Subject of studyPatriotic history are the laws of the political and socio-economic development of the Russian state and society as part of the world process of human history. The history of Russia examines socio-political processes, the activities of various political forces, the development of political systems and state structures.
The following functions of historical knowledge:
1) cognitive, intellectual development- proceeds from the knowledge of the historical process as a social branch of scientific knowledge, identification of the main trends community development history and, as a result, a theoretical generalization of historical facts;
2) practical-political- By identifying the patterns of development of society, it helps to develop a scientifically based political course. At the same time, knowledge of history contributes to the formation the best option politics to lead the masses;
3) ideological- in the study of history, to a large extent determines the formation of a scientific worldview. This happens because history, relying on various sources, provides documented accurate data about the events of the past. People turn to the past in order to better understand modern life, the trends inherent in it. Thus, knowledge of history equips people with an understanding of the historical perspective.
4) educational- consists in the fact that knowledge of history actively forms the civic qualities of a person, allows you to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the modern social system.
Principles of the scientific study of history:
1. The principle of objectivity obliges to consider historical reality regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and predilections of the subject. First of all, it is necessary to study the objective patterns that determine the processes of socio-political development. To do this, one should rely on the facts in their true content, as well as consider each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency.
2. The principle of historicism states that any historical phenomenon should be studied from the point of view of where, when and why this phenomenon arose, how it was at the beginning, how it then developed, what path it went through, what assessments were given to it at a particular stage of development, what can be said about his prospects. The principle of historicism requires that any student of history should not become a judge in the evaluation of historical and political events.
3. Under principle of social approach understand the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire sum of social class relations. It should be emphasized that the principle of a social approach to history is especially necessary and essential in the evaluation of programs and real activities. political parties and movements, as well as their leaders and functionaries.
4. The principle of comprehensive study of history implies the need not only for the completeness and reliability of information, but also for taking into account all aspects and relationships that affect the political sphere of society.
Subject Method General scientific historical Special
The concept of socio-economic formations, classes and the state.
Socio-economic formations, fixing the main stages of the historical process, reveals the main line of human development, shows that, with all the great variety of ways of historical development of individual countries and peoples, there is a certain repetition, correctness, regularity in history. So, the socio-economic formation is a certain type of society, integral social system, functioning and developing according to its specific laws on the basis of a given mode of production. The economic skeleton of a socio-economic formation is historically determined relations of production. But it also includes other social phenomena and relations that clothe this skeleton with flesh and blood. Therefore, there is a need to understand the complex structure of the socio-economic formation. Also the most important category historical materialism, denoting a certain stage in the progressive development of human society, namely, such a set of societies. phenomena, which is based on the method of production of material goods that determines this formation, and the cut is characterized by its own, inherent only to it types of political, legal. and other organizations and institutions, their ideological. relations.
Civilized theory of the development of human society: its theorists.
As the facts irrefutably testify, there was a time when people did not exist on Earth - they once appeared on it. And along with them inevitably appeared human society. People always live only as part of separate concrete societies - socio-historical organisms, which together form a human society as a whole. Outside the system of social relations, people cannot exist. This has been noted for a long time. Even Aristotle, who lived in the IV century. BC, called a person a political animal, that is, living in a state (polity), in society. This idea was developed in the work of the Scottish thinker A. Ferguson "Essay on the history civil society"(1767). He argued that man was originally, by nature, a social being. "Humanity," he wrote, "should be considered in groups in which it has always existed. The history of an individual is only a single manifestation of the feelings and thoughts acquired by him in connection with his race, and every study related to this subject should come from whole societies, and not individual people. "The opinions that people have always lived in societies, his contemporary, Voltaire, also defended it, in his Philosophy of History (1765) he wrote: “The foundations for society have always existed, and therefore society has always existed.”
But if a person and society have arisen, then the question of where they go with their roots is legitimate. The natural answer is that the origins of man and society must be sought in the animal world. However, there is too much difference between the society in which we live now and the world of animals. Huge cities, high-rise buildings, factories, railways, cars, planes, theaters, museums, books, magazines, newspapers - there is nothing similar in the animal world. Not only modern, but in general any “civilized”, as they say, society differs from the animal world.
In reality, however, the relationship between animals and man is undeniable. Some scholars came to this conclusion as early as the 18th century. And in the next - XIX century. - The idea of the origin of man from animals has become widespread. It was, as you know, deeply substantiated in the work of the great English naturalist Charles Darwin "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection" (1871). It quite convincingly showed that the distant ancestors of man were apes (anthropoids).
Primitive communal system on the territory of our country. Periodization of the history of primitive society.
The primitive communal system is the starting point in the history of mankind. This is the longest socio-economic formation in time; it existed among all peoples at an early stage of development.
In the history of the primitive system, several stages are distinguished according to the degree of development of productive vultures, public organization, as well as forms of economy and movement from a lower level to a higher one - from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. An important stage in the history of primitive man was the first economic revolution (Neolithic), when there was a transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one. As the social division of labor deepened and its productivity increased, exchange intensified in primitive society, a surplus product arose, which became the basis for the emergence of private property and property inequality. Class societies are coming to replace the primitive system.
Decomposition of the primitive system and the transition to a class society.
The most important prerequisite and condition for the decomposition of the primitive communal system was the emergence of a regular surplus product. The regularity of obtaining a surplus product, even the smallest one, created real opportunities for the social division of labor, the parcelization of production, the exploitation of man by man, in a word, for those phenomena that ultimately led to the emergence of a class society.
Scythians and their culture.
Scythians (Greek Σκύθαι) - the Greek name for all the peoples who lived in Eastern Europe and (Central) Asia in the era of antiquity and the times of the Great Migration. But the Scythian culture had the greatest influence on the culture of the Slavs. We find traces of it everywhere - in myths, in fine arts, in language. The Scythians-Proto-Slavs lived in the forest-steppe Dnieper region, where the first Slavic myths took shape long before our era. They neighbored the Greeks from Greek colonies, enriched their culture with communication with Greek culture, traded with the Greeks. Such a picture is given by archaeological excavations of the northern Black Sea region.
Formation of the Old Russian state. Main features feudal system.
The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was a logical result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society. The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kyiv. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands within a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus. The feudal system is characterized by: 1) agriculture; 2) land management; 3) the peasantry; 4) natural economy.
11. The Norman theory of the formation of the Old Russian state and its criticism.
A trend in historiography that develops the concept that the people-tribe of Rus comes from Scandinavia during the expansion of the Vikings, who were called Normans in Western Europe. Supporters of Normanism attribute the Normans (Varangians of Scandinavian origin) to the founders of the first states of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod, and then Kievan Rus. In fact, this is following the historiographic concept of the Tale of Bygone Years (early 12th century), supplemented by the identification of the chronicle Varangians as Scandinavian-Normans. The main controversy flared up around ethnic identification, at times intensified by political ideologization.
