Home Useful properties of fruits History in the formation and development of the Russian state. Buryakova V. Periods of development of the Russian statehood. The reign of Nicholas I

Useful properties of fruits

History in the formation and development of the Russian state. Buryakova V. Periods of development of the Russian statehood. The reign of Nicholas I

Formation and development Russian statehood go back many centuries. The beginning of this process was laid in the Old Russian state and continues to this day.

Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: the Old Russian state, the Moscow state, the Russian Empire, the Soviet state and the Russian Federation.

1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kiev arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until the middle of the 15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Russia, the merger of its northern and southern centers, the growth of the military-political and international influence of the state, the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and loss of centralized government, which was natural for early feudal monarchies.

The spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state was destined to become Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, named the Red Sun. Under him in 988, Russia adopted Orthodoxy as the state religion. After that, literacy began to spread in the country, painting and literature began to develop.

However, by the end of the 12th century, a number of independent states were being formed in Russia. Due to their fragmentation, in the first third of the 13th century, enemies constantly begin to attack the Russian lands. As a result, in the XIV century, Ancient Russia as a state community ceases to exist.

Since the XIV century in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the importance of the Moscow principality, which acted as the center of the "gathering of Russian lands", increased. A special role in this process was played by the reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy at the Kulikovo field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as organizer and spiritual center the emerging Russian state.

2. The Moscow state existed from the middle of the 15th to the end of the 17th century. In this era, the final liberation of the Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of "collecting lands" around Moscow was completed, the main state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles were formed Russian autocracy... A vivid manifestation of the increase in the authority of the sovereign of Moscow was the solemn wedding of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by major organ reforms government controlled, judicial system, armies, churches. The formation of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its successes in centralizing the state and intensifying its foreign policy. The growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by the significant expansion of its territory through successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east.

All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.

V late XVI - early XVII century Russia has entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called " Time of Troubles". Our Fatherland found itself on the verge of collapse and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige.

During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Moscow kingdom into the Russian Empire.

More on topic 2. Stages of development of Russian statehood. Characteristics of approaches:

CHAPTER 1 MAIN HISTORICAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF MODERN RUSSIAN FEDERALISM
1.1. THE MAIN STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INHERITANCE LAW OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
4.3. The history of the development of domestic constitutionalism and the stages of constitutional reform in the Russian Federation

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The formation and development of Russian statehood goes back many centuries. The beginning of this process was laid in the Old Russian state and continues to this day.

Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: Old Russian state, Moscow state, Russian Empire, Soviet state and Russian Federation.

1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kiev arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until the middle of the 15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Russia, the merger of its northern and southern centers, the growth of the military-political and international influence of the state, the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and loss of centralized government, which was natural for early feudal monarchies.

Since the XIV century in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the importance of the Moscow principality, which acted as the center of the "gathering of Russian lands", increased. A special role in this process was played by the reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy at the Kulikovo field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as the organizing and spiritual center of the emerging Russian state.

2. The Moscow state existed from the middle of the 15th to the end of the 17th century. In this era, the final liberation of the Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of "collecting lands" around Moscow was completed, the main state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy took place. A vivid manifestation of the increase in the authority of the sovereign of Moscow was the solemn wedding of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of government bodies, the judicial system, the army, the church. The formation of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its successes in centralizing the state and intensifying its foreign policy. The growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by the significant expansion of its territory through successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east.

All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.

At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the Time of Troubles. Our Fatherland found itself on the verge of collapse and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige.

During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Moscow kingdom into the Russian Empire.

3. The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place.

The era of Peter I was a turning point in the history of Russia. His reforms covered all spheres of state and public life, defining the development of our country for a long historical perspective. They were aimed at maximum centralization in the management of the state with its decisive influence on the life of all strata of society and strict regulation of all its aspects.

After the death of Peter I, the Russian Empire entered the era of palace coups. During the period from 1725 to 1762, six autocrats were replaced on the Russian throne, including the infant Tsar Ivan Antonovich. At that time, the all-powerful temporary workers acquired enormous importance in the administration of the empire.

The reign of Catherine II (1762 -1796) was marked by the declared policy of "enlightened absolutism", an unprecedented increase in the privileges of the nobility as a noble estate of the Russian Empire and, at the same time, an unprecedented scale of serf tyranny.

Attempts by Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine's liberties of the nobility led to another palace coup and the murder of the emperor, who annoyed the high officials and officers with his unpredictable actions.

In the 19th century, Russia entered with a brilliant facade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-growing internal political and social problems... Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform the huge empire he inherited. However, this process was interrupted by the Patriotic War of 1812, which, as it were, divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages: the first was characterized by "constitutional quests", and the second - by the strengthening of the police state - Arakcheevism. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government on the part of the Russian noble intelligentsia.

The policy of Nicholas I (1825 -1855), contrary to the requirements of the era, which hindered the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis in the mid-19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the "great reform", declaring the abolition of serfdom of the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical transformations in the sphere of central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, the reorganization of the army and navy, and the democratization of the education system.

However, these reforms did not close the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia.

The attempts of Alexander III (1881-1894) to stabilize the state-political system of autocratic Russia by carrying out a series of counter-reforms only increased the gap between the monarch and his subjects.

The accession to the throne of the last Russian autocrat, Nicholas II (1895 -1917), was marked by an unprecedented scale of the revolutionary movement in Russia and the inevitable collapse of the monarchical system.

4. The Soviet state existed from February 1917 to the end of 1991 and is associated with formalization of the foundations of Soviet statehood in the era of the revolutionary transformation of Imperial Russia into the Russian Republic. This stage in the development of our state absorbed the crisis of the central state power and the disintegration of the ethnopolitical unity of the country, the loss of the democratic perspective of state development by the Provisional Government and the further radicalization of the revolutionary movement in the country, on the wave of which the Bolsheviks came to power as a result of the revolution, led by V.I. Ulyanov (Lenin). During the Civil War, Bolshevism, which became the ideological core of the new system, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which restored the political and territorial unity of most of the former Russian Empire.

For 30 years (from the beginning of 1920 to 1953), the “great leader and father of peoples” I.V. Stalin.

Thanks to the innumerable sacrifices and unparalleled heroism of several generations of Soviet people, the Soviet state in the shortest possible time acquired a powerful economic potential and became a powerful industrial power, which allowed the USSR not only to withstand, but also to defeat fascism during the Great Patriotic War(1941 -1945).

At the same time, victory in the war was the beginning of a large-scale rivalry between the two state-political and economic systems in the international arena - the USSR and the United States of America (USA). In the post-war period, under the conditions of the Cold War, an unprecedented arms race developed, based on the Soviet-American rivalry.

Soviet leaders are the heirs of Stalin, realizing the need and inevitability of reforming the outdated model of the totalitarian state, but fearing the loss of the party nomenklatura power in the country, they tried to carry out reforms without changing the foundations of the socialist system. Attempts at reform during the "thaw" led to the resignation of the leader The communist party Soviet Union (CPSU) N.S. Khrushchev (1964), and the policy of "perestroika" of the latter The Secretary General The Central Committee KPSS M.S. Gorbachev ended with the collapse of the USSR as a single totalitarian state and the collapse of the party-Soviet system.

5. The era of the Russian Federation began in December 1991 and continues to the present day. Over the past time, fundamental changes have taken place in the country. The new Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 was adopted, which made it possible to form a democratic political system. The multiparty system has become a reality. The Russians elected the President of the Russian Federation, deputies of the State Duma, governors, mayors, bodies local government.

The unification of Russian lands into a single centralized multinational state and its characteristics

The process of the formation of Russian statehood is complex and diverse.

This process began in the 5th-8th centuries, when alliances of tribes of the ancient Slavs began to appear and establish themselves in the European part of Russia.

On the basis of the union of Slavic principalities, by the beginning of the 9th century in the Middle Dnieper region, a state formation was formed, which was called Rus. By the name of the capital - Kiev - it began to be called Kievan Rus.

The emergence of the state took place in difficult conditions. Constantly had to fight against the troops of foreign conquerors who penetrated into Russia. Only unification could prevent them Eastern Slavs.

The founder of the Kiev State was Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, nicknamed the Red Sun in Russian epics. To unite the old Russian lands and strengthen the princely power, he established Christianity in Russia in 988.

In the first half of the 11th century, simultaneously with the strengthening of statehood, the formation of Old Russian law took place. The most outstanding monument of the documents that have come down to our times is "Russian Pravda".

From the second half of the 11th century on the steppe borders of Russia, a dangerous enemy appeared - the warlike hordes of the Polovtsians. This served as the impetus for strengthening the unity of the principalities torn apart by internal strife. The Polovtsian onslaught was repulsed by the united squads of the Russians under the leadership of Prince Vladimir Monomakh. He strengthened the internal position of the country and overcame inter-princely feuds.

