Subject the study of history as a science is primarily the identification and study of laws, patterns, trends in the development of mankind throughout the entire period of its existence. The subject of the course "Russian history" is much narrower than the subject of historical science and differs in a range of problems, chronological framework.
In the course, the study subjects, first of all, socio-political processes, as well as domestic and foreign policy, the history of formation and change political regimes, history of social and political movements and parties; the processes of modernization, reform and revolution, the activities of outstanding historical personalities of our Fatherland.
History of the Fatherland - part world history, so in training course the history of Russia is considered in interrelation and mutual influence with the history of other countries and peoples. This is especially important, since our nationality, statehood, civilization were formed under the influence of the East and West.
Method
(method of research) shows how cognition occurs, on what methodological basis, on what scientific principles. A method is a way of research, a way of building and substantiating knowledge. More than two millennia ago, two main approaches arose in historical thought that still exist today: this is the idealistic and materialistic understanding of history.
Representatives of the idealistic concept in history believe that spirit and consciousness are primary and more important than matter and nature. Thus, they claim that human soul and the mind defines tepes and character historical development, and other processes, including in the economy, are secondary, derived from the spirit. Thus, the idealists conclude that the basis of the historical comb is the spiritual moral improvement of people, and human society is developed by the person himself, while the abilities of the person are given by God.
Proponents of the materialist concept argued and affirm the opposite: since material life is primary in relation to the consciousness of people, it is economic structures, processes and phenomena in society that determine everything spiritual development and other relationships between people. For Western historical science, an idealistic approach is more characteristic, for a domestic one - a materialistic one. Modern historical science is based on the dialectical-materialist method, which considers social development as a natural - historical process, which is determined by objective laws and at the same time is under the influence of the subjective factor through the activities of the masses, classes, political parties, leaders, leaders.
There are also specially - historical methods research:
Chronological - provides for the presentation of historical material in chronological order;
Synchronous - involves the simultaneous study of events taking place in society;
Dichronny - method of periodization;
Historical modeling;
Statistical method.
If the school is highlighted task
to acquaint students with historical facts and events, then in high school - to reveal the essence of historical phenomena, to give them a scientific explanation.
Russia at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. The reign of Fyodor Ivanovich. Boris Godunov's board. The beginning of the Time of Troubles
On March 18, 1584, Ivan the Terrible died while playing chess. His eldest son Ivan was killed by his father in a fit of rage (1581), and his youngest son Dmitry was only two years old. The middle son of Grozny, twenty-seven-year-old Fyodor Ivanovich (1584 - 1598), who was soft by nature and incapable of ruling the state, ascended the throne.
The role of aviation in the first stage of the Korean War. The successes of the summer of 1950
As shown above, the first period of hostilities was very successful for the North Korean army. Her land forces with the support of aviation equipped with Soviet Il-10 piston attack aircraft and Yak-9 fighters, inflicted a classic lightning strike on the army South Korea... The front at the demarcation line, which ran along the 38th parallel, ...
State mechanism in ancient Greece
Creation of the first proto-states, and then larger ones state entities in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and on the islands Aegean in the III-II millennium BC was the result of the conquest of the autochthonous population of this region (Pelasgians, Minoans) by the Achaean Greeks. In the Achaean period, as a result of constant wars, there is a ...
feudal fragmentation oprichnina stalin
The subject of study Patriotic history are the patterns of political and socio-economic development The Russian state and society as part of the world process of human history. The history of Russia examines socio-political processes, the activities of various political forces, the development of political systems and state structures.
The following functions of historical knowledge are distinguished:
- 1) cognitive, intellectually developing - proceeds from the knowledge of the historical process as a social branch scientific knowledge identifying the main trends social development history and as a result - theoretical generalization historical facts;
- 2) practical and political - by identifying the patterns of development of society, it helps to develop a scientifically based political course. At the same time, knowledge of history contributes to the formation the best option mass leadership policies;
- 3) worldview - in the study of history, it largely determines the formation of a scientific worldview. This is because the story is based on various sources, provides documentary accurate data on the events of the past. People look to the past to better understand modern life trends inherent in it. Thus, knowledge of history equips people with an understanding of the historical perspective.
- 4) educational - consists in the fact that knowledge of history actively forms civic qualities personality, allows you to understand the merits and demerits of the modern social system.
The principles of scientific research of history:
- 1. The principle of objectivity obliges us to consider historical reality regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and preferences of the subject. First of all, it is necessary to study the objective laws that determine the processes of social and political development. To do this, one should rely on facts in their true content, and also consider each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency.
- 2. The principle of historicism says that any historical phenomenon should be studied from the point of view of where, when and why this phenomenon arose, how it was at the beginning, how it developed later, what path it took, what assessments were given to it at one or another stage of development, what can be said about its prospects. The principle of historicism requires that any student of history should not become a judge in assessing historical and political events.
- 3. The principle of the social approach is understood as the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire sum of social-class relations. It should be emphasized that the principle of a social approach to history is especially necessary and essential in assessing the programs and real activities of political parties and movements, as well as their leaders and functionaries.