Its authors were invited in the XVIII century. to Russia, German scientists G.Bayer, G.Miller and A.Schletser. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding, personalities. If the Varangian legend is not fiction (as most historians believe), the story of the calling of the Varangians only testifies to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty. The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages.
Literature and oral folk art in Kievan Rus.
Novgorod land.
Novgorod land was one of the centers of formation of the Russian state. It was in the Novgorod land that the Rurik dynasty began to reign, and arose public education, the so-called Novgorod Rus, from which it is customary to begin the history of Russian statehood. As part of Kievan Rus (882-1136) After 882, the center of the Russian land gradually shifted to Kyiv, but the Novgorod land retained its autonomy. In the 10th century, Ladoga was attacked by the Norwegian Jarl Eric. In 980, the Novgorod prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (the Baptist), at the head of the Varangian squad, overthrew Kyiv prince Yaropolk, in 1015-1019, the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise overthrew the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk the Accursed. In 1020 and 1067, the Novgorod land was attacked by the Polotsk Izyaslavichs. At this time, the governor - the son of the Kyiv prince - had even greater powers. In 1088, Vsevolod Yaroslavich sent his young grandson Mstislav (son of Vladimir Monomakh) to reign in Novgorod. At this time, the institution of posadniks appeared - co-rulers of the prince, who were elected by the Novgorod community. In the second decade of the 12th century, Vladimir Monomakh took a number of measures to strengthen the position of the central government in Novgorod land. In 1117, without taking into account the opinion of the Novgorod community, Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich was placed on the throne of Novgorod. Some boyars opposed such a decision of the prince, in connection with which they were summoned to Kyiv and thrown into prison. After the death of Mstislav the Great in 1132 and the deepening tendencies of fragmentation, the Novgorod prince lost the support of the central government. In 1134 Vsevolod was expelled from the city. Returning to Novgorod, he was forced to conclude a "series" with the Novgorodians, limiting his powers. On May 28, 1136, due to the dissatisfaction of the Novgorodians with the actions of Prince Vsevolod, he was imprisoned, and after that he was expelled from Novgorod. Novgorod land bordered on Vladimir-Suzdal land in the southeast, Smolensk land in the south and Polotsk land in the southwest. Novgorod possessions extended far to the east and north, up to the Urals and the Arctic Ocean. A number of fortresses guarded the approaches to Novgorod. Ladoga was located on the Volkhov, protecting the trade route to the Baltic Sea. The largest Novgorod suburb was Pskov.
Formation of the Mongolian state. The social and political system of the ancient Mongols.
At the beginning of the XIII century. in the steppes of Central Asia, a strong Mongol state was formed, with the formation of which a period of Mongol conquests began. This entailed consequences that had world-historical significance. Having affected all the countries of Asia and many countries of Europe, the Mongol conquests left a deep mark in their subsequent history, as well as in the history of the Mongol people themselves. Khural proclaimed Temujin the Great Khan of Mongolia, giving him the name Genghis Khan (The meaning of this name or title has not yet been clarified.). Since then, the Great Khan has also been called a kaan. Until that time, the Mongols titled the Chinese emperor in this way. Thus ended the process of formation of the Mongolian state.
By the end of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century. the Mongols occupied a vast territory from Baikal and Amur in the east to the upper reaches of the Irtysh and Yenisei in the west, from the Great Wall of China in the south to the borders of Southern Siberia in the north. The largest tribal unions of the Mongols, who played the most important role in subsequent events, were the Tatars, Taichiuts, Keraits, Naimans and Merkits. Some of the Mongol tribes ("forest tribes") lived in the wooded regions of the northern part of the country, while the other, larger part of the tribes and their associations ("steppe tribes") lived in the steppes.
Education of the Great Russian people.
In the XIV - XV centuries. there was a folding on the basis of the ancient Russian nationality of three fraternal nationalities: the Great Russian (Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The territorial core of the composition of the Great Russian people was the Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod lands. Its ethnic basis was the tribes of Krivichi, Vyatichi and Novgorod Slavs who lived in these lands since ancient times. The composition of the Great Russian nationality also included the non-Slavic tribes of Meri and Murom, who lived in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga and completely dissolved among the Slavic tribes. With the unification around Moscow of North-Eastern Russia and the Novgorod-Pskov lands, as well as parts of the lands of the Smolensk and Chernigov principalities, the formation took place on the basis of tribal language dialects of the Russian language, development on the basis of local cultural traditions and cultural characteristics of the Great Russian people. An important role in the consolidation and growth of the national self-consciousness of the Great Russian people was played by the liberation struggle against the Tatar-Mongolian and other invaders.
The subject and method of national history.
History (from the Greek Historia - a story about the past, known) is considered in two meanings: firstly, as a process of development of nature and mankind, and secondly, as a system of sciences that study the past of nature and society. The history of Russia is a scientific discipline that studies the processes of development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, the formation of the main state and public institutions. Subject History is the study of human society in our country. Method- this is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations - historical facts, a way of extracting new knowledge from them. Most often in historical science, 3 groups of methods are used: general scientific, actually historical, special(borrowed from other sciences). General scientific methods are methods empirical research(observation, measurement, experiment); methods of theoretical research (idealization, formalization, modeling, induction, deduction, thought experiment, systems approach, mathematical methods, historical, logical, classification and typology, etc.). Actually historical research methods can be conditionally divided into two groups: 1) methods based on various options for studying processes in time - chronological, chronological-problematic, synchronistic, periodization method; 2) methods based on identifying the patterns of the historical process: comparative-historical, retrospective (method of historical modeling), structural-systemic. Special methods: mathematical methods of process analysis, statistics method, sociological research and social psychology.
1.Subject, methodology and tasks of Russian history as a science .
Subject The study of history as a science is primarily to identify and study the laws, patterns, trends in the development of mankind throughout the entire period of its existence. The subject of the course "national history" is much narrower than the subject of historical science and differs in the range of problems, chronological framework.
In the course, first of all, socio-political processes, as well as domestic and foreign policy, the history of the formation and change of political regimes, the history of socio-political movements and parties are subject to study; the processes of modernization, reform and revolution, the activities of outstanding historical figures of our Fatherland.
The history of the Fatherland is part of world history, therefore, in the course, the history of Russia is considered in interconnection and mutual influence with the history of other countries and peoples. This is especially important, since our nationality, statehood, civilization was formed under the influence of the East and the West.
Method(method of research) shows how cognition occurs, on what methodological basis, on what scientific principles. A method is a way of research, a way of building and substantiating knowledge. More than two millennia ago, two main approaches to historical thought arose that exist to this day: this is an idealistic and materialistic understanding of history.
Representatives of the idealistic concept in history believe that spirit and consciousness are primary and more important than matter and nature. Thus, they argue that the human soul and mind determine the types and nature of historical development, while other processes, including in the economy, are secondary, derived from the spirit. Thus, idealists conclude that the basis of the historical process is the spiritual moral perfection of people, and human society is developed by the person himself, while the abilities of man are given by God.