In the XII century, Kievan Rus began to disintegrate into separate "great principalities" - "lands", which were split into smaller ones - "volosts".

In the south-west of Russia, the Galicia-Volyn principality gradually rose, in the north-east - the Vladimir-Suzdal land, in the north-west - Novgorod ("Lord Veliky Novgorod")

The most active development of their lands was the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky, founded and built Moscow in 1147. In 1155 he owned Kiev and fought for the all-Russian grand-ducal table. His son Andrei Bogolyubsky continued his father's policy.

In the first half of the 13th century, the emerging unification process in the north-east of Russia was interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. The Russian lands fell under the Horde dependence for a long time.

In a fierce struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke (the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380), Moscow played the role of the national political center for the unification of Russian lands. At the end of the XIV century, with the fall of the Horde rule, Russian statehood was restored.

Since the reign of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389 - 1425), the image of the horseman - St. George the Victorious on the grand ducal seals takes on a hereditary character and becomes the Moscow coat of arms.

Historical stage of the 15th - 18th centuries. - this is the time of the creation and consolidation of the Russian centralized unified multinational state.

What are the reasons for its formation?

This is the restoration of the economy destroyed by internecine wars and the Mongol-Tatar invasion. The number of agricultural regions is increasing in the northwest, near Novgorod, in central Russia, mainly around Moscow. Although agriculture remained subsistence, economic ties between cities and principalities grew. Trade relations were strengthened.

Moscow became the center of the unification of Russian lands. She defended this right in the struggle against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Tver, Novgorod and Ryazan. Moscow occupied an extremely important geopolitical position.

In the middle of the 15th century, the Grand Duke of Moscow is the most powerful ruler in Russia. Ivan III, who annexed the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities to Moscow, began to call himself "the great prince and sovereign of all Russia."

Under Ivan III, the power of the Moscow prince and the role of the central apparatus of governing the country increased significantly. The entire state and its army were led by the Grand Duke.

Ivan III actually managed to solve the problem of liberating the Russian lands from the Horde yoke.

Together with the creation of a single state, uniform laws began to be introduced for the entire country. In 1497, under Ivan III, a collection of laws was compiled - a law code.

The Russian state has emerged as a multinational one. The bulk of the population was made up of Russians, but many peoples of the north and the Volga region (Mordvinians, Chuvashs, etc.) entered Russia. The state was headed by the Grand Duke.

Ivan III created a system of administrative and political administration of the country. The main political force in the administration was the Boyar Duma. The Russian Orthodox Church also took a step towards independence: in 1448, the Metropolitan, who was previously appointed from Byzantium, began to be elected by the "council" (assembly) of Russian bishops.

Exceptionally important decisions to strengthen the centralized state were implemented under Ivan VI, nicknamed the Terrible, in the 16th century. It was a difficult, difficult time for the country and for the Russian people, but at the same time agriculture is developing, the number of cities is growing (there are 160 of them). Russia is developing international trade relations.

To strengthen the state, Ivan VI took a number of steps, which, as they were implemented, grew into a set of reforms. On January 16, 1547, he was crowned king, that is, he became the first official tsar in Russia. To strengthen royal power its social base expanded - the military-service class - the nobility; representatives of the upper classes gathered (the first Zemsky Sobor 1549.

The territorial acquisitions of Ivan the Terrible corresponded to the state interests of the rapidly developing Russia. The trade route along the Volga River opened up wide opportunities for the spread of military and political influence in Central Asia, the Caucasus, Siberia. The cities of Tyumen and Tobolsk were built, Russian explorers went to the borders of China and to the shores of the Pacific Ocean.

The beginning of the 17th century for the Muscovite state was fraught with the hardest trials. The period of the reign of the "boyar" tsars Boris Godunov, False Dmitry I and Vasily Shuisky was called the Time of Troubles, during which the country was significantly ruined.

In fact, a large-scale civil war broke out in the country.

The people's militia, formed in Nizhny Novgorod in 1611, the mayor's headman Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky, set the task of clearing Moscow of Polish invaders and creating a new government. In the spring of 1612, the militia moved towards Moscow, which was completely liberated in October.

The main attention of the authorities was directed to the East. The losses in the West had to be compensated. The new lands of Siberia and the Southern Urals were included in the state. Contributed to the strengthening of the state and reunification with Ukraine.

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (1645 - 1676), a Zemsky Sobor took place, which developed and adopted the Soborno Ulozhenie - a code of all-Russian laws. They have retained their practical significance for over two hundred years.

By the end of the 17th century, Russia had made significant progress in economic, political and cultural development. However, the lag behind the countries of the victorious bourgeoisie (England, Holland) was obvious.

Imperial Russia in the XVIII -XX centuries

The next period of development of Russian statehood , imperial, covers two centuries of Russian history. The creation of the Russian Empire in the 18th century is associated with the name of the largest reformer Peter the Great, and the era of the reign of Catherine II was the time of her highest prosperity.

The reforms of Peter I (1682 - 1725) covered literally all spheres of state, political, socio-economic and public life, defining the development of the country along the path of great power in the long term.

The process began in the economy. The center of the new industry is the Urals. During the first 20 years of the 18th century, 10 metallurgical plants were built here, which produced over 570 thousand poods of cast iron annually. At the same time, Eastern Siberia and Karelia were being developed. Gradually, Russia is becoming an exporter of strategic, by the standards of those times, materials.

Economic transformations during this period are inextricably linked with the political life of the country, with changes in the system of government.

The transfer of the capital of the Russian state from Moscow, founded in 1703 at the mouth of the Neva River, St. Petersburg, became a symbol of the "new time".

Instead of the Boyar Duma in 1711, the Government Senate was created - the highest administrative body. In 1718 in the sphere central administration collegia are established, each of which was in charge of a certain state financial and economic sector. The most important were the collegia of foreign affairs, military, admiralty.

First of all, the social base of absolutism, the nobility, was seriously strengthened.

The beginning of the 18th century was also marked by the active growth of a new class - the bourgeoisie.

Peter I carried out a number of major military-administrative reforms:

- Reform executive power Provided, first of all, the reduction of the management apparatus and its modernization.
- The local administrative apparatus was reformed. In 1719, the territory of the country was divided into 10 provinces, in which the governor-general was personally responsible for the state of affairs.
- The army has been radically reformed. It becomes regular and modernizes from organization and weapons to everyday life and clothing.

A noble-bureaucratic monarchy was formed in the state.

The political system of Russia finally takes on an absolutist character. An expression of his approval was the act of conferring the title of "Emperor of the Great and Father of the Fatherland" to Peter I in 1721. Thus, Russia became an empire, acquired the status of a great power, and its international authority has invariably grown.

After the death of Peter I, over the course of a century, the state was shaken by numerous palace coups, the frequent change of kings and queens on the throne. In general, the second quarter of the 18th century for Russia is characterized by a departure from reform activities.

With the coming to power of Catherine II (1762 - 1796), the power of the autocrat was rapidly consolidating. In implementing reforms in domestic and foreign policy, Catherine the Great relied on a wide range of capable statesmen, diplomats and military leaders.

A reform of the Senate is being carried out, the purpose of which was to limit its functions in government.

In 1785, Catherine II signed letters of gratitude to the nobility and cities, which significantly strengthened and expanded their rights and privileges.

By the end of the century, the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region and the Crimea were annexed to the Russian Empire.

During the reign of Paul I (1796 - 1801), the "golden age" of the nobility ended. It was placed under the strict control of the administration. At the same time, the power of the landowners over the serfs was somewhat limited.

The 19th century occupies an important position in the content of the imperial stage in the development of Russian statehood.

The beginning of the reforms of M.M. Speransky refers to 1801 and is associated primarily with a radical restructuring of the management system. The former collegia are replaced by ministries. An extremely important step is to create a constitution for the country. Work on it began after the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. In 1818, its provisions began to be implemented in Poland (part of the Russian Empire). However, the December uprising of 1825 canceled out the process of democratization that had begun and dramatically changed the nature of the development of statehood.

The most positive event in this historical period was the work on the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. It was put into effect and regulated the life of Russian society and the state until 1917.

Significant reforms were carried out in the 60s - 70s. XIX century.

The revitalization of capitalism, the emergence of new powerful social forces demanded that Emperor Alexander II radically restructure both internal political and the system of social relations.

First of all, this concerned the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The peasants were given land and received personal freedom.

Measures were taken to improve the situation of the workers. During the period from 1850 to 1870, state committees were created to study the life and work of workers. The 1866 law obliged owners large enterprises organize free medical care for them, since 1882 child labor was prohibited.