- 4. The principle of comprehensive study of history implies the need not only for completeness and reliability of information, but also for taking into account all aspects and interrelationships that affect the political sphere of society.
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History has always attracted great public interest. In past years, Russian history as a science was largely politicized, permeated with one-sided ideological dogmas, which left a certain imprint on the formation of the historical thinking of people, especially young people. Today we are moving away from these cliches and from everything that prevents historians from being extremely objective. At the same time, there are many cases when a number of researchers rush to extremes when assessing historical events, departing from historical objectivity, and see nothing in Russian history but tragedies and mistakes. Such approaches are unacceptable.
Historical science has accumulated extensive experience in the creation of works on the history of Russia. Per last years fundamental works on the history of Russia of major pre-revolutionary domestic historians(N. M. Karamzina, S. M. Soloviev, V. O. Klyuchevsky and others). Today these are the works of such prominent historians as S. V. Bakhrushin, B. D. Grekov, B. A. Rybakov, I. Ya. Froyanov, L. N. Gumilyov, T. A. Fomenko and others. Many of the named authors contradict each other in their conceptual approaches. But the meaning of historical science is not the achievement of like-mindedness, but the development of acceptable theories that explain the realities of the past as fully as possible.
We must take into account that the study of Russian history should take place in the context of world history. Students of history should understand the ways of development of Russia and its place in the world historical process. The subject of the study of Patriotic history is the laws of the socio-economic and political development of Russia and its peoples, which are manifested in historical events and facts.
The basis of any historical research is the historical sources. Without studying them in a deep dialectical unity of content and form, scientific knowledge of the history of the development of society is impossible. Among the most ancient sources on the history of Russia can be attributed archaeological. These are complexes of material finds in the cultural layer of the earth. The most important and oldest written sources are the annals. The most early works historians-chroniclers appeared in the X-XII centuries. The most famous of them is "The Tale of Bygone Years" (XII century). One of valuable sources are Novgorod letters on birch bark. Among the legislative materials, one cannot do without such as "Russkaya Pravda", Code of Laws of 1497, Sobornoye Ulozhenie 1649, "Granting" letters to the nobility and others.
According to the History of Russia from the 18th century. so far there is great amount various sources: documents and materials of government bodies, political parties and socio-political movements); periodicals (newspapers, magazines, etc.); documents and materials of museums; cinema-photo-phonodocuments.
Methods of studying history are grouped according to the principle of systematics of general, special and auxiliary historical disciplines. Among other approaches, it is important to name the unique methods of genealogy, which make it possible to reveal the origin of individuals, families and clans of different social status.
Thus, the totality of methodological principles and methodological techniques, sources and methods of descriptions of historical science should form a consistent system of cognition of the laws of the past reality.
The subject and objectives of the course of Russian history.
History in translation from Greek means "narration, a story about the past, recognized, investigated" - this is any process of the development of nature and human society; it is a science that studies the past of mankind, its development in all its diversity.
Historical sources can be:
Material (archaeological excavations); - written (chronicles, books); - visual (paintings, engravings); - phonic (sound recordings)
The task of our course is to know your history, to be able to navigate the complex processes of the socio-political, socio-economic and cultural life of Russia.
The course on / and performs a number of functions: cognitive, political, ideological, educational.
The founder of the Russian historical school can be considered a monk chronicler Kiev Pechersk Lavra Nestor, who lived in the late 11th - early 12th centuries ("The Tale of Bygone Years"). Among other major historians of Russia, one can name Tatishchev, Karamzin, Soloviev, Klyuchevsky, who believed that the improvement of the human spirit lies at the heart of historical development. The first Russian materialist who laid the foundation for historical development on the change in the forms of economy was Radishchev. Major historians of the Soviet period were Grekov, Rybakov, Zenin, Tikhomirov, and others.
History performs several socially significant functions: the first is cognitive, intellectually developing, consists in studying the historical path of our country, people and in the objectively true, from the standpoint of historicism, reflection of all the phenomena and processes that make up the history of Russia.
The second function is practical political. Its essence is that history as a science, revealing on the basis of theoretical comprehension of historical facts the patterns of development of society, helps to develop a scientifically grounded political course, to avoid subjective decisions.
The third function is ideological. History creates documentary accurate stories about outstanding events of the past, about thinkers to whom society owes its development. History is the foundation on which the science of society is based.
Periodization of Patriotic history
To study Russian history, periodization is necessary, i.e. the establishment of periods of time, stages during which there are any significant changes in the development of the state.
The author of the first periodization of o / i was Tatishchev, who based it on autocracy and the power of power. Karamzin - the state of statehood and change ruling dynasty... Soloviev - the struggle between the state and the tribal principle. Klyuchevsky - the growth of the territory of the state, the practice of life and the state of the state.
Modern o / and takes into account: the prevailing forms of socio-economic relations, the type of organization of power and society, the specifics of culture.