Proponents of the materialistic concept argued and continue to argue the opposite: since material life is primary in relation to the consciousness of people, it is precisely economic structures, processes and phenomena in society that determine all spiritual development and other relations between people. For Western historical science, an idealistic approach is more characteristic, for domestic - a materialistic one. Modern historical science is based on the dialectical-materialistic method, which considers social development as a natural-historical process, which is determined by objective laws and at the same time is influenced by the subjective factor through the activities of the masses, classes, political parties, leaders, leaders.
There are also specially - historical research methods:
Chronological - provides for the presentation of historical material in chronological order;
Synchronous - involves the simultaneous study of events taking place in society;
Dichronic - periodization method;
Historical modeling;
statistical method.
If the school comes to the fore a task to acquaint students with historical facts and events, then in high school - to reveal the essence of historical phenomena, to give them a scientific explanation.
2.Slavic tribes in VI – IX centuries. Education of the Old Russian state.
From the descriptions of Byzantine historians of the VI century. it is clear that the Slavs lived in a tribal system.
In the middle of the 6th century, the Avar Union arises. Having formed their own state (Kaganate), the Avars entered into a struggle with Byzantium, but in 626 they were defeated. The Avar Khaganate collapsed. In the middle of the 7th year, the Bulgarian state was formed in the southern steppes. Part of the Bulgarians migrated to the Danube, the other settled in the middle reaches of the Volga and on the lower Kama, creating the state of Bulgaria. In the second half of the 7th c. The Khazars began to push the Bulgarians. The Khazars managed to establish their dominance over the tribes of the Eastern Slavs. In the VII-VIII centuries. the Slavs were undergoing an intensive process of decomposition of the tribal system. The Tale of "Bygone Years" reports on large East Slavic tribal unions (Polyans, Drevlyans, Slovenes, Dregovichi, Krivichi, Polochans, Northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi), the formation of which preceded the emergence of the state.
9th century the Eastern Slavs have a state.
In 882, a relative of Rurik, Prince Oleg, went south with a retinue and approached Kyiv, where Askold and Dir reigned. Oleg lured them out of the city by cunning, killed and captured Kyiv, making it his capital. Having settled in Kyiv, Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi. The reign of Oleg, nicknamed "Prophetic", according to the chronicle, lasted 33 years. It is from this moment that we can talk about the existence of the Old Russian state, the power of the Rurikovich.
Initially, the state included lands along the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The policy of uniting the Slavic lands was continued by Prince Igor (912-945) and Princess Olga (945-964), who annexed the lands of the streets, Tivertsy, Drevlyans. Prince Svyatoslav extended the power of Kyiv to the lands of the Vyatichi between the Oka and the Volga. The formation of the state territory of Ancient Rus was completed under Prince Vladimir, who annexed the "Cherven cities" and Carpathian Rus. At the beginning of the 11th century, Ancient Russia united all the East Slavic tribes and turned into the largest state of medieval Europe.
3.The adoption of Christianity in Russia and its impact on the development of the country .
The generally accepted date for the adoption of Christianity in Russia was 988. However, the new religion did not take hold immediately. The Orthodox Church had to wage a stubborn struggle against pre-Christian beliefs. The layers of pagan popular consciousness were so powerful that Christianity adopted and adapted some of its features. Paganism was so widespread that even after the adoption of Christianity, in terms of worldview and practical actions, Ancient Russia remained a pagan society with the formal existence of elements of the Christian faith and cult in it. The Christian religion in Russia was accepted, as it were, in a pagan shell and only glided over the surface of society, without affecting the foundations of ancient Russian life. At the same time, one cannot underestimate the significance of the introduction of Christianity, which already then influenced Russian culture, and in many respects predetermined the entire further historical path of our country.
Approving Christianity in Russia as the state religion is an event of great historical significance. The Old Russian state strengthened economic, political, dynastic and cultural ties with Byzantium and Western Europe, overcame isolationism caused by religious differences. Kievan Rus became a Christian power, integrating with the family of Christian peoples and states.
Christianity was even more important for establishing a new social system. Legal institutions gave the early feudal state and monarchy the character of divine establishment. The country was attached to Christian values, on the basis of which fundamentally new relations began to form, cultural and spiritual life began to develop. Orthodoxy becomes the most important factor in establishing the mentality of the Russian people. At the same time, Christianity was adopted in its Byzantine version, which subsequently led to political and cultural alienation from Latin Europe, the establishment of a different model of historical development. With the introduction of Christianity in Russia, a church organization was also established: the metropolis, divided into bishoprics, the boundaries of which usually coincided with the boundaries of the lands.
6.The invasion of the Tatar-Mongols in Russia, its political and economic consequences.
The thirteenth century was a turning point in Russian history. At the end of the XII - the first half of the XIII centuries. Russia faced the offensive of the German knights - the crusaders, as well as the Swedish and Danish feudal lords. In the course of the advance to the East of the Western European peoples, primarily the Germans, the Polabo - Baltic Slavic tribes were almost swept off the face of the earth. In the summer of 1240, the Swedes were defeated, and on April 5, 1242, the German knights on Lake Peipsi. Mongols in 1219 - 1224 undertook campaigns in Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, the Caucasus and the Polovtsian steppes. In 1223 on the Kalka River, the Mongols defeated the Russian-Polovtsian troops. In 1236-1241. Genghis Khan's grandson Batu conquered the Russian lands. Returning after an unsuccessful campaign in Europe, the Mongols created in 1242. Golden Horde and established a yoke that lasted until 1480.
The consequences of the invasion were extremely severe. The country's population has drastically declined. Many cities were destroyed. According to archaeologists, from 74 cities of Russia in the XII-XIII centuries. 49 were devastated, and in 14 of them life did not resume, and 15 turned into villages. The ruin and systematic robbery of the resurgent Russian cities caused their slow development in the 12th-15th centuries, which inevitably led to a delay in the formation of bourgeois relations in Russia. Russia became more and more a rural country. As a result of the invasions, many production skills were lost, and many types of crafts disappeared. Russia's international trade relations suffered. The invasion led to the destruction of cultural property. A strong blow was dealt to writing and literacy.
In the last 25 years of the XIII century. The Horde undertook up to 15 major campaigns, accompanied by new destruction and casualties. Consequently, the Tatar-Mongol invasion was a real national catastrophe. Political dependence on the Golden Horde was expressed in a change in the position of the princes, who were supposed to travel to the Horde and receive a khan's label for reigning.
7.Prerequisites and stages of the unification of Russian lands. The role of the Moscow principality in the revival of Russian statehood.