Zemstvo reform became a serious step towards liberalization of statehood. The zemstvo becomes an all-estate body of local self-government.

One of the most significant for the Russian statehood was the judicial reform (the most democratic in the world historical practice of the second half of the 19th century). From 1864, jury trials began to be created.

After the defeat in the Crimean War (1853 - 1856), the question arose about the need to reform the armed forces. The complex, explosive international situation required a powerful, combat-ready army and navy. In January 1874, general conscription was introduced (the recruiting system was abolished).

Public education was actively developing. Primary education was given by state, zemstvo, parish, Sunday schools. Secondary education - classical gymnasiums and real schools.

By the end of the 19th century, Russia completed the centuries-old work of state and territorial development.

Russian statehood in the XX century

The twentieth century has come, and with it a series of upheavals - revolutions and wars. The attempts of the tsarist regime to prevent the growing all-round crisis in society were unsuccessful. At the same time, the emerging ideas of revolutionary transformation find understanding among part of the country's population, which predetermined the collapse of the system of the old order.

With the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II from the throne on March 3, 1917, the Russian autocracy ceased to exist.

The February Revolution of 1917 opened up the historical prospect of free democratic development. However, the situation developed in such a way that a dual power regime developed in the country: through the constituent assembly, which was preparing the Provisional Government or through the Soviets.

On October 25 (November 7), 1917, after the armed seizure of the residence of the Provisional Government - the Winter Palace - and the arrest of the ministers of this government, power finally passes into the hands of the Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies.

The main contours of Soviet statehood were enshrined in the first constitution of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), adopted in the summer 1918 of the year.

Despite some temporary restrictions on democratic rights and freedoms for certain segments of the population, it must be admitted that the first years Soviet Power marked such a huge leap in the development of democracy for the people, which has not been known in history for all the times of the existence of Russian statehood.

During the Civil War (1918 - 1922), state building is characterized by drastic limitation democratic principles, the spread of coercion and revolutionary violence.

The road to a unified union state turned out to be difficult and contradictory. The Bolsheviks, we must give them their due, had to work hard in the interests of rallying the peoples of the former Russian empire in order to create a new state in the post-imperial space.

This process developed especially actively at the end of 1921 and during 1922. In the ruling party itself. I.V. Stalin, who was then considered one of the notable specialists in the national question, put forward the idea of "autonomization", that is, creation of a single federal state with clear tendencies towards unitarianism. The essence of the project was to ensure voluntary unification within the RSFSR on the basis of the autonomy of all Soviet republics.

However, this idea met with serious objections from the republics of Transcaucasia, especially Georgia, as well as Ukraine and others. A sharp struggle unfolded over the question of the future Soviet state. Under these conditions, a new formula was found - all republics were members of the union on equal terms.

An important stage in the development of Soviet statehood and national-territorial structure was the adoption in 1936 of the Constitution of the USSR, which consolidated the federal system, consisting of different subjects.

The victory of the Soviet people in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 was an event of world historical significance. After the war, the international position of the country also changed significantly, socialism turned into a world system. The international prestige and influence of the USSR has grown immeasurably. In these conditions, the issue of developing a new constitution for the USSR was on the agenda. The development of the project began in 1947, but it was not possible to implement the plan then. The drafting of a new constitution began only 30 years later.

After the death of Stalin in 1953, who ruled the country for nearly 30 years, his successor, N.S. Khrushchev tried to reform the state structure of the USSR. But his contradictory and ambivalent reforms (1956 - 1964) were sometimes destructive and fraught with danger for the very system of governing the country. As a result, he was removed from ruling the country by his own associates.

He was replaced by the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee L.I. Brezhnev.

From the mid-60s to the mid-80s, the state structure and the system of state administration in the USSR did not undergo any fundamental changes.

By May 1977, a draft of the new Constitution of the USSR was prepared.

Soviet statehood was further developed. It was proclaimed that all power in the USSR belongs to the people.

No more than 10 years have passed since the adoption of the Constitution, and the issues of reforming and then overhauling the political system of society were put on the agenda.

The congress becomes the supreme body of state power people's deputies with broad powers. The Congress of People's Deputies formed the Supreme Soviet. The executive bodies of power were formed under the control of the congress and the Supreme Council.

The elections were held on an alternative basis.

The created system turned out to be poorly managed. The issue of its further reform was on the agenda. The institution of the president was introduced. The first President of the Soviet Union was M.S. Gorbachev.

The beginning of the reform of the political system led to a weakening of the leading role of the CPSU and a weakening of the state as such. Centrifugal forces quickly began to gain strength.

1989 - 1991 became years of tragedy for many peoples of the country.

Attempts to save the union state by means of "Ogarevskie meetings" did not lead to political results. Novoogarev's interlocutors were more concerned with their own image than with the interests of the Great Country.

In mid-1991, a general crisis gripped the Soviet Union.

On December 8, 1991, the heads of the Republic of Belarus, the RSFSR and Ukraine announced the creation of a commonwealth of independent states.

The history of perestroika, which began so gloriously in 1983, so loudly announced itself in 1985, and so bashfully passed away in December 1991, went down in history and in the minds of people.

The beginning of a new stage in the development of Russian statehood is associated with the adoption in 1993 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Russia got the opportunity to embark on the path of formation and development of a democratic state, ensuring freedom economic activity, the realization of the equality of all citizens, the unconditional fulfillment of their duties to the Motherland.

Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: the Old Russian state, the Moscow state, the Russian Empire, the Soviet state and the Russian Federation.

Since the XIV century in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the importance of the Moscow principality, which acted as the center of the "gathering of Russian lands", increased. A special role in this process was played by the reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy at the Kulikovo field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as the organizing and spiritual center of the emerging Russian state.

2. The Moscow state existed from the middle of the 15th to the end of the 17th century. In this era, the final liberation of the Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of "collecting lands" around Moscow was completed, the main state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy took place. A vivid manifestation of the increase in the authority of the sovereign of Moscow was the solemn wedding of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of government bodies, the judicial system, the army, the church. The formation of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its successes in centralizing the state and intensifying its foreign policy. The growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by the significant expansion of its territory through successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east.

All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.

During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Moscow kingdom into the Russian Empire.

Attempts by Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine's liberties of the nobility led to another palace coup and the assassination of the emperor, who irritated the high officials and officers with his unpredictable actions.

Russia entered the 19th century with a brilliant façade of imperial power and an enormous burden of ever-growing domestic political and social problems. Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform the huge empire he inherited. However, this process was interrupted by the Patriotic War of 1812, which, as it were, divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages: the first was characterized by "constitutional quests", and the second - by the strengthening of the police state - Arakcheevism. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government on the part of the Russian noble intelligentsia.

However, these reforms did not close the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia.

4. The Soviet state existed from February 1917 until the end of 1991 and is associated with the formalization of the foundations of Soviet statehood in the era of the revolutionary transformation of Imperial Russia into the Russian Republic. This stage in the development of our state absorbed the crisis of the central state power and the disintegration of the ethnopolitical unity of the country, the loss of the democratic perspective of state development by the Provisional Government and the further radicalization of the revolutionary movement in the country, on the wave of which the Bolsheviks came to power as a result of the revolution, led by V.I. Ulyanov (Lenin). During the Civil War, Bolshevism, which became the ideological core of the new system, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which restored the political and territorial unity of most of the former Russian Empire.

For 30 years (from the beginning of 1920 to 1953), the “great leader and father of peoples” I.V. Stalin.

At the same time, victory in the war marked the beginning of a large-scale rivalry between two state-political and economic systems in the international arena - the USSR and the United States of America (USA). In the post-war period, under the conditions of the Cold War, an unprecedented arms race developed, based on the Soviet-American rivalry.

Soviet leaders are the heirs of Stalin, realizing the need and inevitability of reforming the outdated model of the totalitarian state, but fearing the loss of the party nomenklatura power in the country, they tried to carry out reforms without changing the foundations of the socialist system. Attempts at reforms during the "thaw" period led to the resignation of the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), N.S. Khrushchev (1964), and the policy of "restructuring" of the last General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev ended with the collapse of the USSR as a single totalitarian state and the collapse of the party-Soviet system.