Main steps:
1) the primitive communal era, the time of the dominance of patriarchal equality, building military democracy, the domination of pagan culture (until the 9th century);
2) Kievan Rus, the early feudal state and society, the era of the beginning of the Christianization of the country, the formation of the Christian-pagan dual faith (IX-early XII centuries);
3) feudal fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke, the heyday of feudalism, the formation and consolidation of estates, the era of national revival (early XII - mid. XV centuries);
4) the era of the formation of the Russian centralized state, the beginning of the emergence of capitalist relations and the first sprouts of the secularization of culture (mid, ХУ-ХУП centuries);
5) the initial stage of modernization of Russia, the formation of the system of an absolute monarchy, the time of the decomposition of feudalism and the birth secular culture(XVIII century);
6) the era of the crisis of feudalism, the decomposition of the estate organization of society and its replacement by a class structure, the classic period of the development of secular culture (first half of the 19th century);
7) the era of the transformation of feudalism and its replacement by capitalist relations, the deepening social and political crisis, which resulted in a period of revolutions, destabilization and wars (1861 - February 1917);
8) the period of revolutionary timelessness after the fall of the Romanov monarchy - a total crisis of all spheres of relations (February - October 1917);
9) the first decade Soviet power- the time of the establishment of the foundations of the new system of life and culture, the domination of a multi-structured economy, the constitutional formalization of the class structure of society and the republican system, the re-creation of the former imperial state borders through the creation of the USSR
(1917-1927);
10) the Stalinist period of the country's development, building the foundation of the socialist state economy and testing it for strength in the years of the Great Patriotic War, the completion of the cultural revolution, the transformation of the country from an agrarian into an agrarian-industrial one, the completion of the formation of a new social structure, a regime of personal power (1928-1953);
11) the stage of reforms and deformations of the Stalinist model of socialism, the polarization of society along the line of the elite-mass began, the growth of stagnation in the economy, the sphere of social and political relations (1953-1985);
12) perestroika and post-perestroika - the transformation of the system of state socialism and its replacement by a society of the pro-capitalist type (1985-2000).
Eastern Slavs in antiquity
Of the Great Migration of Peoples "(4-6 centuries AD). It was a massive migration of the peoples of Eurasia under the influence of the movement of nomads, Huns from the center of Asia. Moving to the west, the Huns involved practically all the peoples of this continent in their movement and they left their habitable places. The Slavs lived in Europe in the Carpathian region, the Carpathian region is the European homeland of the Slavs. land of Vienna . The Slavs were called Wends... They parted in three directions, forming three branches:
1) Western Slavs - settled on the rivers Odori, Vistula, Elbe (Czechs, Slavaks, Morabs, Poles (Poles)
2) South Slavs - went to the Danube and the Balkans in the central south. Europe (Serbs, Croats, Montenegrins, Bulgars)
3) Eastern Slavs - went to the east of the Dnieper, Oka, Volga and settled in the great Russian plain. These are our ancestors who laid the foundation for the ancient Russian people. The formation began in the 6th century and ended in the 10th century. Tribal differences were erased, and there were about a hundred tribes.
The origin of the word Slovyane is the messengers of the land of Vienna (sly-vene), so the Byzantines (Greeks) began to call the Veneti, and after them other peoples.
The lifestyle of the Eastern Slavs
The Slavs lived in blood related communities. Blood (family) ties forced the main community to call the rope (rope) in the north, the world - in the south. These words speak of mutual assistance, a rope is not only a rope, but also a circle of guarantee. Communities united into clans, and clans into tribes. Polyana - inhabitants of fields in the middle of the Dnieper (Kiev), Krivichi - the upper reaches of the Dnieper (Smolensk), Vyatichi - inhabitants of forests (we), etc., 100 tribes.
community ------- clan ------ tribe ------- tribal union
Union of tribes
Since the 16th century, our state has been assigned the Greek word for Rus - Russia. Our ancestors settled on the high banks of rivers, built villages (a place where there are many trees) because the main routes of communication were rivers and two trade routes were mastered by the Eastern Slavs:
Trade was important industry, as well as war. Trade is a guest, a merchant is a guest, churchyards are the first transshipment points. The first cities arose from graveyards - Kiev, Veliky Novgorod, Smolensk, Murmansk and others (20 cities). They traded in furs, handicrafts, slaves. Wars were fought to capture slaves (captives) who were not used in the household, but were the object of trade in the south of Byzantium and in the Arab countries. They were engaged in agriculture in the fields in the south in the steppe zone - farming, in the forest zone - slash-fire farming (ineffective).
Political System Administration - the Slavs lived in a system of clan military democracy (democracy), the supreme governing body was the people's assembly veche - comes from the word broadcast (speak), the right to speak before the national assembly for every man. A military militia (warrior) is being formed. During this period, the structure of military democracy begins to distinguish a special class of professional soldiers - boyars, the one who fights, i.e. equestrian soldiers. They gather in squads and from their midst nominates the leader of the equestrian warrior of the leader of the boyar squad - the horse and princes with squads received the right to feed, the right to collect tribute from those communities that they defended. Not infrequently, princes became supreme rulers (supreme nobility).
