rubles in 1796, the growth of internal turnover was indicated by the issue of coins in 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million. "

Population growth was largely the result of joining Russia foreign states and territories (in which almost 7 million people lived), which often happened against the wishes of the local population, which led to the emergence of "Polish", "Ukrainian", "Jewish" and other national issues inherited by the Russian Empire from the era of Catherine II. Hundreds of villages under Catherine received the status of a city, but in fact they remained villages in appearance and occupation of the population, the same applies to a number of cities founded by her (some generally existed only on paper, as evidenced by contemporaries). In addition to the issue of the coin, paper notes were issued for 156 million rubles, which led to inflation and a significant devaluation of the ruble; therefore, the real growth of budget revenues and other economic indicators during her reign was significantly less than nominal.

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population practically did not increase, amounting to about 4%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), pig iron smelting increased more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sail-linen manufactures increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). Exports of Russian goods to other European countries increased significantly, including through the created Black Sea ports. However, in the structure of this export there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and foreign industrial products prevailed in imports. While in the West in the second half of the 18th century. the Industrial Revolution took place, Russian industry remained "patriarchal" and serfdom, which caused it to lag behind the West. Finally, in the 1770s and 1780s. an acute social and economic crisis broke out, which also resulted in a financial crisis.

Catherine's adherence to the ideas of the Enlightenment largely predetermined the fact that the term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the internal politics of Catherine's time. She really brought some of the ideas of the Enlightenment to life.

So, according to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Proceeding from this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the government was unified. However, the ideas expressed by Diderot and Voltaire, whose adherent she was in words, did not correspond to her domestic policy... They championed the idea that everyone is born free, and advocated the equality of all people and the elimination of medieval forms exploitation and despotic forms of government. Contrary to these ideas, under Catherine there was a further deterioration in the position of serfs, their exploitation intensified, inequality grew due to the granting of even greater privileges to the nobility.

In general, historians characterize her policy as "pro-noble" and believe that despite the empress's frequent statements about her "vigilant concern for the welfare of all subjects," the concept of the common good in the era of Catherine was the same fiction as in general in Russia XVIII century.

Under Catherine the territory of the empire was divided into provinces, many of which remained practically unchanged until the October Revolution. The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into two provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. Also, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant than that of Russian landowners. Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Speaking about the reasons for the provincial reform under Catherine, N.I. Pavlenko writes that it was a response to the Peasant War of 1773-1775. led by Pugachev, who revealed weakness local authorities and their inability to deal with peasant riots. The reform was preceded by a series of notes submitted to the government from the nobility, in which it was recommended to multiply the network of institutions and "police overseers" in the country.

Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common one for the Russian Empire Administrative division on the provinces and counties, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack foreman with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy treaty (1774), Russia received access to the Black Sea and Crimea.

Thus, there was no need to preserve the special rights and control system of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the dissolution of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was executed by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Pyotr Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, most of the Cossacks were disbanded, and the fortress itself was destroyed. In 1787, Catherine II, together with Potemkin, visited the Crimea, where she was met by the Amazon company created for her arrival; In the same year, the Army of the Faithful Zaporozhians was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack army, and in 1792 the Kuban was granted to them for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civilian government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia. In 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate was finally annexed to Russia.

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the extensive development of the economy and trade, while maintaining the "patriarchal" industry and agriculture. By the decree of 1775 the factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, the acceptance of deposits was introduced). A state bank was established and for the first time the issue of paper money - banknotes - was launched.

Introduced government regulation salt prices, which was one of the country's vital goods. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increasing competition and ultimately improving the quality of the goods. However, the price of salt was soon increased again. At the beginning of the reign, some monopolies were abolished: the state monopoly on trade with China, the private monopoly of the merchant Shemyakin on the import of silk, and others.

Russia's role in the global economy has grown- in England became in large quantities the Russian sailing linen was exported, the export of cast iron and iron increased to other European countries (the consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly). But the export of raw materials grew especially strongly: timber (5 times), hemp, bristles, etc., as well as bread. The volume of the country's exports increased from 13.9 million rubles. in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles. in 1790

Russian merchant ships began sailing in the Mediterranean as well. However, their number was insignificant in comparison with foreign ones - only 7% of the total number of ships serving Russian foreign trade at the end of the XVIII - early XIX centuries; the number of foreign merchant ships that annually entered Russian ports during the period of her reign increased from 1340 to 2430.

As the economic historian N.A. Rozhkov pointed out, in the structure of exports in the era of Catherine there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and 80-90% of imports were foreign industrial products, the volume of import of which was several times higher than domestic production. So, the volume of domestic manufacturing production in 1773 was 2.9 million rubles, the same as in 1765, and the volume of imports in these years was about 10 million rubles.

Industry developed poorly, there were practically no technical improvements and serf labor prevailed. Thus, from year to year, the cloth factories were unable to satisfy even the needs of the army, despite the ban on selling cloth “to the side,” in addition, the cloth was of poor quality and had to be bought abroad. Catherine herself did not understand the significance of the Industrial Revolution taking place in the West and argued that machines (or, as she called them, "colossus") harm the state by reducing the number of workers. Only two export industries developed rapidly - the production of cast iron and linen, but both - on the basis of "patriarchal" methods, without the use of new technologies that were actively introduced at that time in the West - which predetermined a severe crisis in both industries, which began soon after the death of Catherine II ...