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NOU VPO "INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND LAW"

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in the discipline "Domestic history"

Belov Artem Gennadievich

Zhukovsky

Content

1. Primitive history: prerequisites for the formation, vthe emergence and development of the ancient Russian early feudal state
4. The experience of parliamentarism in tsarist Russia
5. The transformation of the Russian state into a multinational power
6. Oprichnina
7. Formation of the principles and bodies of state protection (from antiquity to PeterI)
8. Liberalism in Russia
9. Ideas of a constitutional monarchy in Russia (XIX- XXcenturies)
10. Cossacks in Tsarist Russia
11. World War I in Russia
12. Political camps and parties in the first Russian revolution 1905 - 1907
13. White movement in Russia and its fate
14. International position countries in the 20-30s.
15. Post-war world: confrontation between two systems

1. Primitive history: preconditions for the formation, emergence and development of the ancient Russian early feudal state

In the 9th century, two largest centers of formation of the ancient Russian state took shape - Novgorod (the capital of the Slavs, Krivichi and part of the Finno-Ugric tribes) and Kiev (the center of the glades, northerners and Vyatichi), between which there was an intense struggle for leadership in uniting all the East Slavic lands. The North, represented by Novgorod, won this fight. The transfer of the political center of the created ancient Russian state Kiev in 882 as a result of the victorious campaign of the Novgorod prince Oleg - a native of the Varangians (Normans) is considered the year of foundation of the ancient Russian state. The role of the Varangian factor in the formation of Kievan Rus has been the subject of heated scientific and political discussions for several centuries. Some believed that the Slavs themselves could not create their own state and that statehood was brought to Russia by the Varangian princes and warriors led by Oleg. Others believed that by the time the Varangians arrived, the Slavs already had statehood, and they stood for more high level its development. It should be borne in mind that the Varangians most likely played the role of an accelerator of the formation processes of the ancient Russian state. They were invited to Novgorod, initially as a hired squad by the local residents themselves, and then seized power and used it to spread their influence to the South. The reasons for the formation of the ancient Russian state are connected not with the personality of this or that person, but with the objective processes that took place in the economic and political evolution of the Eastern Slavs. Having established his power in Kiev, Oleg was able to bring the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichs into submission in a short time, and his successor, Prince Igor, was able to bring the Tivertsy into obedience. Igor's son Svyatoslav fought against the Vyatichi, conquered the Volga Bulgaria, undertook a number of successful campaigns against Byzantium. In the course of these numerous campaigns and wars, the territory under the control of the Kiev prince took shape in the main outlines.

An important phenomenon in the economic and political life of Ancient Rus was the emergence of a large number of cities. The main categories of the population in terms of number and economic status were artisans and merchants.

At the first stage of the existence of the ancient Russian state, despite the growing dependence on the power of the prince and boyars, the traditionally high role of free communities in rural areas and veche authorities in cities remained. The city veche, for example, was in charge of the issues of war and peace, announced the convening of the militia, and sometimes even changed princes. However, the right to vote in veche structures belonged to the boyars, church hierarchs, wealthy townspeople and merchants. The baptism of Rus, begun by Vladimir Svyatoslavich, prince of Novgorod and Kiev, met with resistance from the people and the pagan priesthood. In 988 - 989, Christianity became the main state religion.

The ancient Russian state reached its heyday under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). On his initiative, the first of the extant code of laws of the ancient Russian state, "Russian Truth", was introduced. Under Yaroslav, the international positions of Russia were noticeably strengthened: his children were related by kinship with the largest European royal courts. Stone construction went on widely. In Kiev, the St. Sophia Cathedral was built on the model of Constantinople. The first school in Russia was built in Novgorod for the children of clergymen, a special school for training personnel for public service. The foreign policy position of Ancient Russia was also quite calm - the struggle against the Pechenegs, and then the Polovtsy, although it went on continuously, but the victory was always on the side of Russia. The construction and expansion of the cities of Ancient Rus should be considered among the greatest achievements. The largest stone structures for that time were created: the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, the Golden Gate, the Tithe Church and the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. Wooden pavements, which appeared here earlier than in Paris, have become a sign of Novgorod. The first schools were opened - in Novgorod and Kiev. Yaroslav the Wise collected a rich library, which included not only modern manuscripts for that time, but also some of the extant ancient Greek sources. The beginning of the chronicle was laid - the introduction of annual records of the largest events by year, with the inclusion of documents and their assessments. Ancient Russian literature was also born, represented by such works as "The Life of Boris and Gleb", "A Teaching to Children" by V. Monomakh, "The Word of Law and Grace" by Illarion, epics. A feature of the Old Russian epic was that its heroes were not princes and boyars, but ordinary people with their problems and concerns. Christianity had a great influence on the cultural development of Ancient Rus. In addition to stone building and literacy, it brought a different, different from the previous, view of morality. Instead of Slavic names, the names of the saints of the Orthodox Church were introduced. Thus, the culture of Ancient Rus became the treasury of a single ancient Russian people. In the context of the beginning specific period of development of Russia, it became not only the basis for the development and flourishing of the culture of individual lands, but also a factor that allows, along with common language talk about the Russian territories as a single whole.

2. The main stages of Russian foreign policy in the nineteenth century

The beginning of the new century was characterized by two major international circumstances for Russia. First, despite all the attempts of the former monarch to limit French expansion in Europe and the Middle East, it continued and even intensified. Paul's alliance with Napoleon did not lead to its restriction and at the same time deprived Russia of its traditional rather close relations with England. Secondly, the expansion of Russian influence in the Caucasus caused an objective confrontation between Russia and Turkey and Iran. Tense relations with Sweden remained, threatening to break out into a new war. The sharp attacks of Paul I against Prussia put Russia on the brink of war with this power as well. Relations with Austria were also tense, which after an unsuccessful struggle with Napoleon was forced to conclude with him in 1801. The world, according to which the interests and positions of France were consolidated in Italy, Belgium, on the left bank of the Rhine. All this objectively required from the new emperor a "change of landmarks" in foreign policy.

Immediately after the coup, Alexander resumed trade with England. The Cossack units aimed at conquering India were immediately recalled. On June 5, 1801, Russia and England concluded a convention "On mutual friendship" directed against Napoleon. In the beginning, Alexander was afraid to go for an open break with France. In September 1801, a Franco-Russian treaty and a secret agreement were concluded in Paris, which were of a compromise nature and temporarily delayed the open break. It followed only in 1804. By July 1805, Russia and England completed the formation of the third anti-French coalition.

In 1801, Eastern Georgia became part of Russia. Mingrelia was conquered in 1803. In 1804 Imereti, Guria and Ganja became Russian possessions. In 1805, Karabakh and Shivran were conquered. In 1806 Ossetia was annexed. Such a rapid penetration of Russia into Transcaucasia not only worried Turkey and Iran, but also the great European powers, despite their busy struggle with Napoleon. In June 1807, on a raft in the very middle of the Nemunas in the Tilsit region, a meeting of two emperors took place. It led to the conclusion of a peace treaty between the two countries on June 25. It was of a compromise nature. According to this document, Russia recognized all the conquests of Napoleon. She concluded allied relations with France and pledged to go to war with England if she continued to pursue the same course. Despite the compromise nature of the treaty, Napoleon won the most from the Peace of Tilsit. French expansion was never stopped. Alexander's accession to the continental blockade hurt not only England, but also Russia itself, which suffered great economic damage from this. Finally, a sharp turn in foreign policy led our country to international isolation, as well as to a fall in the authority of Alexander himself. The international position of Russia after Tilsit was extremely difficult. On the one hand, Russia has lost friendly relations with its traditional allies in the anti-French coalition - England, conquered and defeated by Austria and Prussia. On the other hand, the secret agreements in Tilsit on the spheres of influence of France and Russia in Europe opened up for Alexander the possibility of expanding the borders of the empire at the expense of neighboring countries and the successful completion of the protracted conflicts with Turkey and Iran. These directions have become the main ones in the foreign policy of Russia.

3. Political change of the state system. The fall of Soviet power

TO the middle 1980s yy. in the USSR, an economic, social and political crisis began. It was expressed in a drop in the growth rates of industrial and agricultural production, a decrease in the standard of living of the population, an increase in corruption, the development of a shadow economy, and an increase in social apathy. An understanding of the need for profound changes was ripening in the public mind. They were desired by all strata of society - from ordinary citizens to a certain group of party and government officials.

The country was on the verge of change. The beginning of perestroika is associated with the name of M.S. Gorbachev, who v march 1985 G. became General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. In April 1985, a course was proclaimed to accelerate the country's socio-economic development. It was envisaged to improve the management structure national economy, at the expense of "Hidden reserves" in a short time to achieve economic recovery, overcome stagnation, significantly improve the material situation of the Soviet people. Further developments did not justify the optimistic forecasts. Cope with the crisis was not possible. As the perestroika processes deepened, the need for political reform emerged. renewal of the political structures of society, new economic methods of management could not produce tangible results. Realizing this, Gorbachev and his associates went to the democratization of political structures. Its main tool was glasnost - objective coverage of all aspects of society. At the First Congress of People's Deputies ( May- June 1988 G.) Gorbachev was elected head of state - Chairman The Supreme Council USSR, and in March 1990 - the President of the USSR with the right to issue decrees and resolutions that had the force of law. In the process of further democratization of public life in the country, Article 6 (on the leading role of the CPSU) was excluded from the Constitution of the USSR, the one-party system of governing the country was eliminated, and various parties and social movements began to emerge.