Culture of Kievan Rus
Paganism is a complex of primitive views, beliefs. They worshiped the spirits of the forests. The genus-agricultural deity who ruled the rains acquired great importance. Paganism found its artistic expression in folk folklore, fairy tales, proverbs in the 10-11th century. An epic epic is taking shape. in the 10th century - writing - Cyrillic. An important role is chronicle. In the period of the settlement of Kievan Rus, the first place belonged to monumental painting - mosaics and frescoes.
Rise of Moscow
the first mention of Moscow in 1147 is a chronicle testimony that Yuri Dolgoruky made a feast in Moscow in honor of Prince Oleg of Chernigov (a princely village). The Moscow principality was separated from the Vladimir principality in 70. In the 13th century, the youngest son of Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich, became the first prince of Moscow. The rise of Moscow, i.e. its transformation into the center of Russia, the gathering of Russian lands around it began with Ivan Kalita in 1327. Ivan Kalita, with the help of the Tatar troops, suppressed the anti-Tatar uprising in Tver and as a token of gratitude from Khan Uzbek received the right:
On the Vladimir Yarik (became the senior prince of Russia, having won this right from the Tver prince)
Received the right to collect tribute from all the Russian lands subject to the horde. Elimination of Basque. All the wealth was concentrated in his hands, but he did not transfer all this wealth to the horde, but what he concealed he directed to expand the Moscow possessions
He attracted settlers (peasants, boyars, nobles from other principalities and exempted them from taxes, provided the boyars with estates)
Expanded possessions by purchasing land to Moscow
Under Ivan Kalita, 97 villages and cities were included in the Moscow principality (at the beginning of the reign, only 4). Mozhaisk, Kolomna, Tula, Veliky Ustyug, Galich:
100 - 200 km. Possession radius. As a sign of independence from the khan, he was the first to erect an oak Kremlin, while violating the khan's law. He donated huge amounts of money for the revival of Russian cities and artisans. Since the 14th century, Russian artisans have mastered the casting of cast iron, cannons, and artillery appeared in Moscow. In 1328 he lured Metropolitan Peter from Vladimir and Moscow became the religious capital. 1325 - 1340 - the years of the reign of Ivan Kalita in Moscow. His grandson Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1362 - 1389 reign in Moscow). The Battle of Kulikovo is the first general battle between the Russians and the Mongolotatars. September 8, 1380 She dispelled the myth of invincibility Tatar troops... The Russian principalities fought in this battle together. The leader was Dmitry Donskoy. It was a gigantic battle, about half a million people participated on both sides, half were killed. Russia was bled out of blood for many years and could not resist new battle Tatars and two years later resumed paying tribute to the horde. Dmitry Donskoy continued the work of his grandfather: he expanded the Moscow principality. Annexed the Murmansk and Nizhny Novgorod principality. In 1367, Dmitry built a white-stone Kremlin. These walls made it possible to withstand the siege of the Lithuanian and Tver troops, who were in the alliance and fought for the leadership of Moscow, but in 1375 Dmitry Donskoy won the final victory in the Moscow - Tver war and Tver finally recognized the primacy of Moscow. In 1389, dying, Dmitry Donskoy for the first time bequeathed his principality to his spiritual son, Vasily. By doing so, he ended the tradition of traveling for labels. Thus, by the end of the 14th century, the Golden Horde entered a period of decline, in which the internecine struggle of the khans for power began. This weakening was taken advantage of by the Moscow princes, who established themselves as the oldest (first) in Russia, took the title of Vladimir - Moscow and defeated their rivals: Tver and Lithuanians. However, the western and southern Russian principalities in the 14th century willingly accepted tribute to Lithuania, since it did not pay tribute to the Horde, thus, by the end of the 14th century, Russia was divided into a zone that paid tribute, subject to the Vladimir - Moscow princes and into the region of the Lithuanian - Polish dominion, and a single Russian the people were divided into:
Russians (Great Russians)
Belarusians (Lithuania)
Malorussians (zone of possession of Poland)
Formation of the Moscow State
The city of Moscow before the invasion of the Tatars was a small border village of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. In 1147, the first mention of Moscow is celebrated, when one of the sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Dolgoruky was a prince north-eastern Russia... He received the prefix Dolgoruky as a result of the annexation of Murom, Ryazan, part of the lands along the banks of the Volga to Moscow, and also founded a number of new cities, built churches (in 1954, a monument to Yuri Dolgoruky, the founder of Moscow, was built in Moscow).
However, the true founder of Moscow, which became the center new Russia, was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel. Under him, Moscow became an independent principality (1276). In 3 years, Daniel doubled the territory of the Moscow principality, which became the largest in northeastern Russia.
Daniel's son Ivan I Kalita was a rather tough diplomat. He received a label for the Great Reign, transferred the Metropolitan from Vladimir to Moscow, which is becoming not only a religious, but also an ideological center of Russia. Kalita taught the right to collect tribute from all principalities for the Mongols, some of which he concealed.
Dmitry Donskoy (grandson of Ivan Kalita) after the Battle of Kulikovo (1380) becomes the national leader. Under him, the size of the tribute to the Mongols was reduced, the political supremacy of Moscow was recognized, which became the capital of the Russian lands. Under him, a white-stone Kremlin was built in Moscow, the only Kremlin in the northeast. He managed to transfer the Great Reign to his son Vasily I without the Mongolian label.