In the field of foreign trade, Catherine's policy was a gradual transition from protectionism, characteristic of Elizabeth Petrovna, to the complete liberalization of exports and imports, which, according to a number of economic historians, was a consequence of the influence of the ideas of physiocrats. Already in the first years of the reign, a number of foreign trade monopolies and the ban on grain exports, which from that time began to grow rapidly, were abolished. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was founded, which promoted the ideas of free trade and published its own journal. In 1766, a new customs tariff was introduced, which significantly reduced tariff barriers in comparison with the protectionist tariff of 1757 (which established protective duties at a rate of 60 to 100% or more); they were reduced even more in the customs tariff of 1782. Thus, in the “moderately protectionist” tariff of 1766, protective duties averaged 30%, and in the liberal tariff of 1782 - 10%, only for some goods rising to 20%. thirty%.

Agriculture, like industry, developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land); the propaganda of intensive agricultural methods created by Catherine the Free Economic Society did not have much result.

From the first years of Catherine's reign, famine periodically began to arise in the countryside. that some contemporaries explained by chronic crop failures, but the historian M.N. in year. Cases of mass ruin of peasants have become more frequent. The Holodomors became especially widespread in the 1780s, when they covered large regions of the country. Prices for bread have grown strongly: for example, in the center of Russia (Moscow, Smolensk, Kaluga) they increased from 86 kopecks. in 1760 up to 2.19 rubles. in 1773 and up to 7 rubles. in 1788, that is, more than 8 times.

Introduced into circulation in 1769 paper money - banknotes- in the first decade of its existence, they accounted for only a few percent of the metal (silver and copper) money supply, and played a positive role, allowing the state to reduce its costs of moving money within the empire. However, due to the lack of money in the treasury, which became a constant phenomenon, from the beginning of the 1780s, there was an increasing issue of banknotes, the volume of which reached 156 million rubles by 1796, and their value had depreciated 1.5 times. In addition, the state borrowed money from abroad in the amount of 33 million rubles. and had various unpaid internal obligations (bills, salaries, etc.) in the amount of 15.5 million rubles. That. the total amount of government debts amounted to 205 million rubles, the treasury was empty, and budget expenditures significantly exceeded revenues, which was stated by Paul I upon accession to the throne. All this gave the historian N.D. Chechulin, in his economic research, to conclude that “a difficult economic crisis"In the country (in the second half of the reign of Catherine II) and about the" complete collapse of the financial system of Catherine's reign. "

In 1768, a network of urban schools based on the classroom system was created. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, special attention was paid to the development of women's education; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading in Europe scientific bases... An observatory, a physics study, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded on October 11, 1783.

Introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination, and Catherine decided to submit to her subjects personal example: on the night of October 12 (23), 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox. Among the first vaccinated were also Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state measures that were directly part of the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By order of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only at the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of Border and Port Quarantines" was created.

New directions of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and orphanages were opened. A number of fundamental works on medicine have been published.

To prevent their resettlement to the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II established the Pale of Settlement in 1791, outside of which Jews had no right to reside. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on living. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "On permission for all foreigners who enter Russia, to settle in which provinces they wish, and on the rights granted to them" called upon foreign subjects to move to Russia, the second determined the list of benefits and privileges for migrants. Soon, the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, set aside for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. The creation of colonies on the Volga went on increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

During the reign of Catherine, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Novorossia, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania. Total number new subjects acquired in this way by Russia reached 7 million. As a result, as V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote, in the Russian Empire "the strife of interests" between different nations... This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that for almost every nationality the government was forced to introduce a special economic, tax and administrative regime. Thus, the German colonists were completely exempted from paying taxes to the state and from other duties; the Pale of Settlement was introduced for the Jews; from the Ukrainian and Belarusian population on the territory former Speech The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was initially not levied at all, and then levied in half. The most discriminated against in these conditions was indigenous population, which led to this incident: some Russian noblemen in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to be “registered as Germans” so that they could enjoy the appropriate privileges.

On April 21, 1785, two letters were issued: "Diploma for the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility" and "Certificate of Appreciation to Cities"... The empress called them the crown of her activity, and historians consider them to be the crown of the "pro-nobility policy" of the kings of the 18th century. As N. I. Pavlenko writes, "In the history of Russia the nobility has never been blessed with such a variety of privileges as under Catherine II."

Both charters finally secured for the upper estates those rights, duties and privileges that had already been granted by Catherine's predecessors during the 18th century, and provided a number of new ones. Thus, the nobility as an estate was formed by decrees of Peter I and at the same time received a number of privileges, including exemption from the poll tax and the right to dispose of estates without restriction; and by the decree of Peter III it was finally freed from compulsory service to the state.