The trend towards the unification of the Russian principalities emerged at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, but the formation of a single Russian state took a period of more than two centuries and took place under extremely difficult conditions. The formation of a single state included the interaction of such processes as the rivalry of principalities for the role of a political leader, territorial unification around a national center, the struggle for independence, centralization government controlled and the creation of new power structures. A complex of factors acted as prerequisites for the formation of a single state. In the economic sphere, there was a tendency towards the formation of a single economic space - the growth of agricultural productivity, the development of crafts and their final separation from arable farming, the desire of the population of various regions to strengthen economic ties. In the socio-political sphere, various groups of the population were increasingly interested in a strong central government: the numerically growing nobility needed a livelihood in exchange for service; the townspeople and the peasantry needed protection of their rights, assistance in the development of uninhabited lands and military protection. In the spiritual sphere, the common for the Russian lands remained Orthodox religion, awareness of involvement in the common historical past - Novgorod-Kievan Rus.
In the process of unification of Russian lands and the formation of a single state, three stages are conditionally distinguished. The first of them covered the period from the end of the XIII century. to the 80s XIV century and was marked by the rise of Moscow, its victory in the confrontation with the principality of Tver for the role of the political leader of North-Eastern Russia. The turning point in the formation of a single state was the period of the reign of the heirs of Dmitry Donskoy - Vasily I and Vasily "Dark". The final, third stage of the unified process is associated with the activities of Ivan III and Vasily III. During the reign of Ivan III, Rostov, Novgorod the Great, Dvina land, Tver, Kazan, Vyatka land were annexed to the Moscow principality.
9. Ivan IV (Terrible). Reforms of the late 40s - 50s. XVI in.
With the approval of Ivan VI Vasilyevich, who was crowned king in 1547, on the throne, a rapid reform of the foundations of life in Moscow society began. The powers of the Boyar Duma were limited. In contrast to this legislative body, from 1549 class-representative institutions began to be convened - Zemsky Sobors, which, along with the tsar, representatives of the Boyar Duma, the higher clergy, included elected representatives from the lower classes. Making decisions by the entire composition of the participants, Zemsky Sobors were convened as needed to resolve the most important issues - crowning the kingdom, declaring war or making peace, determining tax policy.
Edition of the Sudebnik 1550. a step was taken to limit the powers of the “feeders”. In 1555-1556. during the Zemstvo reform, feeding was completely abolished. The “feeding income” of governors and volosts was replaced by a nationwide tax, from which the state treasury subsidized service people.
As a result of the mandative reform, the system of executive power and administration was streamlined, which included 22 orders, divided into three types: 1) functional (Discharge, Yamskoy, Posolsky, Local ...); 2) territorial, in charge of individual territories and categories of the population (order of the Siberian Palace, Zemsky order ...); 3) palace, i.e. serving the needs of the royal court.
With the adoption in 1556 of the Code of Service, not only the military power of the state was strengthened, but a single procedure for organizing military service was also established.
Along with the service "in the fatherland" from 1550, the order of service "according to the instrument" was formed.
The transformations of the 1550s not only strengthened the state, reconciling the interests of the tsar, the boyars and the emerging estates, but also directed the development of Russia on the path of estates - representative monarchy. However, the weak sprouts of an all-class state were soon destroyed by the policy of oprichnina terror.
10. Oprichnina policy: its goals and consequences.
Oprichnina (1565-1572) was not an accidental phenomenon, but was determined by deep internal causes, the struggle of various trends in the country's social and political development, primarily on the issue of methods for further centralization of the state.
Oprichnina was caused by subjective reasons, mainly by the personality traits of the monarch, while in content it was a senseless action; 2) Oprichnina had an objective basis, was a well-thought-out political step aimed at combating the reactionary aristocracy of the boyars while relying on the nobility; 3) The oprichnina cannot be reduced to a system of measures to combat the patrimonial boyars and was a policy directed against such fragments of feudal fragmentation as the remnants of appanages, Novgorod liberties and the independence of the church.
The policy of the oprichnina subordinated the emerging estates to the state, creating conditions for carrying out the will of the autocrat contrary to the interests of the estates. This policy had a number of extremely negative consequences. 1) oprichnina intensified the conflict between the state. Power and the ruling class, deepening the split of the court nobility into warring factions, and gave rise to political instability. 2) redistribution of land, resettlement, pogroms of cities and villages worsened the economic situation of the state. As a result of the mass exodus of peasants and townspeople from the oprichnina terror and tax oppression to the outskirts of the country, entire regions were depopulated. human life and negatively affected the moral climate in society.
17.The era of palace coups (1725 - 1762). Features of political development.
As a result of palace coups, 8 rulers have changed on the Russian throne in 37 years, including 5 empresses.
Catherine I became the first ruler in the post-Petrine era. Catherine, who died prematurely from an illness, was replaced by Peter II. The third contender for the presto was the niece of Peter I, Anna Ioannovna. In view of the childlessness of the empress, the infant John VI Antonovich, the son of Anna Leopoldovna, her own niece, was appointed heir to the throne. On November 25, 1741, the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth Petrovna, was established on the throne. Elizabeth Petrovna appointed her nephew, Peter III, as her successor to the throne.
The main foreign policy task was to achieve complete access to the Black Sea. For this, costly but unsuccessful wars were waged with Turkey and the Crimean Khanate.
30.Revolution 1905 - 1907 Causes, nature, driving forces, main stages and results.
The causes of the revolution are connected with the processes of modernization of the political, economic, social areas of the country's life. The revolution in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was due to a complex of reasons of an objective and subjective nature. The objective prerequisites for the revolution lay in the incompleteness of the socio-economic modernization of society, in the inconsistency of the reforms of the 60s-70s and their inhibition in 1881-1904. A contradiction was growing between the latest forms of industrial and financial capitalism, the needs of modernization and semi-feudal structures.
The revolution took place in three stages. 1 - the beginning and rise of the revolution. 2 - All-Russian October political strike and the December armed uprising in Moscow and a number of other cities. 3 - gradual decline and defeat of the revolution.
Results: The revolution remained unfinished, as it did not solve the assigned tasks (liquidation of the autocracy).
The coup d'etat of June 3, 1907 (Third of June Monarchy) did not become a return to 1904.
The revolution awakened the activity of the popular masses to political life.
The working class succeeded in reducing the length of the working day to 8-10 hours.
The peasants were canceled redemption payments.
Some democratic freedoms were proclaimed.
Russia began to move towards the Duma monarchy.
The revolution for the revolutionary parties became a dress rehearsal for the elimination of the autocracy and changed the views of the liberal parties - they began to look for other ways to solve certain issues.
The tsarist government was forced to undergo transformations and deal with the agrarian issue.
31. Political parties in Russia at the beginning xx century.
The years of the revolution became the time for the formation of the Russian multi-party system. Political parties in accordance with their political orientation can be divided into: socialist, liberal, traditionally monarchist.
The Mensheviks were guided by the experience of the Western European socialist parties, advocated an agreement with the liberals, considered socialism possible in Russia only in a separate perspective.
The Bolsheviks defended the idea of a “new type party” as a centralized organization with iron discipline, the hegemony of the proletariat in the democratic revolution, an alliance with the peasantry, and brought together the bourgeois-democratic and socialist stages of the revolution.