The completion of the unification of Russian lands occurs in the 14th century. Ivan III (great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy) and his son Vasily III stopped paying tribute to the Mongols. Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan were annexed to the Moscow principality. Since the 15th century, the Moscow principality has been the largest state in Europe. Received the name Russia.
1497 - Ivan III adopted a code of law, a collection of legal laws of that time, where, along with other articles, St. George's Day (November 26) was introduced - the day of the possible transition of serfs from one owner to another.
Government represented a monarchy. Ivan III declares himself a tsar, a sovereign with Byzantine splendor (throne, scepter, orb, mantles with precious stones, Monomakh's hat). An ideological doctrine was formulated: Moscow is the third Rome, and there will be no fourth, i.e. Moscow metropolitans and tsars accept the inheritance from the Byzantine and Roman emperors. Moscow is becoming the center of Orthodoxy around the world. The state administrative apparatus began to take shape: the boyar duma (advisory body), the palace and the treasury. At the head of the counties, governors are appointed.
Foreign policy 16th century
Under Ivan the Terrible, the borders were expanded. First diplomatic contacts with England. Expanding the boundaries:
East direction- the fight against the Tatar khanates for the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia. The beginning of the conquest from the 50s. from the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan, by the beginning of the 80s. as part of Russia, there was a territory up to the Urals and the penetration into Siberia began. The first detachments of Russian Cossacks were equipped with merchant money, and in the 90s. royal authorities began the conquest southward
South direction (90s). the Crimean Tatar Khanate, Russia did not dare to fight with it, since the Crimean Khan accepted the citizenship of Turkey, the most powerful sovereign. But a line was built here notches - border line for protection from raids (she walked Orel - Belgorod - Tula) and was a felling. Crimean Khan burned Moscow more than once.
Western direction - the task is to conquer the outlet to the Baltic (ice-free ports). The Levonian knightly order, based on the lands of the Latvians and Istons, is blocking the exit. The Levonians paid rent to the Russian tsar for the possession of the city of Yuryev (Easton city of Tartu). In 1558, the Levonians refused to pay the Yuryev tribute and Ivan the Terrible considered this a convenient reason for starting a war against Levonia, which lasted until 1582. It exhausted all the country's resources and was not successful, although the Russian army destroyed Levonia. Russia did not take advantage of the fruits of the victory and the Levonian lands were divided by Poland and Sweden.
The era of Vasily Shuisky
New False Dmitry (Tushinsky thief) by 1609 Shuisky's troops defeated the troops of False Dmitry II. 1607 g. Peasant war – leader Ivan Bolotnikov. He collected the mob and called upon to smash the boyars and landowners. Bolotnikov himself called himself the governor of Dmitry. Polish intervention begins - King of Poland Sigismund III laid siege to Smolensk. Shuisky invited the Swedes for help. The boyars decided to invite the son of Sigismund Vladislav (1610 - 1612 - the seven-boyars) to the throne. Saved by the national patriotic movement, acted as an ideologist Orthodox Church... Russian cities entered into correspondence and began to gather in detachments, coordination was headed by Kuzma Minin, under the leadership of Pozharsky, by March 1612 the militia marched towards Moscow from Nizhny Novgorod, and by the summer of 1612 they approached Moscow. A government was formed as part of the militia. The battle was long, the last Polish troops left Moscow in the late autumn of 1612. February 27, 1613 Zemsky Sobor elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne and he founded a three hundred year dynasty. February 27, 1917 - the revolution took place and Nicholas was overthrown from the throne.
Russian politics in the 17th century.
new form state absolutism - an unlimited monarchical form of power, in which the sovereign belongs to the unlimited fullness of the entire country, exercised this power, relying on the army, a centralized bureaucratic apparatus and the nobility. In Russia, the assertion of absolutism consisted of:
1) The fall of the significance of the Zemsky Sobor, they were no longer convened from the middle of the 17th century
2) Democratization boyar duma, an increase in the noble stratum in it
4) An increase in the number of orders, the emergence of new ones ("Order of Secret Affairs", "Accounts Chamber") and the entire administration was personally subordinate to the sovereign
Under Mikhail Fedorovich, the Polish ended and the end comes Swedish intervention... Under the first Romanov, despite numerous wars, Russia expanded its ties with the West. After his death, Alexei Mikhailovich (Quietest) ascended the throne. The biggest event was the adoption Zemsky Sobor in 1649 "Cathedral Code"... The new set of laws, which formalized legal status(position) of all estates of Russia and summed up the process of enslavement of the peasants, from now on they became the full property of the feudal lords, lost all legal rights. St. George's Day was canceled, the search for fugitive peasants becomes indefinite (a feudal lord could sell a peasant). By this law, the position of the boyars and nobles was equalized. The nobles received the right to inherit the estate, provided that the son continues to serve his father. For the first time, merchants (merchants) received the right to travel abroad. Urban people (townspeople - artisans, merchants, small shopkeepers) were attributed to their place of residence and profession, and in cities the entire population was evenly taxed by the state tax. In the 17th century, the development of capitalist relations begins, this was expressed:
The emergence of private manufactories
The growth of the fishing industry. Especially salt production in the Russian north (Vologda, Arkhangelsk regions)
The formation of an all-Russian national market, this manifested itself in the emergence of new forms of trade All-Russian fairs where the goods were brought from their country. There were only three of them: 1. in the Urals, 2. under Nizhny Novgorod, 3. near Bryansk. Traditional centers trade remained: Moscow, Astrakhan, Arkhangelsk, Novgorod, Pskov.