The letter of grant to the nobility contained the following guarantees:

Already existing rights were confirmed
- the nobility was exempted from quartering military units and teams, from corporal punishment
- the nobility received ownership of the bowels of the earth
- the right to have their own estate institutions changed the name of the 1st estate: not "nobility", but "noble nobility"
- it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be transferred to legal heirs
- the nobles have exclusive ownership of land, but the "Letter" does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs
- Ukrainian foremen were equal in rights with Russian nobles. a nobleman who did not have an officer's rank was deprived of the suffrage
- only noblemen, whose income from estates exceeds 100 rubles, could occupy elective posts.

Despite the privileges, in the era of Catherine II, property inequality increased greatly among the nobles: against the background of individual large fortunes, the economic situation of part of the nobility deteriorated. As the historian D.Blum points out, a number of large nobles owned tens and hundreds of thousands of serfs, which was not the case in previous reigns (when the owner of more than 500 souls was considered rich); at the same time, almost 2/3 of all landowners in 1777 had less than 30 male serf souls, and 1/3 of the landowners had less than 10 souls; many noblemen wishing to enter the civil service did not have the means to purchase appropriate clothing and footwear. V.O. Klyuchevsky writes that many noble children in her reign, even becoming students of the maritime academy and “receiving a small salary (scholarships), 1 ruble each. per month, "from barefoot" they could not even attend the academy and were forced, according to the report, not to think about the sciences, but about their own food, on the side to acquire funds for their maintenance. "

During the reign of Catherine II, a number of laws were adopted that worsened the situation of the peasants:

The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of the military commands sent to suppress the peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only into exile, but also to hard labor, and the term of hard labor was set by him himself; the landowners also had the right to return the exiled from hard labor at any time.
The decree of 1767 forbade the peasants to complain about their master; the disobedient were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court).
In 1783 serfdom was introduced in Little Russia (Left-Bank Ukraine and the Russian Black Earth Region).
In 1796 serfdom was introduced in Novorossiya (Don, North Caucasus).
After the partitions of the Rzecz Pospolita, the serfdom regime was tightened in the territories that became part of the Russian Empire ( Right-bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland).

As N.I. Pavlenko writes, under Catherine "serfdom developed in depth and breadth", which was "an example of a blatant contradiction between the ideas of the Enlightenment and government measures to strengthen the serf regime."

During her reign, Catherine gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to the landowners and nobles, thereby setting a kind of record. Most of them were not state peasants, but peasants from lands acquired during the partition of Poland, as well as palace peasants. But, for example, the number of attributed (possessory) peasants from 1762 to 1796. increased from 210 to 312 thousand people, and these were formally free (state) peasants, but converted to the position of serfs or slaves. Possessional peasants of the Ural factories took an active part in Peasant War 1773-1775

At the same time, the position of the monastic peasants was eased, and they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants stopped.

The fact that the empress was proclaimed a woman who had no formal rights to do so gave rise to many claimants to the throne, which overshadowed a significant part of the reign of Catherine II. So, only from 1764 to 1773 seven False Peter III appeared in the country(who claimed that they were nothing more than the "resurrected" Peter III) - A. Aslanbekov, I. Evdokimov, G. Kremnev, P. Chernyshov, G. Ryabov, F. Bogomolov, N. Krestov; the eighth was Emelyan Pugachev. And in 1774-1775. to this list was added the “case of Princess Tarakanova,” posing as the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.

During 1762-1764. 3 conspiracies were revealed aimed at overthrowing Catherine, and two of them were associated with the name of Ivan Antonovich - the former Russian emperor Ivan VI, who at the time of accession to the throne of Catherine II continued to live in prison in the Shlisselburg fortress. The first was attended by 70 officers. The second took place in 1764, when Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic took place in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd attacked the Donskoy Monastery, killed Archbishop Ambrose who was hiding in it, and began to smash the quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

In 1773-1775 there was a peasant uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. In the course of the uprising, the Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all provinces where hostilities were taking place joined the Cossacks. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism increased.

In 1772 the The first section of the Commonwealth... Austria received all of Galicia with districts, Prussia - West Prussia(Pomorie), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and abandon claims for the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the 1791 Constitution; the conservative part of the population of the Targovitsa Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 the The second section of the Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Diet. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossia (part of the territory of modern Ukraine).

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose goals were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of the same year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A. V. Suvorov. During the Kosciuszko uprising, the uprising Poles, who seized the Russian embassy in Warsaw, discovered documents that had a great public response, according to which King Stanislav Poniatovsky and a number of members of the Grodno Seim at the time of the approval of the 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth received money from the Russian government - in In particular, Poniatowski received several thousand ducats.

In 1795 the The third section of the Commonwealth... Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost its statehood and sovereignty.

An important direction foreign policy Catherine II was also the territory of the Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774), using as an excuse that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to gain victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the Battle of the Pockmarked Tomb, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi treaty, as a result of which Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto began to depend on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After graduation Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Girey was elected khan. The previous khan, a protege of Turkey, Devlet IV Girey, at the beginning of 1777 tried to resist, but it was suppressed by A. V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of a Turkish landing in the Crimea was prevented and thus an attempt to unleash a new war, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as a khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by the Russian troops introduced to the peninsula, and in 1783 by the manifesto of Catherine II the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the empress, together with the Austrian emperor Joseph II, made a triumphant trip across the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had ceded to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, the Russians also won a number of important victories, both overland - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Fokshany, the Turks' campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, and others, and the sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Battle of Kerch (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Yassy Peace Treaty, securing the Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, as well as pushing the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Orlov-Chesmensky, Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, they ceded to Russia the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, the Kuban region, strengthened its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans, strengthened Russia's prestige on the world stage.