The beginning of changes in the political system of Russia is associated with the election of B.N. Yeltsin Chairman of the Supreme Council ( May 1990 G.) and the adoption of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Federation ( June 1990 G.), which in fact meant the emergence of dual power in the country. By this time, the people were increasingly denying trust, M.S. Gorbachev, the authority of the CPSU was rapidly falling. Perestroika, based on the ideas of democratic socialism, failed.

Yeltsin's convincing victory in the presidential elections in Russia 12 june 1991 G. testified to the loosening of the foundations of the old state power. August events 1991 G. led to a radical change in the situation in Russia. All the executive bodies of the USSR, operating on its territory, were transferred directly to the subordination of the Russian president. On his instructions, the buildings of the Central Committee of the CPSU, regional committees, district committees, archives were closed and sealed. The CPSU ceased to exist as a ruling, state structure. The Supreme Soviet became the supreme body of power in the Russian Federation, while real power was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the president.

So, in the fall 1991 G. all major legislative acts were put into effect not by decisions of parliament, but by its decrees. To spring 1992 G. the balance of political forces changed dramatically. The opposition that arose in parliament sought to weaken the presidential structures and establish control over the government. The president's supporters proposed to dissolve the parliament and terminate the activities of the Congress of People's Deputies. In order to eliminate the confrontation between the legislative and executive powers, which had reached dangerous limits, Yeltsin announced a special procedure for governing the country. In Russia, in fact, presidential rule was introduced. A referendum on confidence in the president and his draft constitutions was scheduled for February 25. Although the referendum strengthened the president's position, the constitutional crisis has not been overcome. On the contrary, it assumed an increasingly threatening character. The opposition made no secret of its intention to limit the power and powers of the president. Then the President by decree from 21 september 1993 G. " On a phased constitutional reform in Russia "announced the dissolution of the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Council and 12 December a referendum on the adoption of a new Constitution and the holding of elections to the bicameral Federal Assembly (State Duma and Federation Council). The ensuing confrontation between the president and parliament ended in the tragic events of October 1993 G. in Moscow.

Russian state world war

4. The experience of parliamentarism in tsarist Russia

Unlike many European countries, where parliamentary traditions have been developing for centuries, in Russia the first representative institution of the parliamentary type (in the newest understanding of this term) was convened only in 1906. It was named the State Duma. Twice it was dispersed by the government, but it existed for about 12 years, until the fall of the autocracy, having four convocations (first, second, third, fourth State Dumas).

In all four Duma (in a different, of course, ratio), representatives of the local nobility, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, the urban intelligentsia and the peasantry occupied a predominant position among the deputies. They brought to this institution their ideas about the ways of development of Russia and the skills of public discussions. Especially indicative was the fact that in the Duma the intelligentsia used the skills acquired in university lecture halls and judicial debates, and the peasants carried with them to the Duma many democratic traditions of communal self-government. In general, the work of the State Duma was an important factor of political development in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, influencing many spheres of public life.

What does the experience of the State Duma teach? Analysis shows that at least two lessons of its existence are still highly relevant.

First lesson. Parliamentarism in Russia was an "unwanted child" for the ruling circles. Its formation and development took place in an acute struggle against authoritarianism, autocracy, tyranny of the bureaucracy and the executive branch.

Lesson two. In the course of formation Russian parliamentarism valuable experience was accumulated in working and combating authoritarian tendencies in the activities of the authorities, which it is not easy to forget today.

Despite the limited rights, the Duma approved the state budget, significantly influencing the entire mechanism of autocratic power of the House of Romanov. She paid great attention to the sires and the disadvantaged, was engaged in the development of social protection measures for the poor and other segments of the population. She, in particular, developed and adopted one of the most advanced factory legislation in Europe.

Public education was the subject of constant concern of the Duma. She rather cockily insisted on the allocation of funds for the construction of schools, hospitals, nursing homes, church churches. She paid special attention to the affairs of religious confessions, the development of cultural and national autonomies, the protection of foreigners from the arbitrariness of central and local officials. Finally, foreign policy problems occupied a significant place in the work of the Duma. The Duma members constantly bombarded the Russian Foreign Ministry and other authorities with inquiries, reports, instructions, and shaped public opinion.

The largest merit of the Duma was the unconditional support of lending for the modernization of the Russian army that was defeated in the war with Japan, the restoration of the Pacific Fleet, and the construction of ships in the Baltic and the Black Sea using the most advanced technologies. From 1907 to 1912, the Duma authorized a 51 percent increase in military spending.

There is, of course, a liability, and a considerable one. Despite all the efforts of the Trudoviks, who constantly roused the agrarian question in the Duma, it was powerless to solve it: the landlord opposition was too great, and there were many among the deputies who, to put it mildly, were not interested in solving it in favor of the land-poor peasantry.

The experience of parliamentarism in tsarist Russia is extremely relevant. It teaches today's parliamentarians militancy, the ability to defend the interests of the people in the face of tough pressure from the executive branch, a sharp struggle, ingenuity in the forms of activity of the deputy corps, high professionalism and activity.

5. The transformation of the Russian state into a multinational power

The process of incorporating different regions and peoples into the Russian state had a heterogeneous typology. In the middle of the XVI century. the main one was the eastern direction. Russia sought to achieve the annexation of the Kazan Khanate. Neighborhood with this subsidiary state of the Horde created a constant threat to the Russian possessions. Murom, Kostroma, Vologda and other districts were attacked. The need to join the Volga region was defined as economic reasons ( fertile land, the mighty Volga River - the most important trade route) and political. Despite the fact that the peoples of the Volga region accepted Russian citizenship, the first campaigns against the Kazan Khanate (1547-1548; 1549-1550) ended in failure. The assault on October 2, 1552 ended with the capture of Kazan.

Four years later, Astrakhan shared the fate of Kazan. Khan Derbysh-Ali fled from the city. A year later, the Big Nogai Horde took Russian citizenship. The fall of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates created the conditions for the voluntary entry into the Russian state of not only the Mari, Mordovians and Chuvashes, but also Bashkiria, previously subject to the Siberian Khanate. The western part of Bashkiria recognized the rule of Tsar Ivan in the 1650s.

Moscow organized a series of actions against the Crimean Khanate. To protect the southern Russian districts from the raids of the Crimeans, the Tula notched line was built - a line of fortresses, forts, forest heaps (notches) to the south and southeast of the Oka. Victories in the Volga region, defensive and offensive measures in the south significantly strengthened the state. The Russian state was an important step towards moving eastward to Siberia, whose natural resources have long attracted attention. Here, in Western Siberia, along the Irtysh, Tobol, Ob and their tributaries, Siberian Tatars, Khanty and other small peoples lived. These were cattle breeders (southern regions), hunters and fishermen. But after the Crimean attack on Russia in 1572, the new Khan Kuchum broke off relations with the tsar. His soldiers began to raid Russian possessions.

The Russian government again set the task of annexing Siberia at the end of the 16th century. At the end of 1581 - beginning of 1582, Ermak's detachment (about 600 people) passed from the Chusovaya River, crossing the Ural ridge, to the Tura River. Then he moved along Tobol and Irtysh. At the end of October, the detachment approached Kashlyk, the capital of Khan Kuchum, not far from modern Tobolsk. Here the military detachments of Khan Kuchum (from the Tatars, Khanty and Mansi) were defeated and fled. Khan Kuchum migrated to the south, in the steppe. Local residents began to pay tribute to Moscow. By the end of the century, Kuchum, attacking Russian troops and forts from the depths of the steppes, suffers a final defeat. The Siberian Khanate ceases to exist. The eastern borders of the state were greatly expanded.

The most important task of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century. there was a struggle for reunification with Ukraine. Most of Ukraine at the beginning of the 17th century. was part of the Commonwealth. A special stratum among the population of Ukraine was made up of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. There was no official land tenure in Zaporozhye, the Cossacks had their own self-government - an elected hetman.