The Romanovs began to pursue a policy for the first time protectionism(protection of the interests of domestic merchants, i.e. enterprises). This policy was clearly demonstrated by New Trade Charter 1667. He introduced duty-free trade for Russian merchants and made it difficult for high customs duties trade of foreigners. Contemporaries called the 17th century rebellious, massive uprising... Urban uprisings that arose because of the high cost and depreciation of money. First Copper riot in 1662 in Moscow... Peasant war led by Stepan Razin (1660 - 1671). It was an anti-feudal movement with a broad social membership. The rebels burned down the estates of the landowners and divided the land. Another kind of movement - Church schism(the movement of the schismatics). It began as a religious movement, but transformed into an anti-feudal one. The movement arose as a result of the church-ritual reform carried out in the middle of the century under the leadership of Patriarch Nikon. The reform haunted - achieve uniformity in the conduct church service and was accompanied by a change in traditional church rituals. For the first time, replacement of a two-fingered cross with a three-fingered one. A significant part of Russian society (nobles, boyars, artisans, peasants, clergy, all estates) did not accept these innovations. Were adherents of the old rites (Old Believers)... Their disobedience led to a split in the church, therefore they were also called schismatics. The form of resistance of the schismatics is going to remote areas (Siberia, the Volga region) and living in isolation. Another form is self-immolation. It became widespread after the king announced persecution. With arms in hand, they defended their faith. Fierce armed struggles lasted for 8 years.
Foreign policy of the 17th century
The main achievement of Russia is the accession of all of Siberia and the Far East to it. The main enemies of Russia: Poland, Sweden, Turkey. The main tasks of this struggle are the return of the lands of Smolensk, Novgorod, Pskov, Chernigov, lost during the time of troubles. These tasks were solved during the wars with Poland and Sweden. The liberation war of the Ukrainian people began. During the national liberation anti-Polish struggle under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnitsky, Ukraine was reunited with Russia in 1654. Russia fought several times with Turkey for the Azov fortress.
Mid 13th century
along with destruction Kiev state, which disintegrated into separate principalities, formed local in the style of architecture icon painting. The most striking cultural centers were: Vladimir on the Klyazma, Novgorod the Great, Smolensk, Galich. This has enriched the culture. The most striking work is the "Vladimirsuzdal" and "Galetskaya" chronicles. An architectural monument in Vladimir has developed its own architectural style - a one-dome white church, richly decorated with stone carvings. ... Golden Gate, Cathedral - the main cathedral in Russia (five-domed) - Dmitrovskaya Church in Vladimir predominance in stone. In Smolensk - the Church of the Archangel, Peter and Paul .. In Russian literature: patriotic names, the theme of lamentation (lamentations about the lost Russian land), the story of the capture of Ryazan by Batu Evpatiy Kovrit- this is the hero of this story. "A word about lost earth Russian " to the life of Alexander Nevsky.
17th century culture
from the appeal to the ideal Greco-Roman culture, which put man in the place of an earthly god and the greatness of man was seen in his ability to shape himself. Man measured himself. The era began in Italy and in Russia, is always associated with interests in the personality of a person, in his feat of life, thought, etc. In Russia, it had a feature closely intertwined with the task of liberation from the yoke and the growth of national self-awareness of the unity of Russia and patriotism. The ideologist of the Russian Renaissance was the church, and a great figure in this era Sergey Radonezhsky(ideologist of the Russian Renaissance) 1321 - 1391 the founder of the Troitsko-Sergiev Monastery, the customer of the icon for Rublev. The Trinity of Rublev has become a symbol of the unity of Russia and the unity of people as brothers (a masterpiece of the 14th century). In the 14th century, a dense network of Russian monasteries arose in central central Russia. The main ones were Sergei's teachings. He worshiped Dmitry Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo. Theophanes the Greek he painted the Old Testament images, his saints were very severe, while the images of the saints of Christ Rublev were joyfully spiritualized. Temples of this century have changed their appearance. In Moscow, the Savior Cathedral of the Andronnikov Monastery (was a student of Sergei Rodonezhsky). The movement was developed "Silence"- taking a vow of silence. The Assumption Cathedral on the town in Zvenigorod and the Nativity Cathedral of the Savvino Storonivsky Monastery. Battle of Kulikovo became the subject of praise and a poem (Zadonshchina) was created.