According to many historians, these conquests are the main achievement of the reign of Catherine II. At the same time, a number of historians (K. Valishevsky, V. O. Klyuchevsky, etc.) and contemporaries (Frederick II, French ministers, etc.) explained the "amazing" victories of Russia over Turkey not so much by the strength of the Russian army and navy, which were still rather weak and poorly organized, as a result of the extreme decomposition during this period of the Turkish army and state.

The growth of Catherine II: 157 centimeters.

Personal life of Catherine II:

Unlike her predecessor, Catherine did not conduct extensive palace construction for her own needs. For comfortable travel around the country, she equipped a network of small traveling palaces along the road from St. Petersburg to Moscow (from Chesmensky to Petrovsky) and only at the end of her life started building a new country residence in Pella (not preserved). In addition, she was worried about the lack of a spacious and modern residence in Moscow and its environs. Although she did not visit the old capital often, Catherine over the years nurtured plans for the restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as the construction of suburban palaces in Lefortovo, Kolomenskoye and Tsaritsyno. For various reasons, none of these projects was completed.

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love". Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P.I.Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G.G. Orlov, horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned to marry Orlov, however, on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

Love connections Catherine was marked by a series of scandals. So, Grigory Orlov, being her favorite, at the same time (according to M. M. Shcherbatov) cohabited with all her maids of honor and even with his 13-year-old cousin. The favorite of the Empress Lanskoy used an aphrodisiac to increase " male power"(Contagion) in ever increasing doses, which, apparently, according to the conclusion of the court physician Weikart, was the reason for his unexpected death at a young age. Her last favorite, Platon Zubov, was a little over 20 years old, while Catherine's age at that time was already over 60. who were his adjutants before, testing their "male power" by her maids of honor, etc.).

The bewilderment of contemporaries, including foreign diplomats, the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, etc., was aroused by the rave reviews and characteristics that Catherine gave to her young favorites, mostly devoid of any outstanding talents. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, "neither before Catherine, nor after her, debauchery did not reach such a wide scale and did not manifest itself in such an openly defiant form."

It should be noted that in Europe, Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a rare occurrence against the background of the general licentiousness of the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. However, this does not apply to reigning queens and empresses. Thus, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa wrote about the "disgust and horror" that such persons as Catherine II instill in her, and this attitude towards the latter was shared by her daughter Marie Antoinette. As K. Valishevsky wrote in this regard, comparing Catherine II with Louis XV, “the difference between the sexes until the end of centuries, we think, will give a deeply different character to the same actions, depending on whether they were committed by a man or a woman ... besides, the mistresses of Louis XV never influenced the fate of France. "

There are numerous examples of the exceptional influence (both negative and positive) of the favorites of Catherine (Orlov, Potemkin, Platon Zubov, etc.) on the fate of the country, starting from June 28, 1762 until the very death of the Empress, as well as on its domestic, foreign policy and even on military actions. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, to please the favorite Grigory Potemkin, who envied the fame of Field Marshal Rumyantsev, this outstanding commander and hero of the Russian-Turkish wars was removed by Catherine from the command of the army and was forced to retire to his estate. Another, very mediocre commander, Musin-Pushkin, on the contrary, continued to lead the army, despite his blunders in military campaigns (for which the empress herself called him a "real idiot") - due to the fact that he was a "favorite on June 28", one of the those who helped Catherine to seize the throne.

In addition, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the mores of the higher nobility, which sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to lead “their man” into lovers to the empress, etc. A contemporary M. M. Shcherbatov wrote that the favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline in the morals of the nobility of that era, and historians agree with this.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - the son of Grigory Orlov), as well as daughter Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly from the future king of Poland Stanislav Ponyatovsky) who died in infancy. Less likely is Catherine's motherhood in relation to Potemkin's pupil Elizabeth, who was born when the empress was over 45 years old.

CATHERINE II the Great(1729-96), Russian empress (from 1762). German princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst. Since 1744 - in Russia. Since 1745, the wife of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future emperor, who was overthrown from the throne (1762), relying on the guards (G.G. and A.G. Orlov and others). Reorganized the Senate (1763), secularized the lands (1763-64), abolished the hetmanate in Ukraine (1764). She headed the Legislative Commission 1767-69. It happened with her Peasant war 1773-75. Published the Establishment for the management of the province in 1775, the Charter to the Nobility in 1785 and the Charter to the cities in 1785. Under Catherine II, as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-74, 1787-91, Russia finally consolidated its position on the Black Sea, the North were annexed. Black Sea region, Crimea, Kuban region. Accepted under Russian citizenship Vost. Georgia (1783). During the reign of Catherine II, the sections of the Commonwealth were carried out (1772, 1793, 1795). Corresponded with other figures of the French Enlightenment. Author of many fiction, dramatic, journalistic, popular science works, "Notes".