Realizing that his own forces to gain independence and a long struggle with the Commonwealth and the Crimean Khanate are not enough, B. Khmelnitsky several times appealed to the Russian government with a request to accept Ukraine into Russian citizenship. And yet Russia began to act actively. Zemsky Sobor in Moscow on October 1, 1653 decided to reunite. An embassy was sent to Ukraine, headed by the boyar Buturlin, who led the deputies of the Pereyaslav Rada to an oath of allegiance. Russia recognized the electiveness of the hetman, the local court and other authorities that emerged during the war. The tsarist government confirmed the estate rights of the Ukrainian nobility. Ukraine received the right to establish diplomatic relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey, and have registered troops of up to 60 thousand people. Taxes were supposed to go to the royal treasury.

In the West, the Russian state is of particular interest to the beginning of the 18th century. represented an outlet to the Baltic Sea, to which it has been striving for centuries. In 1700 Russia declared war on Sweden. As a result, on August 30, 1721, peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden in the Finnish city of Nishtadt. The Baltic coast from Vyborg to Riga is assigned to Russia: Ingria, Karelia, Livonia and Estland. Russia paid 1.5 million rubles for the acquired land. Finland returned to Sweden. The Treaty of Nystadt in 1721 not only legalized the victory of Russia, but also confirmed the formation of a new empire. Peter assumed the title of emperor. Russia entered the international arena, became a great European power, not a single issue of international life could now be resolved without its participation.

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Austria sent its troops to Western Ukraine (Galicia), Prussia - to Pomorie. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk and part of Latvia. In January 1793 Russia was reunited with Right-bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus, from which the Minsk province was later formed.

The second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused the rise of the national liberation movement in it. In 1794, Polish patriots led by T. Kosciuszko revolted. In the fall of 1794, the troops of A.V. Suvorov entered Warsaw. The uprising was suppressed, Kosciuszko was taken prisoner. In October 1795, the third partition of Poland took place, which put an end to its existence. Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus went to Russia.

Within the framework of a single state, three fraternal Slavic people- Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. The fate of Estonia and Latvia was decided under Peter I, when as a result of the Northern War of 1700-1721. they became part of Russia, where they remained until October 1917.

Finland was annexed to Russia in 1809 by the Peace of Friedrichsgam, which summed up the results of the Russian-Swedish war of 1808 - 1809. She received autonomy status as the Grand Duchy of Finland.

After the end of the Northern War, Russia got the opportunity to intensify its foreign policy in the Transcaucasus. In the Caucasus, Russia's interests clashed with the claims of Turkey and Iran to these territories.

According to the Georgievsky treatise of 1783, Kakheti was taken under the patronage of Russia. In 1801 Alexander I signed the Manifesto on the acceptance of Eastern Georgia into Russian citizenship. In 1803 - 1804 the rest of Georgia - Mengrelia, Guria and Imereti - entered Russia. The war ended with the Gulistan Treaty of 1813. Iran recognized Russian rule over the greater territory of the Transcaucasus.

As a result of the Russian-Turkish and Russian-Iranian wars at the end of the 20s of the XIX century. the second stage in the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia was completed. Georgia, Eastern Armenia, Northern Azerbaijan became part of the Russian Empire.

The North Caucasus was inhabited by many peoples, differing in language, customs, morals and level social development... At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. the Russian administration entered into an agreement with the ruling elite of the tribes and communities on their entry into the Russian Empire.

The Central Asian direction is three separate formations: the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva khanates, as well as several independent tribes. To conquer this region from the middle of the XIX century. Russia is being pushed by Great Britain. The first clash occurred with the Kokand Khanate. In 1864, the Russian troops of M.G. Chernyaev undertook the 1st campaign to Tashkent, but unsuccessfully. The Kokand Khanate was going through an acute crisis at that moment, it was weakened by the struggle with Bukhara. This was used by M.G. Chernyaev, in June 1865 he practically bloodlessly took possession of Tashkent. In 1866 Tashkent was annexed to Russia. A year later, the Turkestan General Government was formed from the conquered territories. The process of conquering Central Asia ended in 1885 with the voluntary entry of Merv (a territory bordering Afghanistan) into Russia. Thus, the lands of Central Asia were mainly conquered by Russia. A semi-colonial regime was established on them. On the other hand, as part of Russia, the Central Asian peoples received the opportunity for accelerated development.

Central Asia was gradually drawn into the internal trade of Russia, becoming a source of raw materials and a sales market for Russian textiles, metal and other products. In other words, the peoples of Central Asia as part of Russia have not lost their national, cultural and religious features. On the contrary, from the moment of their accession, the process of their consolidation and the creation of modern Central Asian nations began.

6. Oprichnina

In 1565, Tsar Ivan 4 suddenly left Moscow, taking with him his family, treasury, and courtyard. He sent messages to the Boyar Duma that remained in Moscow and to the townspeople, in whom he accused the boyars of treason and set the conditions for his return to the capital. All conditions were accepted, and soon the tsar returned, but he announced the establishment of a special state inheritance - oprichnina, which included the most economically developed territories. All the owners of the patrimonial lands were moved to another part of the country that remained under the control of the Boyar Duma - the Zemshchina. In the oprichnina inheritance, the tsar began to form his own bodies of state power - the duma, orders, court. Was organized and its own (oprichnina) army, which turned into an instrument of political terror and repression, carried out under the leadership of the closest assistant to the king Malyuta Skuratov - Belsky.

The question of the essence of the oprichnina is debatable in Russian historical literature. In recent years, the previously undividedly dominant point of view that the oprichnina was necessary to strengthen the central government in the fight against the boyar opposition has been revised. However, in his works V.B. Kobrin showed that, within the framework of centralization, the reforms of the Chosen Rada were carried out, and it was they that led to very positive results that had long-term significance. The oprichnina terror equally punished both the representatives of the boyar class and the nobility, as well as other categories of the population, and therefore cannot be assessed solely as an anti-boyar action. As a result, the despotic regime of personal power of Ivan 4 was established, nicknamed in those years the Terrible, which turned out to be less effective than the reforms of the 50s. As a result, the tsar decided to abolish the oprichnina in 1572, but the despotic regime itself remained.

The result of the oprichnina was the economic and political crisis of the 70-80s, the ruin of peasant farms, which were the basis of the country's economic life, and, as a result, a series of defeats on the battlefields. In the long term, the oprichnina largely caused the crisis of power and the Troubles of the early 17th century.

7. Formation of principles and bodies of state protection (from antiquity to Peter I)

At the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries, statehood in Russia actually began to take shape. One of the most important functions of the Russian state was the function of reliable protection and defense of the state territory, the inviolability of state borders. This type of activity was the prerogative of the princely power, which, according to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, initially acted as a "frontier watchman" and only then, having united with the trading elite of the cities, turned into a structure that took care of the defense of the country's borders and maintaining the security of trade routes to overseas markets. On this occasion, the famous Russian historian S.F. Platonov quite rightly emphasized that " Kiev princes appeared for the first time in the Russian land as defenders of its borders, and in this respect the subsequent princes did not differ from the first. "

In the X-XI centuries, the ancient Russian statehood reached its heyday. At the same time, endless armed clashes with neighbors, and primarily with nomads, prompted the Old Russian state to take care of strengthening the armed protection of its own borders. Under these conditions, a fairly harmonious, echeloned, interconnected border guard system of a military-defensive nature was created in Russia, the main elements of which were special engineering and fortifications - guard lines, temporarily assembled forces to carry out a service to identify attacks prepared by neighbors on Russian lands and early notifying the population of Russia and the Grand Duke about this, as well as the forces of the squad of the Grand Duke (and, if necessary, the militia from among the local population). But a special permanent centralized state body responsible for ensuring the security of the state (i.e., the border service) in the border space was not created during this period of history.

At the same time, the first known chronicle mention of state measures to organize the protection of the borders of Russia and their protection dates back to 988, when the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir appealed to the population to stand up to protect the borders of the Russian Land. It was under Vladimir the Holy in the Old Russian state that a set of measures was taken to organize the protection of its borders and ensure a more reliable protection of its territory. These measures were predominantly of a military-defensive nature and included: the introduction of the so-called service on the outskirts of the state. "heroic outposts"; the construction of fortified cities (large and small) located in the most convenient places for defense; erection of guard lines on the paths of a probable enemy invasion; extensive use of natural obstacles (forests, rivers, ravines, etc.); mobilization of the necessary forces and means for carrying out foreign service; organization of an alert and warning service about the appearance of an enemy; rapid concentration in strategically important points of the necessary military forces from various cities and principalities in the event of a direct military threat to the state.