15th century formation of a single state
With the decline of the authority of the church, in parallel, the Heresy(deviation from Christianity) .. Construction of the Kremlin in Moscow began under Ivan III. He invited a master from Italy who was building. Until the 15th century, we do not know a single name (anonymously) except for Rublev and Sergei. The appearance of the Kremlin is being transformed. Russian cities emerged as a fortress, a defensive post, a crop of goods (money, ideologies), a center of culture. The Moscow Kremlin is the first with oak walls was built by Ivan Kalita, his first white-stone grandson Dmitry Donskoy (14th century). Famous cultural values of this century:
Archangel Cathedral (cathedral - tomb)
Assumption Cathedral
Annunciation (home church)
The Faceted Chamber (the first secular building got its name from its decoration) is a place for receiving foreign guests and diplomats
Architecture in the 17th century.
At the end of the century, a new architectural style emerged - Moscow baroque... Single-domed churches, multi-tiered, combine a church and a bell tower, painted in pink, yellow and decorated with carvings. Church of the Intercession of the Virgin in Fili
Culture 18 in
Culture is developing rapidly, especially science, thanks to Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1811 - 1865). Physics, chemistry, mining, history, versification, founder of Moscow University. During this era, there was a change in Russia fine arts: Baroque is replaced by classicism - first in literature, then in architecture. In literature, Lomonosov created the repertoire of Russian theaters Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov, Kantimir. Architecture in the middle of the century. The Italian architect Astrelli is the last and great Baroque building - Winter Palace, in the era palace coups the style evolved. Sculpture -"The Bronze Horseman" equestrian portrait of Peter - Falcone, "Samson tearing the mouth of a lion" - Kozlovsky (Aligoria of the Poltava victory).
Reforms of Alexander II
2. Urban reform... (1870) City status:
created city councils and mountain councils, headed by the mountains head. The candidacy of the mountains of the head was approved by the governor, election was granted for 3 curiae: 1 - industrialists and merchants (1/3 of taxes), 2 - medium-sized entrepreneurs (1/3), 3 - all mountain population. Out of 707 lips, 621 received ref-mu msu. The competencies are the same, the disadvantages are the same.
1864 - new court statutes were promulgated. The estate system of courts was liquidated, the court system was declared equal before the law, publicity of the court system was introduced, the judiciary was adversarial, the presumption of innocence, the irremovability of judges, a unified judicial system, two types of court were created: 1. Magistrates' courts - considered yi and gr cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were chosen at district councils and approved by the Senate.
2. The General Court - consisted of 3 instances: 1 - okr court (in counties), 2 - lip court chamber, 3 - senate. Consider yr and gr of the case, the damage for the cat was> 500 rubles. general courts were appointed by the tsar, and the jurors were chosen on the lips of the assembly.
Disadvantages: small estate courts continued to persist
Military reform: 1874 - Charter on military service
to raise the competence of the highest military leadership, the military ministry was transformed into a general staff, the whole country was divided into 6 military districts, the army was reduced, military settlements were eliminated,
the recruiting system for recruiting into the army was canceled and a general army was introduced. From 21 years old. The service life was 15 years. But in the army, the soldiers served 6 years, 7 - for sailors. Benefits for military service were introduced: people from the beginning served 3 years, those who graduated from the gymnasium - 1.5 years, with higher - several meyats. They were exempted from military obligations if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if there were elderly parents in his support.,
cane discipline was abolished. The humanization of relations in the army has passed.
Reform in the area of education:
Was dictated by economic needs. Touched all spheres
Ref-ma start arr-I: In 1863, the charter of the beginning of public schools was issued, it laid the foundation for the creation of a system of state beginnings for all categories of us, i.e. all classes were allowed here.
Average sample: In 1864, a charter for gymnasiums was issued.
the gymnasium had access for all classes. G were divided into 2 types: 1. Classical gymnasium (for admission to the university),
the curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession,
in this period, the secondary female education was developing, female gymnasiums began to be created.
women begin to be admitted to universities as free listeners
University sample: Alex2 gave the university more freedom. This was due to the new universal charter of 1863. Freedoms: students could create student organizations, received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship, all volunteers were admitted to universities, students were given the right to choose a rector, a self-governing student was introduced in the form of a faculty council, systems of corporativeness of students and teachers were created.
Importance of reforms
The reorganizations carried out were of a progressive nature. They began to lay the foundation for the evolutionary path of the country's development. Russia, to a certain extent, approached the advanced European socio-political model for that time. The first step was taken to expand the importance of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.
However, the process of Russia's modernization had a specific character. It was primarily due to the traditional suppression of the Russian bourgeoisie and the political passivity of the masses.
Culture 19-20
"The Golden Classic Age" - of Russian literature. The main trend is the democratization of culture. Democratic culture 3 factors:
1) The creators of culture have become commoners - people from different classes (ranks), culture is losing its noble character.
2) The theme of "people" began to prevail in all works.
3) The interest of the creative intelligentsia to the folk art of the collection has intensified, not a single work was done without recourse to folklore.
Styles dominated:
1-3 decade - romanticism, from the 40s - realism.
Romanticism is an appeal to lofty heroic ideals, national past and folklore. Pushkin (Onegin), Lermontov (Pechorin).
Realists: late Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Chekhov.
The founders of the Russian classical music: Glinka, Tchaikovsky.
The founders of painting: Repin, Shishkin, Aivazovsky.