EKATERINA II Alekseevna(nee Sophia Augusta Frederica, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), Russian empress (from 1762-96).

Origin, upbringing and education

Catherine, the daughter of Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johannes-Elizabeth (nee Princess of Holstein-Gottorp), was related to royal houses Sweden, Prussia and England. She was educated at home: she studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. Already in childhood, her independent character, curiosity, perseverance, and at the same time a tendency to lively, active games, were manifested. In 1744, Catherine and her mother were summoned to Russia by the empress, baptized according to the Orthodox tradition under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna and named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III), with whom she married in 1745.

Life in Russia before accession to the throne

Catherine set herself the goal of winning the favor of the empress, her husband and the Russian people. However, her personal life was unsuccessful: Peter was childish, therefore, during the first years of marriage, there was no marital relationship between them. Paying tribute to the cheerful life of the court, Catherine turned to reading French enlighteners and works on history, jurisprudence and economics. These books shaped her worldview. Catherine became a consistent supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment. She was also interested in the history, traditions and customs of Russia. In the early 1750s. Catherine began an affair with a guard officer S.V. Saltykov, and in 1754 gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul I, but rumors that Saltykov was Paul's father are groundless. In the second half of the 1750s. Catherine had an affair with the Polish diplomat S. Poniatovsky (later King Stanislav August), and in the early 1760s. with G. G. Orlov, from whom she gave birth in 1762 to the son of Alexei, who received the surname Bobrinsky. The deterioration of relations with her husband led to the fact that she began to fear for her fate if he came to power and began to recruit supporters at court. The ostentatious piety of Catherine, her discretion, true love to Russia - all this contrasted sharply with the behavior of Peter and allowed her to gain prestige both among the high society capital society and the general population of St. Petersburg.

Accession to the throne

During the six months of Peter's reign III relationship Catherine and her husband (who openly appeared in the company of her mistress E. R. Vorontsova) continued to deteriorate, becoming clearly hostile. There was a threat of her arrest and possible expulsion. Catherine carefully prepared a conspiracy, relying on the support of the Orlov brothers, N. I. Panin, E. R. Dashkova and others. On the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in Oranienbaum, Catherine secretly arrived in St. Petersburg and was proclaimed autocratic empress. Soon, soldiers from other regiments joined the insurgents. The news of Catherine's accession to the throne quickly spread throughout the city and was enthusiastically greeted by the Petersburgers. To prevent the actions of the deposed emperor, messengers were sent to the army and to Kronstadt. Meanwhile, Peter, having learned about what had happened, began to send proposals to Catherine about negotiations, which were rejected. The empress herself, at the head of the guards regiments, set out for Petersburg and on the way received Peter's written abdication from the throne.

Character and mode of government

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people; she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, military leaders, writers, artists, and musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, knew how to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at capturing any sensible thought and used it for her own purposes. During the entire period of Catherine's reign, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles was disgraced, was not exiled, and even less executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else. For the sake of her preservation, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her convictions.

Relation to religion and the peasant question

Catherine was distinguished by her ostentatious piety, considered herself the head and protector of the Russian Orthodox Church and skillfully used religion in her political interests. Her faith, apparently, was not too deep. In the spirit of the times, she preached tolerance. Under her, the persecution of the Old Believers was stopped, Catholic and Protestant churches, mosques were built, however, the transition from Orthodoxy to another faith was still severely punished.

Catherine was a staunch opponent of serfdom, considering it inhuman and contrary to the very nature of man. Her papers retained a lot of harsh statements on this matter, as well as discussions about various options for the elimination of serfdom. However, she did not dare to do anything concrete in this area because of the well-founded fear of a noble revolt and another coup. At the same time, Catherine was convinced of the spiritual underdevelopment of the Russian peasants and therefore in danger of giving them freedom, believing that the life of the peasants with caring landowners was quite prosperous.

Catherine II the Great (Ekaterina Alekseevna Romanova, nee Sophia Augusta Frederica, German princess of Anhalt-Zerbst) is an empress-champion of enlightenment, often presented as the successor to the cause of Peter the Great, the only Russian ruler to be awarded the title of Great.

The period of her reign from 1762 to 1796 is not without reason called the "golden age" of the country. The borders of Russia were extended, treasury revenues were increased by 4 times (from 16 to 68 million rubles), and the population grew from 30 to 44 million people.

Childhood and youth

The future prominent representative of the world political arena was born on May 2, 1729 in the German principality of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her father, Prince Christian Augustus, belonged to an ancient but impoverished German princely family. He was in the service of the King of Prussia, ending his career in the high military rank of Field Marshal. Mother, Johanna Elizabeth, princess of the Holstein-Gottorp dynasty.

A pretty, cheerful and lively little girl was called Fike by her relatives. She enjoyed playing with her younger sister, learning foreign languages, music, history, and calligraphy, catching everything on the fly. She spent several years in Berlin, at the court of Frederick II. There was a legend that her real father was the king himself, who was Johann's cousin.