According to the Social Revolutionaries, Russia must pass to socialism through a social revolution and the implementation of the socialization of the land.
The Cadets took shape in an organized manner in 1905. Milyukov was the leader of the party.
The main provisions of the program boiled down to the establishment of a constitutional-monarchist system with the division of power, responsible to the Duma of the government, universal civil and political equality, a radical reform of the court and local self-government. The goal of the Cadets was the evolutionary development of Russia along the path of liberal-bourgeois parliamentary reforms.
The Octobrists advocated assistance to the government in carrying out reforms, for a constitutional monarchy with strong rights of the monarch and the State. The Duma advocated an evolutionary path of development that combined economic modernization with moderate political reforms.
11.The main directions of Russia's foreign policy in XVI in. Livonian war.
In the east, the Russian state bordered on the fragments of the collapsed in the XV century. Golden Horde: the Siberian Khanate and the Kazan Khanate, in the southeast - with the Nogai Horde and the Astrakhan Khanate, and in the south with the Crimean Khanate.
The wealth of the Volga lands, the trade route to the East, the elimination of the threat of raids on Russian lands - the reasons for the military campaigns of Ivan IV down the Volga.
The first campaigns (1547-1548 and 1549-1550) ended in failure. In 1551, Ivan Vyrodkov built the fortress of Sviyazhsk (on the Volga near Kazan) - the conquest of the lands of the Mari, Chuvash, Mordovians. In 1552, 150,000 Russian troops moved to Kazan, led by Ivan IV, Alexander Gorbaty, Andrey Kurbsky, Mikhail Vorotynsky. After a 6-week siege with the use of tunnels, mobile siege towers, on October 2, 7552, Kazan was taken by storm. Khan Yediger - Mohammed - was captured, converted to Orthodoxy and settled in Zvenigorod. The Kazan Khanate ceased to exist.
In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was annexed to the Russian state, in 1556-1557. conquered the Nagai Horde and the lands of Bashkiria.
As a result, the entire Volga trade route was in the hands of Moscow, and prerequisites arose for the start of the development of Siberia.
Campaigns 1552-1556 strengthened the hostile attitude of the Crimean Khanate towards Moscow. The erection of a notch line on the southern borders (south of Tula and Ryazan). Campaigns of Davlet Giray against Moscow in 1571 and 1572.
Livonian War (1558-1583)
Reason for the war:
1. the desire to conquer the Baltic states;
2. expansion of access to the Baltic Sea and trade with Europe;
3. unfriendly policy of the Livonian Order.
Cause for war: refusal of the Order to pay tribute for the city of Yuryev (Derpt).
The course of the war:
1st stage - victories of the Russian army, taken Narva, Yuryev, Marienburg and Feplin. Master of the Order Furstenberg, was taken prisoner, the collapse of the Livonian Order (1558-1561).
2nd stage - the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden enter the war (everyone is against the capture of the Baltic states by the Russians). In 1563, Russian troops captured Polotsk, but already in next year suffered two defeats - on the Ula River and near Orsha. The war takes on a protracted character. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania, having concluded the Union of Lublin, united into a single state - the Commonwealth (1561-1577).
3rd stage - the new Polish king Stefan Batory recaptures Polotsk (1579) and invades the Russian state. At the same time, the Swedes invaded the Novgorod land. In 1581-82. Bathory besieges Pskov (31 attacks are beaten off), the Swedes at that time captured Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye.
The country, exhausted by war and oprichnina, was forced to conclude a truce:
In 1582 - the Yam-Zapolsky truce with the Commonwealth: the refusal of the Russian state from Livonia for the return of the lost Russian border fortresses;
In 1583, the Plyus truce with Sweden: the rejection of Estonia, the concession to the Swedes of Narva, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korela;
Reasons for defeat:
Incorrect assessment of the balance of power in the Baltics;
Weakening of the state as a result of the domestic policy of Ivan IV.
In 1595, after the war with Sweden, under the Treaty of Tyavizin, the Russian state regained Koporye, Ivangorod and Korela.
12. « Time of Troubles» in Russia: causes, essence, consequences.
At the end of the XVI century. social contradictions intensified in Russia. The reasons:
Livonian war;
Oprichnina.
Outcome: further enslavement of the peasants - a decree on "reserved years", the temporary cancellation of St. George's Day in 1581.
In 1597, a decree on "lesson years" (a 5-year term for the search for fugitive peasants).
At the end of the XVI-beginning of the XVII centuries. the political situation became more complicated - a dynastic crisis ensued. After the death of the childless Fyodor Ivanovich, the Rurik dynasty came to an end.
In 1598, the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov as tsar, de facto confirming his control of the country.
At the end of the XVI century. Russia stepped up its foreign policy - the Russian-Swedish war (1590-1593).
According to the Tyavzinsky peace, Russia returned Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, Korela.
One of the most important events late XVI in. was the establishment in 1589 in Russia of the patriarchate - the church gained independence. In 1601-1603. A terrible famine and an epidemic of plague broke out in Russia.
Effects:
Hundreds of thousands of people died;
Many thousands of peasants fled south;
Revolts broke out (the uprising of Cotton in 1603);
Social contradictions have become aggravated;
Economic and social crisis.
Bottom line: the consequences led to a civil war, called the Troubles (1603 -1613).
End of the Troubles and its consequences.
In February 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov as Russian Tsar (the beginning of a new dynasty).
In 1617, Russia concluded the Peace of Stolbov with Sweden (the Swedes returned Novgorod, Staraya Russa, Porokhov, Ladoga, Gdov, which they captured, but retained Ivangorod, Koporye, Yam, Oreshek, Karela - Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea. In 1618. the Deulino truce was concluded with Poland (the Poles received Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod lands).As a result of this truce, an exchange of prisoners took place and Mikhail Romanov's father, Patriarch Filaret, returned to Moscow (became co-ruler.)
As a result, Russia managed to defend its independence, the tsarist power again became unlimited, society wanted peace and order, more than individual freedom, the country found itself in a difficult economic situation.
14. Reforms of Peter I and their significance.
Military reform: creation of a regular army and navy; transition to recruiting sets (since 1705 they have become annual); maintenance of troops at the expense of the state, payment of salaries for service; The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky Guards Regiments are original officer schools, a unified training system in the army and navy, military educational institutions (navigation, artillery and engineering school, Naval Academy), to master the military and naval affairs, the nobles were sent to study abroad; the transformation of artillery into an independent branch of the armed forces, the creation of engineering troops (as part of artillery); the introduction of a single hierarchy of ranks and titles; The Charter of the military (1716) and the Charter of the sea (1720) - the legislative consolidation of the principles of organization of the armed forces.
As a result, a powerful combat-ready army and navy were created according to European standards, which were able to win the Northern War.
Economic transformations.