With the collapse in the second quarter of the XII century. The Old Russian state into separate (often warring) feudal principalities disintegrated and one system protection of its border lines. Borders of Russian lands and principalities in this period historical development were, in essence and in the terminology of that time, the boundaries of their own possession, state-political supremacy and economic sovereignty. In fact, they were installed for the purpose of "toll travel". So, in a number of treaty letters of the XIII - XIV centuries. Novgorod and its neighbors pointed to mutual obligations to observe the "old frontier" or "old frontier". In this case, the boundaries were called "right", i.e. mutually approved, recognized, actually legalized. At the same time, the boundaries of the Russian principalities of the specific veche period in the history of Russia, in modern terms, were transparent. But this did not mean that they were out of control on the part of the princes: any attempts by neighbors to change their passage often led to wars. In other cases, complete freedom was established for people when crossing them. And that was the law. This is evidenced by the words of one of the contractual letters: "And between us, our people and our guest, the path is clear, without a line: and whoever makes a line or a withdrawal, issue a line officer and an ex-officer in good order." Special attention was given to the travel of ambassadors, for whom there was "a path of pure filthiness." At the same time, both Russian and foreign merchants were firmly aware of the existence of the borders of the Russian principalities. Merchants, crossing the borders of the principality with goods, were obliged to pay certain duties for this: first of all, washed and bones (bones).

To collect entry duties, the princes appointed special service people - mytniks (mytchikov), who served on the lines in strictly defined places, "at the zavor" (outpost), on the main roads connecting the principalities. If the merchants tried to bypass the zavory, then the mytniks, having detained the violators, subjected them to a monetary fine, which was called washed and many times exceeded myt.

In fact, in the XIII-XIV centuries. the boundaries of the Russian principalities and lands began to have not a conditional, but a certain concrete-objective meaning. They received their registration on the ground, which was confirmed by bilateral written agreements on boundaries and land-surveying letters. It was here, on the borders of the principalities, that not only the tasks of the armed defense of their territorial possessions, but also the tasks of protecting the economic interests of the principalities, began to be carried out.

In the same period, the foundations were laid for the protection of both land and river, lake and sea sections of the border. So during this period in the coastal lands of Russia there was a so-called "sea guard" (usually a guard at the mouths of rivers), which set up special patrols with the same duties as those of land border guards. For example, the posts (patrols) of the sea guard carried out patrol service on the outskirts of the Novgorod land at the mouths of the Neva and Izhora, on the coast Lake Peipsi at the Crow's stone, etc. Their service was quite efficient. The victory in July 1240 of Alexander Yaroslavovich, Prince of Novgorod (1236 - 1251), was largely achieved thanks to the patrol of the Izhorians' sea guards, led by the elder Pelgusiy (Pelguy). The sentinels promptly discovered the invasion of the Swedish troops into the Novgorod lands, conducted reconnaissance and reported this to the prince. And the decisive actions of Alexander and the unexpected blow of the troops led by him ensured the victory of the Russians over the Swedes, who violated the northwestern borders of Russia.

And yet the appanage princes, not having sufficient forces, moreover, sometimes actively opposing each other, could not in the XIII-XIV centuries. ensure the security of the borders of their principalities, their reliable protection, to repel the invasions of the Mongol-Tatars, Hungarians, Poles, Lithuanians into their borders.

The formation and strengthening of a new state formation - the Moscow Grand Duchy - created the conditions for the restoration of the strong Russian statehood destroyed by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and with it the new system protection of the borders of the Russian state.

In the second half of the 14th century, the service for the protection of the borders of the Great Moscow Principality was reduced to monitoring the movement of Tatar hordes and the delivery of this "news" (reports) to Moscow, which was carried out by "secret guards" and "hidden dens" (places serving as voluntary servants of the Moscow prince).

In the fifteenth century, the Moscow princes managed to create a so-called guard service in the Russian border towns, the task of which was to monitor the advance of the enemy's troops (or its individual predatory detachments) to the Russian borders, timely notify the border governors and the Grand Duke about this. For many years this service was temporary and was organized only in the most threatened areas. Storuzhi actually represented up to the regiment of the Russian army, headed by a prince or a voivode.

By combining by the beginning of the XVI century. under its rule practically all the lands of northwestern and northeastern Russia, the Moscow state came into direct contact with Sweden, Poland, German lands, Tatar khanates. These states, including Moscow itself, had rather ambitious aspirations and far-reaching plans aimed at expanding their rights to more and more territories, to strengthen economic and military-political influence in Central and Eastern Europe. As a result, endless interstate conflicts and disputes arose, which were quite often resolved with the help of military force. Only in the first half of the 16th century. Crimean Khan undertook 48 predatory military campaigns against Russia.

In the 16th century, the great dukes and sovereigns of all Russia in the western sections of the state border ensured its security by permanently staying near the border of the Russian army regiments, which, to a certain extent, began to solve the tasks of quarantine control within the border territories. On the southern and southeastern borders of Russia in the summer months, the main forces of the Russian army carried the so-called "coastal service" as part of the regiments.

In the last quarter of the 16th century, with the formation and significant strengthening of the Russian centralized state, with the development of a harmonious system of public administration in it (which was based on the activities of various Orders), with the development of the legal system (here we are primarily talking about two famous Code of Laws), the service for protection of "sovereign lines" received a fundamentally new device.

It became known as a sentry, village and field service. At the end of the 16th century, it reached its peak. The service had a military-defensive, secretive, reconnaissance and search character. The guard and village service became not only an element of ensuring the security of the Russian state, but also an instrument of its active border policy, a means of steady agricultural colonization of the southeastern territories.

During the "Time of Troubles" in Russia, there was no service at the borders and borders of Russia. Its restoration began only with the accession to the Russian throne of the Romanov dynasty. With some changes, the entire system of organizing the system of guarding and defending Russia's borders in the 17th century repeated the domestic experience in this area accumulated by the end of the 16th century.

In the second half of the XVII - early XVIII centuries, with the expansion of the territory of the state in the border area of Russia, the active construction of powerful border fortified lines began, on which large contingents of the state's troops began to be deployed. The involvement of Cossack formations on a legal basis in the protection of the border has become widespread. The abolition of the order system of state administration in Russia and the formation of collegia, the fundamental development of the legal system, the creation of regular regiments of the Russian army and a number of other transformations served to replace the former guard and village service in the country with an outpost service, which began to be carried by the forces of the military department. The troops that carried this service, in addition to the tasks of a military-defensive nature, were also entrusted with the tasks of quarantine supervision, streamlining the order of crossing state border and the borders of the state exclusively through customs, customs outposts and other points, the tasks of arresting and capturing fugitives and deserters, meeting and escorting ambassadors and eminent foreigners within Russia. During this period, the troops solved a wide range of tasks on the country's borders. The question of creating a special border service for Russia was not raised.

In addition to border guards, the state was also protected by a standing army. Delving deeper into the history of the IX-XIII centuries, one must start with the fact that the main part of the prince's army (army) was the squad. It had a clear classification of people according to the level of experience and professionalism. She was divided into senior and young. The senior squad included not only the Slavs, but also various Scandinavians who contributed to the formation of the Old Russian army. The youngest was divided into three subgroups: youths (military servants, who could be people of various nationalities), greedy (bodyguards of the prince) and children (children of senior warriors). Later, new categories appeared in the junior squad - mercenaries (armed at the expense of the prince) and stepchildren (the prototype of the gentry). The system of official position is also known - after the prince came the governors, then the thousand, the centurion, the ten. By the middle of the 11th century, the senior squad turned into boyars. The number of squads is not known exactly, but it was small. One prince has hardly more than 2,000 people. For example, in 1093 the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk had 800 youths. But, in addition to the professional squad, free community members from the common people and the urban population could also take part in the wars. In the annals they are referred to as voi. The number of such a militia could be several thousand people. At the same time, in some campaigns, women took part on an equal basis with men. People living on the border combined crafts and agriculture with the functions of border troops. Since the XII century, cavalry has been actively developing, which is divided into heavy and light. The Russians were not inferior to any of the European peoples in military affairs.

Sometimes foreigners were hired for the service. Most often they were Normans, Pechenegs, then Cumans, Hungarians, Berendeys, Torcs, Poles, Balts, occasionally even Bulgarians, Serbs and Germans.

The bulk of the troops were infantry. But by that time there was already a cavalry formed to defend against the Pechenegs and other nomads, taking into account the Hungarian experience. There was also a good fleet of rooks.

Armament varied, depending on the stratification. Swords were mainly used by senior vigilantes and greedies. Battle axes of two types were very actively used - Varangian axes with long handles and Slavic infantry axes. Striking weapons were widespread - maces with bronze or iron tops. The brushes were also very much used, but as an additional weapon, and not the main one. The main protective equipment were shields, drop-shaped or round. Helmets in Russia have always traditionally been domed, with only a few exceptions.