At the age of 10, in the house of the bishop of the city of Eitin, she met Karl Peter Ulrich, the future Peter III and her husband. In 1743, on the recommendation of Frederick II, they married her, and a year later, on the eve of the 16th birthday of Pyotr Fedorovich, she went to the First See, where she began to prepare for the wedding: she studied the Russian language, traditions and customs of the new homeland.

Marriage

In June 1743, she was baptized into Orthodoxy as Ekaterina Alekseevna, then an engagement, and in August a wedding. The wedding celebration lasted ten days amid volleys of guns and fireworks.

After the wedding, the relationship between the spouses went wrong: her august life partner ignored her. At first, Catherine was bored alone, and then she began to study the works of French educators, books on philosophy, history and geography of Russia in an effort to get to know better the country she was preparing to rule.

In addition to self-education, she found time for hunting and billiards, for useful communication with interesting people... She also loved to do metal engraving. Lack of emotional intimacy with her husband contributed to the emergence of numerous lovers.

In 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son. The Tsarevich, named Paul, was immediately taken away from her. Empress Elizaveta Petrovna took care of the upbringing of the heir, isolating him from his mother. Catherine realized that she had only one thing left to do - to get involved in politics. To the delight of her husband, she took over the management of his Duchy of Holstein, began to delve into the essence of the cases to be considered, and on this basis became close to Alexei Bestuzhev.

In 1762, after the death of Elizabeth, Peter III ascended the throne and demonstrated his Prussian sympathies with his first steps. Particular indignation of the officer corps was caused by the signing of a peace treaty with Prussia, which provided for the return of all lands captured at the cost of many lives during the Seven Years War. He began to live openly with his favorite Elizaveta Vorontsova, showed a disrespectful attitude towards the church - he announced plans to reform church rituals.

As a result, abandoned by her husband, benevolent with others and pious Catherine, fearing divorce and arrest, with the support of the guards, made palace coup... The Orlov brothers, diplomat Panin, hetman of the Zaporizhzhya Army Razumovsky and other persons dissatisfied with Peter III took an active part in its preparation. Realizing the hopelessness of the situation, he signed an abdication and died almost immediately under dubious circumstances.

The era of Catherine the Great

Starting her reign in 1762, Catherine II tried to arrange the state in accordance with the ideals of the Enlightenment. She implemented reforms that were important and significant for the empire, earning tremendous public support. A year later, she initiated a reorganization of the Senate, which increased the productivity of its work. In 1764 - the secularization of the church lands, which made it possible to replenish the treasury.

As a supporter of the unification of the management of the outskirts of the state, the reigning empress abolished the hetmanate. In accordance with the principles of the Enlightenment, she created several new educational institutions, including the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Russian Academy.

On the basis of the works of the authors-educators in 1767 she wrote a collection legislative norms"Mandate", for the approval of which she convened a special commission from representatives of various strata of society. The empress's policy was distinguished by religious tolerance - she stopped the oppression of the Old Believers.

After the Russian-Turkish war and the Pugachev revolt, a new round of introducing the most important innovations of the tsarina began. In 1775, she developed and implemented the provincial reform, which was in effect until 1917, published a set of noble privileges, acts on self-government of cities, on the creation of elective courts, on the vaccination of the population, etc.

The efforts of the autocrat in the foreign policy sphere were no less significant. During her reign, a number of divisions of the Commonwealth took place, the country's positions in the Baltic were strengthened, the Crimea and Georgia were annexed.

Men and children of Catherine II

Catherine II became famous not only as a powerful and great, but also as the most eager for a male empress. In the list of her favorites, according to a number of historians, there were about 30 names.

The most "unbridled feelings" of the queen were associated with His Serene Highness Prince Grigory Orlov, with the closest friend and adviser Grigory Potemkin, with Alexander Lansky, who became a heartfelt friend of the 54-year-old empress at the age of 25, with the last favorite Platon Zubov (22-year-old at the time of the beginning of the novel with 60-year-old autocrat).

Catherine the Great: personal life | Favorites and lovers of the Empress

None of the favorites, except for Potemkin and Pyotr Zavadovsky, were allowed to solve political issues by Catherine the Great. And none of her chosen ones was disgraced. She generously awarded them all with honorary titles, orders, estates and money.

The empress had three children: son Pavel from the legal spouse of Peter Fedorovich (or, according to one version, from Sergei Saltykov) and daughter Anna (allegedly from Stanislav Ponyatovsky), who died as an infant, as well as the illegitimate son Alexei Bobrinsky (from Grigory Orlov ). It is also believed that Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (born 1775) is the daughter of the Empress and Potemkin, who later took her under his wing.

Death

At the end of her life, the reigning empress devoted a lot of time to caring for her grandchildren: Alexander and Constantine. She named the eldest of the children, Pavel, in honor of the patron saint of St. Petersburg, Alexander Nevsky. She had a strained relationship with her unloved son Paul. She wanted to make the eldest grandson, not him, the heir to the throne, so she was personally involved in raising him. However, her plans were not destined to come true.

In 1796, on November 16, the great empress was overtaken by a blow. The next day, without regaining consciousness, she died of a stroke. They buried her in the Peter and Paul Cathedral together with her husband, opening his grave. The next ruler of the Russian Empire was Paul I.