The economic transformations carried out by Peter I were dictated, first of all, by the needs of the army and navy during the Great Northern War:
the creation of manufactories (about 200) - the production of iron, sails, ropes, gunpowder, cloth, shoes, etc.; The main region of metallurgical production was the Urals (the role of N. Demidov), the activation of production in old industrial regions; encouragement of private enterprise ("Berg-privilege", 1719) with the regulation of production and the priority of the execution of government orders; state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, hemp, furs, etc.) - a source of replenishment of the treasury; the creation of merchant "kuppanstvo" under the control of the state.
The financial policy of Peter I is characterized by an increase in the tax burden in 1718, a census was carried out and instead of many small taxes, a poll tax was introduced (the amount of taxation doubled).
Local Government Reform:
in 1708 the whole country was divided into 8 provinces (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Siberian and Azov (in 1711 it became Voronezh)), at the head of each - the governor (all administrative and judicial authorities, control of troops.Later, the provinces were divided into provinces, provinces into districts (districts).
There was a single centralized administrative system for the whole country. The General Regulations (1720) introduced a unified system of office work. There was a bureaucratization of state administration.
Church reform: in 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I banned the election of a new patriarch;
in 1701 the Monastic order was created - the state began to solve the financial issues of the church;
in 1721, Peter I approved the Spiritual Regulations (drawn up by Feofan Prokopovich) and the Synod was created (headed by a secular person, chief prosecutor Boldin), the church is completely subordinate to the state;
abolished the secrecy of confession - the duty of a priest to report a criminal act or thought;
persecution of schismatics.
Reforms in the field of culture: organization of the education system, emphasis on natural science and technical subjects, rationalism, enlightenment as a practical value; replacing the Church Slavonic font with a simpler secular one; development of publishing, creation of printing houses; the foundations for the development of Russian science were laid, in 1725 the Academy of Sciences was created; in 1719 the first museum in Russia, the Kunstkamera, was opened; from January 1, 1700, a new chronology was introduced - 1700 from the birth of Christ, and not 5208 from the creation of the world, Russia began to live according to the European calendar; changes in everyday life (barbering, European costume, holding assemblies).
16.Culture of Russia in the first quarter XVIII century.
Distinctive features of the culture of the XVIII century. there was a victory in it of the secular principle, the ability for active contacts with the cultures of other peoples, the development of rationalism in the public mind.
Literature and theatre.
The main direction in the literature of the XVIII century. became classicism.
First quarter of the eighteenth century – the heyday of the genre of the story (“History”) (“History about the Russian sailor Vasily Kariotsky”). Formation of a new Russian literary language (F. Prokopovich's treatise "On Poetic Art").
Then M.V. worked in the field of versification and fiction. Lomonosov ("Letter on the rules of Russian poetry", 1739, "Rhetoric", 1745).
Mid 18th century - an important milestone in theatrical culture. 175 6 - the establishment in St. Petersburg of the first state theater in Russia "for the presentation of tragedies and comedies." Its basis was the Yaroslavl troupe of Fyodor Volkov (1729-1763).
The founder of the new Russian drama is the poet and director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg A.P. Sumarokov (tragedy "The Hermit" - 1757, comedy "Guardian" - 1768).
In the center of attention of Russian literature of the last third of the XVIII century. there were questions of social structure and the good of society: "Undergrowth" by D.F. Fonvizin, "Lords and Judges" by G.R. Derzhavin, "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev.
Secular music of the early 18th century. was represented by simple everyday forms of military (marches), table and dance music (at assemblies).
1738 - a dance school is organized in St. Petersburg (now the ballet school named after A.Ya. Vaganova). Music classes of the Academy of Arts played big role in the development of musical education and upbringing in Russia.
In the middle of the XVIII century. Italian and French opera (the Hermitage Theater) gained wide popularity.
In the last third of the XVIII century. a domestic composer school is being formed, the first Russian composers appear, the genres of opera, instrumental and chamber music. The outstanding masters of the Russian national musical school were E.I. Fomin ("Orpheus", 1792) and V.A. Pashkevich ("St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor, or As you live, so you will be known", 1792).
Composed by O.A. Kozlovsky in 1791, the polonaise "Thunder of victory, resound" to the words of G.R. Derzhavin was performed for a long time as the Russian national anthem.
Architecture.
First quarter of the 18th century associated with great strides in the development of architecture. In the construction of St. Petersburg, "new principles of architecture were embodied: a preliminary plan for the development of the city, the creation of integral urban ensembles. For the construction of St. Petersburg, foreign architects Jean Leblon, Domenico Trezzini, Bartolomeo Shoot were invited. They built the building of the Twelve Collegia, the Kunstkamera, the Summer Palace of Peter I,
Menshikov Palace, Peter and Paul Cathedral and other buildings that define the face of the capital. Since the 1920s, domestic architects have been working together with foreign architects - I.K. Korobov, P.M. Eropkin, M.G. Zemtsov. The architecture of the city intertwines Russian and Western artistic traditions, creating a unique style of Peter the Great Baroque.
In the middle of the XVIII century. The most famous Russian architect is Francesco Bartolomeo Shoot. The largest works are the Winter and Stroganov Palaces, the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery (St. Petersburg), the Catherine Palace (Tsarskoye Selo), St. Andrew's Church (Kiev) - baroque style. In the 60s. 18th century the lush baroque is replaced by classicism. The founders of Russian classicism were V.I. Bazhenov (Pashkov's house in Moscow) and E.I. Starov (Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg).
Fine Arts.
First half of the 18th century - the time of approval of secular painting. The portrait is freed from the icon-painting canon, it becomes more realistic. The most significant works of this time are the portrait of Chancellor Golovkin and "Peter I on his deathbed" by I.N. Nikitina, "Self-portrait with his wife" A.M. Matveev.
A new phenomenon in the visual arts of the XVIII century. became an engraving depicting modern events (military battles, parades, views of the new capital). The largest master - A.F. Teeth.
In the second half of the XVIII century. art becomes more complex in terms of genre:
Along with the portrait, monumental-decorative and historical painting, landscape, and theatrical-decorative art are spreading. The largest masters of the portrait - F.S. Rokotov, D.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky. The largest landscape painter - S.F. Shchedrin;
The foundations of secular sculpture were laid - F.I. Shubin created sculptural portraits of Lomonosov, Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, Paul I and others;
A remarkable monument of monumental sculpture is Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion (Peterhof, sculptor M.I. Kozlovsky) and the Bronze Horseman (Petersburg, E. Falcone).
The greatest achievements of Russian culture of the XVIII century. do not concede to world masterpieces. Russian people are aware of their creative power.
19. Economic development of Russia in the first half XIX century.
In the first half of the XIX century. agriculture remained the basis of the Russian economy, but the decomposition of the feudal-serf system and the formation of capitalist relations are clearly visible.