At the turn of the XIV-XVI centuries, due to various reasons, the main of which is the influence of Asian peoples (especially the Mongols), the importance of cavalry sharply increases. The entire squad becomes equestrian and by this time is gradually transformed into a noble militia. The Mongols also had a great influence on military tactics - the mobility of the cavalry increased and the use of deceitful methods by it. That is, the basis of the army is made up of a fairly numerous noble cavalry, and the infantry goes into the background.

Firearms in Russia began to be used from the end of the XIV century. The exact date is unknown, but it is believed that this happened under Dmitry Donskoy no later than 1382. With the development of field firearms, the heavy cavalry lost its importance, but the light one could effectively resist it, which, in particular, was shown by the battle on Vorskla. At the end of the 15th century, the feudal militia passed to the permanent all-Russian army. It was based on the noble local cavalry - the sovereign's service people, united in regiments under the command of the grand ducal governors. But at first they had no firearms. It was used by gunners and squeakers, the first information about which dates back to the beginning of the 15th century.

Under Ivan III, a system of military recruitment for temporary service was introduced. Squeakers were formed from the urban population. From the rural area - auxiliary infantry detachments - troopers. A clear-cut system of gathering military men was developed. The military command was the grand ducal governors. The noble cavalry was equipped with hand-arms, convenient for shooting while riding. Under Ivan the Fourth, a streltsy army appears. Sagittarius are quite numerous (several thousand) infantry, armed with pishchal. Was recruited from among urban and rural residents. The total number of troops in the middle of the XVI century could be increased to 300 thousand people. The nobles supplied one man with full armor and a horse from one hundred-fourths of good land. For long trips - with two horses and supplies for the summer. The landlords supplied one person from 50 households, or from 25 households, if necessary. The army was usually assembled by March 25th. Those who did not appear at the appointed place were deprived of the estate. The homeless (merchants, foreigners, clerks, etc.) received a salary for the service - such troops were called feed.

Back in the 30s of the 17th century, "regiments of a new system" appeared, that is, soldiers', Reitars' and dragoons' regiments, formed according to the Western European model. By the end of the century, their number amounted to more than half of the number of all troops, which amounted to over 180 thousand people (not counting more than 60 thousand Cossacks). The reform of the army was carried out under Peter the Great. In 1698-1699, the rifle regiments were disbanded, instead of which regular soldiers were formed. Preparing for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and begin training recruits according to the model established by the Transfiguration and Semyonovites. This first recruitment gave Peter 25 infantry regiments and 2 cavalry - dragoons. At first, he formed an officer corps from his friends, who in the past belonged to the "amusing regiments", and later from the nobility. The army was divided into field (infantry, cavalry, artillerymen, engineering troops), local (garrison troops and land militia) and irregular (Cossacks and steppe peoples) troops. In total, its number exceeded 200 thousand people. The infantry had about twice as many men as the cavalry. In 1722, a system of ranks was introduced - the Table of Ranks.

The armament was also changed in a European way. The infantry was armed with smooth-bore rifles with bayonets, swords, cleavers, and grenades. Dragoons - carbines, pistols and broadswords. The officers still had prymets and halberds, which were not the best weapons for battle. The uniform was changed in a similar way.

On October 20, 1696, the Boyar Duma decided to establish Navy... The ships were built with the help of European engineers, and by 1722 Russia had a good fleet of 130 sailing and 396 rowing ships.

After that, until the middle of the 19th century, there were no particularly serious changes in the structure of the army.

8. Liberalism in Russia

Liberal ideas penetrated into Russia in the 18th century, almost immediately after their appearance and theoretical formulation in Europe, and it is incorrect to attribute liberalism only to Western borrowing, as most foreign researchers believe. Liberalism is one of the intellectual traditions of Russian social thought associated with the new conditions of development of Russia, namely, with its "entry" into a new historical cycle, the emergence of sprouts of bourgeois civilization, and hence with the entry into the path of common European development, with submission to the same historical laws that determine the development of Europe. The ideas of liberalism have become the most adequate form of expression of this process, which was noted by both outstanding Russian thinkers and some foreign researchers.

Russian liberalism has gone through three waves, three stages in its historical development. Each of them had its own characteristics.

The first stage - "government" liberalism, initiated "from above" - covered the periods of the reign of Catherine II and Alexander I: it was liberal-educational in content, relied on an enlightened limited monarchy (constitutional projects of M.M.Speransky), caused the oppositional autocracy movement of the Decembrists.

The second stage (wave) is post-reform liberalism, i.e. "protective" or conservative liberalism is distinguished by its political-sociological and philosophical theories (conceptual foundations - KD Kavelin, systematic development - BN Chicherin, PB Struve). He influenced S.L. Frank, S.N. Bulgakov in the tradition of liberal conservatism. He caused the zemstvo, and from the beginning of the 90s - the bourgeois liberal movement.

The third stage is the "new" liberalism of the beginning of the century (before October 1917), i.e. social liberalism, which proclaimed the need to ensure every citizen "the right to a dignified human existence." He gave impetus to a new understanding of problems the rule of law and "legal socialism" in an atmosphere of ideological struggle with both representatives of conservative and left-wing radical forces (N.I. Kareev, P.I. Novgorodtsev, B.A. N. Milyukov, L.A. Petrazhitsky, S.A. Muromtsev and others), prepared, along with the second direction, the formation of the liberal party of the Cadets, and subsequently - its split. Conventionally, the political-sociological and philosophical-legal content of the ideas of liberalism of the first wave can be characterized as the official version. The second wave - as more "right" in comparison with classical liberalism (a synthesis of ideas and values of liberalism and conservatism), and the third wave - as a more "left" option (a synthesis of classical liberalism and some socialist and social democratic ideas) in comparison with " pure "economic and political liberalism.

...

History in the formation and development of the Russian state. Buryakova V. Periods of development of the Russian statehood. The reign of Nicholas I

More on topic 2. Stages of development of Russian statehood. Characteristics of approaches:

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1. Primitive history: preconditions for the formation, emergence and development of the ancient Russian early feudal state

An important phenomenon in the economic and political life of Ancient Rus was the emergence of a large number of cities. The main categories of the population in terms of number and economic status were artisans and merchants.

2. The main stages of Russian foreign policy in the nineteenth century

3. Political change of the state system. The fall of Soviet power

4. The experience of parliamentarism in tsarist Russia

What does the experience of the State Duma teach? Analysis shows that at least two lessons of its existence are still highly relevant.

First lesson. Parliamentarism in Russia was an "unwanted child" for the ruling circles. Its formation and development took place in an acute struggle against authoritarianism, autocracy, tyranny of the bureaucracy and the executive branch.

Lesson two. In the course of formation Russian parliamentarism valuable experience was accumulated in working and combating authoritarian tendencies in the activities of the authorities, which it is not easy to forget today.

5. The transformation of the Russian state into a multinational power

Within the framework of a single state, three fraternal Slavic people- Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. The fate of Estonia and Latvia was decided under Peter I, when as a result of the Northern War of 1700-1721. they became part of Russia, where they remained until October 1917.

Finland was annexed to Russia in 1809 by the Peace of Friedrichsgam, which summed up the results of the Russian-Swedish war of 1808 - 1809. She received autonomy status as the Grand Duchy of Finland.

After the end of the Northern War, Russia got the opportunity to intensify its foreign policy in the Transcaucasus. In the Caucasus, Russia's interests clashed with the claims of Turkey and Iran to these territories.

As a result of the Russian-Turkish and Russian-Iranian wars at the end of the 20s of the XIX century. the second stage in the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia was completed. Georgia, Eastern Armenia, Northern Azerbaijan became part of the Russian Empire.

6. Oprichnina

7. Formation of principles and bodies of state protection (from antiquity to Peter I)

The formation and strengthening of a new state formation - the Moscow Grand Duchy - created the conditions for the restoration of the strong Russian statehood destroyed by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and with it the new system protection of the borders of the Russian state.

Sometimes foreigners were hired for the service. Most often they were Normans, Pechenegs, then Cumans, Hungarians, Berendeys, Torcs, Poles, Balts, occasionally even Bulgarians, Serbs and Germans.

The bulk of the troops were infantry. But by that time there was already a cavalry formed to defend against the Pechenegs and other nomads, taking into account the Hungarian experience. There was also a good fleet of rooks.

On October 20, 1696, the Boyar Duma decided to establish Navy... The ships were built with the help of European engineers, and by 1722 Russia had a good fleet of 130 sailing and 396 rowing ships.

After that, until the middle of the 19th century, there were no particularly serious changes in the structure of the army.

8. Liberalism in Russia

Russian liberalism has gone through three waves, three stages in its historical development. Each of them had its own characteristics.

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