A foreigner by birth, she sincerely loved Russia and cared about the welfare of her subjects. Having occupied the throne through a palace coup, the wife of Peter III tried to bring to life Russian society best ideas European Enlightenment. At the same time, Catherine opposed the outbreak of the Great French Revolution (1789-1799), outraged by the execution of the French king Louis XVI Bourbon (January 21, 1793) and predetermining Russia's participation in the anti-French coalition European states at the beginning of the XIX century.

Catherine II Alekseevna (née Sophia Augusta Frederika, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst) was born on May 2, 1729 in the German city of Stettin (present-day Poland), and died on November 17, 1796 in St. Petersburg.

The daughter of Prince Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst and Princess Johannes-Elizabeth (nee Princess of Holstein-Gottorp), who was in the Prussian service, was related to the royal houses of Sweden, Prussia and England. She received a home education, the course of which, in addition to dancing and foreign languages, also included the basics of history, geography and theology.

In 1744, she and her mother were invited to Russia by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, and baptized according to the Orthodox tradition under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Soon it was announced about her engagement with the Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III), and in 1745 they got married.

Catherine understood that the court loved Elizabeth, did not accept many of the oddities of the heir to the throne, and, perhaps, after Elizabeth's death, it was she, with the support of the court, to ascend the Russian throne. Catherine studied the works of the leaders of the French Enlightenment, as well as jurisprudence, which had a significant impact on her worldview. In addition, she made as much effort as possible to study, and possibly understand the history and traditions of the Russian state. Because of her desire to learn everything Russian, Catherine won the love not only of the court, but of the whole of Petersburg.

After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, the relationship between Catherine and her husband, never distinguished by warmth and understanding, continued to deteriorate, taking on clearly hostile forms. Fearing arrest, Catherine, with the support of the Orlov brothers, N.I. Panin, K.G. Razumovsky, E.R. Dashkova on the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in Oranienbaum, made a palace coup. Peter III was exiled to Ropsha, where he soon died under mysterious circumstances.

Starting her reign, Catherine tried to implement the ideas of the Enlightenment and arrange a state in accordance with the ideals of this most powerful European intellectual movement. Almost from the first days of her reign, she actively participates in public affairs proposing reforms that are significant for society. On her initiative, in 1763, a reform of the Senate was carried out, which significantly increased the efficiency of its work. Wishing to increase the dependence of the church on the state, and to provide additional land resources to the nobility supporting the policy of reforming society, Catherine carried out the secularization of church lands (1754). The unification of the management of the territories of the Russian Empire began, and the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished.

The champion of the Enlightenment Catherine creates a number of new educational institutions, including for women (Smolny Institute, Catherine School).

In 1767, the empress convened a commission, which included representatives of all strata of the population, including peasants (except for serfs), to compose a new code - a code of laws. To direct the work of the Legislative Commission, Catherine wrote the "Order", the text of which was based on the writings of educational authors. This document, in fact, was the liberal program of her reign.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. and the suppression of the uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev began new stage Catherine's reforms, when the Empress independently developed the most important legislative acts and, using the unlimited power of her power, implemented them.

In 1775, a manifesto was issued, allowing the free opening of any industrial enterprises... In the same year, a provincial reform was carried out, which introduced a new administrative-territorial division of the country, which remained until 1917. In 1785, Catherine issued letters of gratitude to the nobility and cities.

In the foreign policy arena, Catherine II continued to pursue an offensive policy in all directions - north, west and south. The results of foreign policy can be called the strengthening of Russia's influence on European affairs, the three sections of the Commonwealth, the strengthening of positions in the Baltic States, the annexation of Crimea, Georgia, participation in countering the forces of revolutionary France.

The contribution of Catherine II to Russian history is so significant that many works of our culture keep her memory.

It was not for nothing that she was called the Great during her lifetime. During the long reign of Catherine II, practically all spheres of activity and life in the state underwent changes. Let's try to consider who really was and how much Catherine II ruled in the Russian Empire.

Catherine the Great: years of life and results of reign

The real name of Catherine the Great – Sophia Frederica August of Anhalt is Tserbskaya. She was born on April 21, 1729 in Stetsin. Sophia's father, the Duke of Cerbt, rose to the rank of field marshal of the Prussian service, claimed the Duchy of Courland, was the governor of Stetsin, and did not make a fortune in the impoverished Prussia at that time. Mother - from not wealthy relatives of the Danish kings of the Oldenburg dynasty, a cousin to the future husband of Sophia Frederica.

Not much is known about the period of the future empress's life with her parents. Sophia received a good, at that time, home education, which included the following subjects:

• German;
• French;
• Russian language (not confirmed by all researchers);
• dance and music;
• etiquette;
• needlework;
• basics of history and geography;
• theology (Protestantism).

The parents did not raise the girl, only from time to time showing parental severity with suggestions and punishments. Sophia grew up as a lively and inquisitive child, easily communicated with her peers on the streets of Shtetsin, as much as she could, she was accustomed to leading household and took part in household work - my father could not support all the necessary staff of servants on his salary.