Characteristic features of socio-economic development:
agricultural country;
there is an expansion of internal and external relations;
there is a growth of cities and urban population;
The transition from manufactory to factory begins (industrial revolution);
classes are formed: the bourgeoisie and hired workers;
serfdom enters into a deep crisis.
Agriculture:
a) characteristic features:
the landlord economy dominates;
serf labor;
low labor productivity;
lack of new labor technologies;
b) development of agriculture:
growing commodity-money relations;
landowners intensively produce bread and other products;
corvée and dues are brought to the limit by the landowners;
corvée: work on the land and in factories (5-6 days a week);
quitrent: natural and monetary.
Outcome: the discontent of the peasants is growing, which leads to peasant uprisings;
Elements of capitalist relations penetrate into landownership;
agricultural machines are used;
profitable agricultural crops are introduced;
the first factories for the processing of agricultural products appear.
Industry:
there is a sharp rise in productive forces;
the number of manufactories is growing;
in the 30s. the industrial revolution begins;
manual machines are being replaced by machines;
manufactory production is gradually turning into factory production;
there is a lag in the branches where serf labor dominated;
the crisis hit the areas of mechanical engineering and, especially, the fuel industry;
there was no demand for manufactured goods in the country;
there was no labor market;
lagged behind Russia in the development of transport.
Trade:
the underdevelopment of transport hindered the development of trade;
Russia was turning into a raw material base for the developed capitalist countries;
the export of goods took place only in the countries of Asia;
internal trade took place in the form of fairs;
It was characterized by slow turnover and lack of credit.
Conclusion: Russia needed broad bourgeois transformations, without which the country's economy could not develop successfully.
20. Alexander's domestic politics I in the first quarter XIX century.
In the first years of his reign, Alexander I began to implement liberal transformations:
canceled all unpopular measures for the nobles;
softened censorship;
ministries were established instead of colleges;
the State Council became the legislative body;
The Senate became the supreme judicial and control body of the empire;
the number of higher and secondary educational institutions increased;
in 1811 the Lyceum was opened;
the law "On free cultivators" was issued, which allowed the release of their peasants into the wild with land for ransom;
was created The secret committee on reforms, which worked for only a year;
For some time, Alexander I was noticeably influenced by the reformer Speransky M.M.
Bottom line: all the undertakings of Alexander I did not concern the foundations of the state - autocracy and serfdom. Apart from the establishment of ministries, no reforms were carried out.
After the Patriotic War of 1812, Alexander I tried to continue the liberal reforms:
granted a constitution to Poland;
on his behalf, a draft constitution of Russia was developed;
developed a plan for the gradual abolition of serfdom.
Then the domestic policy of Alexander I lost its former liberal attitude:
a course was taken to strengthen the existing system;
tightened censorship;
Professors who are accused of free-thinking are dismissed from universities;
The hopes of the peasants for the abolition of serfdom were not justified;
all the hardships of the post-war economic crisis fell on the shoulders of the common people;
"military settlements" were introduced to reduce the cost of the army;
in them, the peasants served their military service for life and at the same time were engaged in agriculture.
Bottom line: uprisings broke out in the "Military Settlements" (1819 in the city of Chuguev).
Conclusion: The domestic policy of Alexander I, at first liberal, then reactionary, aimed at strengthening autocracy and serfdom, objectively contributed to the activation of the noble revolutionary movement in Russia - Decembrism.
21. The main directions of Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter XIX in. Patriotic War 1812 its influence on the international and domestic situation in the country.
The main direction of Russian foreign policy in early XIX in. was a solution to Western European problems, which were based on the fight against Napoleonic aggression. The Russian government initially sought to resolve conflicts through diplomacy, but the growing aggression of France, Napoleon's refusal to compromise pushed Alexander I to military action. Together with England, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, Russia took part in the anti-Napoleonic coalitions of 1805 - 1807. Despite the military and economic potential, the coalitions, weakened by the internal contradictions of the participating countries, suffered defeat. European states joined the trade blockade of England. Having suffered a defeat at Austerlitz and Friedland, Russia was forced to sign the Treaty of Tilsit. It was painful and humiliating for Russia, the terms of the agreement were impossible for Russia, its economy could not develop without the English market.
The Eastern question occupied an important place. Its emergence and aggravation was due, 1 - to the decline of the Ottoman Empire, 2 - to the growth of the national - freedom movement against the Ottoman yoke, 3 - the aggravation of contradictions between European countries in the Middle East, caused by the struggle for the division of the world. For Russia, the eastern question was primarily associated with ensuring the security of its southern borders, the economic development of the south of the country, and the intensive growth of trade through the Black Sea ports. Russia also sought to prevent the expansion of Western countries in this region. At the same time, she relied on the support of the Slavic peoples.
Napoleon's plans: to remove the last obstacle to world domination.
Beginning of the war: June 12, 1812 600 thousand Napoleon's army invaded Russia. The forces were unequal, since the French army was almost three times the strength of the Russian army.
The location of the Russian army on the border 1st Army Barclay de Tolly 2nd Army P.I. Bagration 3rd Army A.P. Tormasov. Napoleon directed the main blow to Moscow. Napoleon failed to defeat the 1st and 2nd armies one by one. The plans of the Russian army: retreat, avoiding decisive battles; two armies to unite (it was possible near Smolensk); After Smolensk, Kutuzov Mikhail Illarionovich was appointed commander of the Russian army.
Result: the spirit of the soldiers was raised, but the army continued to retreat. Kutuzov chose a place for a pitched battle.
24. Socio-political movement in Russia in the 30s - 50s. XIX in. Westernizers and Slavophiles. Failures in the reform of Russia by Alexander I, the defeat of the Decembrists led to the growth of conservative sentiments in society. In the 30s. Minister of Public Education S.S. Uvarov put forward the theory of "official nationality", the essence of which was the assertion that the Russian people are by nature religious, devoted to the tsar and do not oppose serfdom. In the “hard age” of the Nikolaev reaction, the ideological and political struggle not only did not freeze, it became wider and more diverse, currents arose in it, differing in questions about the general and the special in the historical process and the fate of Russia. Chaadaev sharply criticized the government ideology in his "Philosophical Letter", in which he touched upon the problems of the past, present and future of Russia. The author was declared insane. The study by members of the Stankevich circle of the works of Hegel, Kant, Schelling and other German philosophers was recognized as dissent. A special understanding of the ways of Russia's development was characteristic of the representatives of two ideological currents - the Westerners and the Slavophiles. The Slavophiles were: Khomyakov, Aksakov, Kireevsky, Samarin ... Proving the originality of Russian historical development, they denied capitalism, as well as the possibility and necessity of a revolution in Russia. The Slavophiles argued that Peter's reforms caused serious damage to Russian traditions and led the country astray. They saw the prosperity of Russia in Orthodoxy, the peasant community, catholicity and autocracy, limited by the Zemsky Sobor. The Slavophiles were opposed by Westerners: Herzen, Granovsky, Chicherin, Kavelin, Botkin, Katkov, who sharply criticized the communal principles of Russian reality. They asserted the European version of the development of Russia, believing that the assimilation of the achievements of European culture and technological progress by the broad masses would ensure the well-being of the people. Representatives of the revolutionary-democratic trend believed that Russia could come to socialism, bypassing capitalism, did not foresee the class struggle in the countryside and did not understand the revolutionary future of the proletariat.