19th century - the highest rise of science: 1820 - the discovery of Antarctica. 1869 - Mendeleev periodic table.
February revolution
Society's inability to influence power - limited opportunities State Duma and lack of government control (and at the same time, limited government powers).
The emperor could no longer decide all issues on his own, but he could radically interfere with the pursuit of a consistent policy without bearing any responsibility.
Under these conditions, politics could not express the interests of not only the majority, but also any significant part of the population, which caused spontaneous discontent, and restrictions on public expression of protest led to the radicalization of the opposition.
1. the country did not have enough manufactured goods, tk. 86% of its production was military production
2.transport crisis
3.1.5 million people mobilized were concentrated in cities - an acute shortage of food
4. financial crisis, inflation led to higher prices and lower wages.
5.agricultural crisis
6. The political crisis has worsened. The main watered camps were the same. Government camp experienced an acute crisis.
· 1916 Russia was defeated in 1 MV.
The crisis rules manifested itself in the ministerial leapfrog (13 ministers were replaced in 1916)
Discrediting the name of G. Rasputin
Liberal camp: noticeably goes to the left.
Octobrists are trying to persuade H2 to abdicate in favor of Alexei's son during the regency of H2's brother Mikhail Alex
The idea of creating a responsible ministry
The liberal camp, not finding a response from the tsar to its proposals, is leaning towards bringing the revolution to the end.
Sots-dem camp: This is where the consolidation of forces takes place
02/25/1917 - the strike turned into a general strike
02/27/1917 - Petrograd was in the hands of the military. Revolutionary bodies of state power began to be created, namely, the parliamentary committee of the State Duma and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers 'Soldiers' Deputies were formed. On the night of March 2 to 3, H2 abdicates in favor of his brother Mikhail, but M renounces the throne before the convocation.
Results of the revolution:
1 ended in victory. As a result of this revolution, a dual power was established in the country (The members of the State Duma formed a temporary government, which included representatives of the bourgeois parties, the main image of the Octobrists and Cadets. G.E. Lvov became the chairman of the government.
Simultaneously social democratic. faction of the Duma, the working group of the TsVPK and other org. organized council elections. The parties of the Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks (the last ~ 10%), which expressed the interests of the working class and the peasantry, were represented on the councils.
N.S. Chkheidze (who was the chairman of the Menshevik faction in the Duma) became the chairman of the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet. The army was on the side of the Soviets, since soldiers' councils were created in all units.
The provisional government had support in the ministerial leadership of the Soviets, which believed that after the victory of the bourgeois-democratic revolution, power should be in the hands of the bourgeoisie. But without agreement with the Petrograd Soviet, the Provisional Government was unable to make important decisions.
2 Russia became the freest democratic city in the world (political party, legalization of all printed forms)
3 in Russia, alternative ways of development opened up 1 alternative - development along a democratic path, 2 - a socialist path.
Ussr during the thaw
The period from 1953 to the early 60s was named "Thaw". She touched upon all aspects of the life of Soviet society, including ideology and culture. Previously banned works of Russian and foreign authors began to be published, the number of newspapers and magazines increased. However, even during this period, the CPSU retained the levers of ideological control.
The subject of study Patriotic history are the patterns of political and socio-economic development of the Russian state and society as a part of the world process of human history. The history of Russia examines socio-political processes, the activities of various political forces, the development of political systems and state structures.
The following are highlighted functions of historical knowledge:
1) cognitive, intellectually developing- proceeds from the knowledge of the historical process as a social branch of scientific knowledge, the identification of the main trends in the social development of history and, as a result, the theoretical generalization of historical facts;
2) practical-political- by identifying the patterns of development of society, it helps to develop a scientifically grounded political course. At the same time, knowledge of history contributes to the formation of the optimal policy option for leading the masses;
3) ideological- in the study of history, to a large extent determines the formation of a scientific worldview. This is because history, drawing on various sources, provides documentary accurate data about the events of the past. People turn to the past in order to better understand modern life, the trends inherent in it. Thus, knowledge of history equips people with an understanding of the historical perspective.
4) educational- consists in the fact that knowledge of history actively forms the civic qualities of an individual, allows one to understand the merits and demerits of the modern social system.
The principles of scientific research of history:
1. The principle of objectivity obliges to consider historical reality regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and preferences of the subject. First of all, it is necessary to study the objective laws that determine the processes of social and political development. To do this, one should rely on facts in their true content, and also consider each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency.
2. The principle of historicism states that any historical phenomenon should be studied from the point of view of where, when and why this phenomenon arose, how it was at the beginning, how it developed later, what path was passed, what assessments were given to it at a particular stage of development, what can be said about its prospects. The principle of historicism requires that any student of history should not become a judge in assessing historical and political events.
3. Under social approach understand the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire amount of social-class relations. It should be emphasized that the principle of a social approach to history is especially necessary and essential in assessing the programs and real activities of political parties and movements, as well as their leaders and functionaries.
4. The principle of comprehensive study of history implies the need not only for the completeness and reliability of information, but also for taking into account all aspects and relationships that affect the political sphere of society.