In 1744, Sophia Frederica, together with her mother, as an escort, was invited to Russia for a bride, and then married (August 21, 1745) to a second cousin, heir to the throne, Holstein by birth, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. Almost a year before the wedding, Sophia Frederica receives Orthodox baptism and becomes Ekaterina Alekseevna (in honor of the mother of the ruling Empress Elizabeth Petrovna).

According to the established version, Sophia-Catherine was so imbued with her hopes for a great future in Russia that immediately upon arrival in the empire she rushed to frantically study Russian history, language, traditions, Orthodoxy, French and German philosophy, etc.

Relationship with her husband did not work out. What was the real reason is unknown. Perhaps the reason was Catherine herself, who until 1754 suffered two unsuccessful pregnancies without having a marital relationship, as the generally accepted version claims. The reason could be Peter, who is believed to be fond of rather exotic (with some external flaws) women.

Be that as it may, in a young grand-ducal family, the ruling Empress Elizabeth demanded an heir. On September 20, 1754, her wish came true - her son Pavel was born. There is a version that S. Saltykov became his father. Some believe that Elizabeth herself "planted" Saltykova in Catherine's bed. However, no one disputes the fact that outwardly Paul is a poured out Peter, and the subsequent reign and character of Paul serve as further evidence of the origin of the latter.

Elizabeth immediately after birth takes her grandson from her parents and takes care of his upbringing herself. The mother is only sometimes allowed to see him. Peter and Catherine are even more distant - the meaning of spending time together is exhausted. Peter continues to play "Prussia - Holstein", and Catherine develops ties with the Russian, English, Polish aristocracy. Both periodically change lovers without a shadow of jealousy for each other.

The birth in 1758 of Catherine's daughter Anna (it is believed that from Stanislav Ponyatovsky) and the opening of her correspondence with British ambassador and the disgraced field marshal Apraksin puts the Grand Duchess on the brink of tonsure into a monastery, which did not suit her at all.

In December 1762, after a long illness, Empress Elizabeth dies. Peter takes the throne and removes his wife to the far wing of the Winter Palace, where Catherine gives birth to another child, this time from Grigory Orlov. The child will later become Count Alexei Bobrinsky.

Peter III for several months of his reign manages to set the military, noblemen and clergy against himself with his pro-Russian and anti-Russian actions and desires. These same circles perceive Catherine as an alternative to the emperor and a hope for changes for the better.

On June 28, 1762, with the support of the guards regiments, Catherine made a coup and became an autocratic ruler. Peter III abdicates and then dies under strange circumstances. According to one version, he was stabbed to death with a fork by Alexei Orlov, according to another, he fled and became Emelyan Pugachev, etc.

• secularization of church lands - saved the empire from financial collapse at the beginning of the reign;
• the number of industrial enterprises has doubled;
• treasury revenues quadrupled, but despite this, after the death of Catherine, a budget deficit of 205 million rubles was revealed;
• the army has doubled;
• as a result of 6 wars and "peacefully" the south of Ukraine, Crimea, Kuban, Kerch, partly the lands of White Russia, Poland, Lithuania, and the western part of Volyn were annexed to the empire. total area acquisitions - 520,000 sq. km .;
• the uprising in Poland under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko was suppressed. Supervised the suppression of A.V. Suvorov, who eventually became Field Marshal. Was it just an uprising when such rewards are received for suppressing it?
• uprising (or full-scale war) led by E. Pugachev in 1773 - 1775 In favor of the fact that it was a war, the fact that the best commander of that time A.V. Suvorov;
• after the suppression of E. Pugachev's uprising, the development of the Urals and Siberia by the Russian Empire began;
• more than 120 new cities were built;
• the territorial division of the empire into the provinces was carried out according to the number of population (300,000 people - the province);
• elective courts have been introduced for the examination of civil and criminal cases of the population;
• organized noble self-government in the cities;
• a set of noble privileges was introduced;
• the final enslavement of the peasants took place;
• the system of secondary education was introduced, schools were opened in provincial cities;
• the Moscow Orphanage and the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens were opened;
• paper money was introduced into the circulation of money and the Assignation with eagle owls was created in large cities;
• vaccination of the population began.

In what year did Catherine dieIIand her heirs

Long before her death, Catherine II began to think about who would come to power after her and who would be able to continue the work of strengthening the Russian state.

Son Paul as the heir to the throne did not suit Catherine, as an unbalanced person and too similar to the ex-husband of Peter III. Therefore, she devoted all her attention to raising the heir to her grandson Alexander Pavlovich. Alexander received an excellent education and married at the request of his grandmother. The marriage confirmed that Alexander was an adult.

Despite the will of the empress, who died of a cerebral hemorrhage in mid-November 1796, insisting on her right to inherit the throne, Paul I came to power.

How many rules Catherine II should evaluate descendants, but for a true assessment it is necessary to read the archives, and not a repetition of what was written a hundred - one hundred and fifty years ago. Only in this case is a correct assessment of the rule of this extraordinary person possible. Purely chronologically, the reign of Catherine the Great lasted 34 eventful years. It is known for certain and confirmed by numerous uprisings that not all the inhabitants of the empire liked what was done during the years of its enlightened rule.