29. Culture, education and science at the end XIX – beginning XX centuries "Silver Age".
The science. Russia at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries made a significant contribution to the world scientific and technical progress, which was called the "revolution in natural science." Russian scientists own outstanding discoveries in the field of physics, mathematics, biology, chemistry ... The physicist Lebedev for the first time in the world established general patterns inherent in wave processes of various nature, made other discoveries in the field of physics of will. He created the first physics school in Russia. The outstanding Russian scientist Vernadsky gained worldwide fame for his encyclopedic works, which served as the basis for the emergence of new scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology. Russian physiologist Pavlov created the doctrine of higher nervous activity, about conditioned reflexes. In 1904, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the physiology of digestion. In 1908, Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize for his work on immunology and infectious diseases. Zhukovsky made a number of outstanding discoveries in the theory and practice of aircraft construction. In 1904, he participated in the founding of the Aerodynamic Institute near Moscow. In 1903, Tsiolkovsky published a number of brilliant works that substantiated the possibility of space flights.
Literature. Symbolist poets became the founders of the trend in art. The symbolist movement arose as a protest against the impoverishment of Russian poetry, caused, in their opinion, by society's enthusiasm for the materialistic views of Russian poetry. literary criticism Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. Symbolists declared war on the materialistic worldview, arguing that faith, religion is the cornerstone of human existence and art. They believed that the poet is endowed with the ability to become familiar with the beyond world through artistic symbols. The opponents of the Symbolists were the Acmeists. They denied the mystical aspirations of the Symbolists, proclaimed the inherent value of real earthly life, called for the return of words to their original, traditional meaning, freeing them from symbolic interpretations. Futurists were prominent representatives of the Russian avant-garde. The poetry of the Futurists was marked by increased attention not to the content, but to the form of versification, to the poetic construction. Russian futurism was represented by several poetic groupings.
Painting. The followers of this direction united in the creative society "World of Art". "World of Art" proclaimed their task to restore the connection of painting as a whole, which was weakened by artists of previous generations. For a long period, the "World of Art" included almost all the major Russian artists: Benois, Bakst, Lansere, Roerich, Somov. In 1907, an exhibition called "Blue Rose" was opened in Moscow, in which Arapov, Krymov, Kuznetsov, Sapunov took part ... A total of 16 artists. In 1910 - "The Ballet of Diamonds" - Falk, Lentunov, Konchalovsky, Mashkov. Still life was his genre.
Music, ballet, theater, cinema. The Russian vocal school was represented by the names of outstanding singers - Chaliapin, Nezhdanova, Sobinov, Yershov. By the beginning of the XX century. Russian ballet has taken a leading position in the world ballet art. The Russian ballet school relied on the academic traditions of the late 19th century, stage productions by the outstanding choreographer Petin, which did not become classics of world choreography. A notable feature of the Silver Age culture was the search for a new theater. They were associated with the names of famous directors - Stanislavsky (the founder of the psychological acting school, believed that the future of the theater was in deep psychological realism), Vakhtangov. Since 1903 in Russia, the first "electrotheatres" and "illusions" began to appear, and by 1904. about 4 thousand cinemas were built. In 1908, the picture "Stenka Razin and the Princess" was filmed, and in 1914. - the first feature film "Defense of Sevastopol".
33. agrarian reform Stolypin: goals, implementation of the reform, results and values.
Goals of agrarian reform:
develop capitalism in the country; solve the problem of lack of land of the peasants; abolish feudal vestiges in
to create in the form of a strong peasant-economic manager a social support in the countryside;
reduce the revolutionary activity of the peasants, evict restless (revolutionary-minded) peasants beyond the Urals to free lands;
Involvement of peasants in the system of primary education.
Ways to solve the agrarian issue:
Violent destruction of the community and the receipt of allotment by peasants in private property;
Creation and operation of the Peasants' Bank to support strong peasant owners;
Resettlement of peasants beyond the Urals.
Implementation of the reform: by 1916, about 30% of community members were separated from the community (cuts made up 9.1%, and farms 2.3%);
kulaks and the poorest peasants stood out from the community;
The Peasants' Bank sold land to individual householders;
280 thousand farms and cuts were created on the lands of the bank;
the resettlement was of progressive importance, but the organization of the move and the allotment of land to the peasants had major shortcomings (lack of trains, arbitrariness of local officials).
The attitude of political parties to the reform:
monarchist organizations and the Octobrists openly defended the interests of the landlords;
the Cadets outwardly criticized the government, but their speeches and actions in the Duma speak of the opposite - of support for the landowners;
The Trudoviks (representatives of the peasantry) criticized the Stolypin reform;
The Bolsheviks did not deny the progressive nature of the reform, but believed that Stolypin's program expressed the interests of the landlords, and that Russia needed to follow the American path of development.
Consequences of the reform:
The reform contributed to the development of capitalism in the country, but retained landlordism and autocracy;
failed to create a strong individual farmer;
it was not possible to create an internal market for industry, although the growth in purchases of agricultural machinery increased;
the stratification of the peasantry sharply accelerated;
did not eliminate the conditions for social war between peasants and landowners.
The main reason for the failure of the reform:
P.A. Stolypin tried to link the unconnected: to preserve the large landed estates and create large owners, providing them with land;
Lack of allocated funds for resettlement and land management;
The rise of the labor movement in 1910-1914;
Peasant resistance to reform.
34. The First World War and Russia's participation in it (reasons, nature, main stages, influence on the situation in the country).
The reasons. 1) The capitalist world at the beginning of the 20th century. He was in deep crisis. Moreover: the entire world civilization was in crisis, which had to determine the ways of its further development. The external manifestation of this crisis was the intensification of the struggle between Western countries for the redistribution of the colonial world, for markets for sales and raw materials, for dominance in the world. Thus, the tendency towards hegemonism led to war, destroying the international order and provoking clashes. This trend was manifested in the politics of almost all the great powers. 2) Interstate contradictions: the centuries-old rivalry between France and Germany over Alsace and Lorraine; Germany and Great Britain because of hegemony on the seas and in the colonies; Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans; Russia and Germany in the Polish question. The contradictions between the European powers in the Far East, where China was subjected to aggression, intensified, and the expansion of Japan and the United States intensified. 3) The decisive role in unleashing the war was played by the victory of the "war parties" in the ruling hands of the leading countries, primarily in Germany, England, Austria-Hungary and Russia, where extremist circles gained the upper hand, taking a course to unleash a war. The murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was a convenient excuse for them to start a war.
Main steps. 1914 - the failure of the strategy of fleeting war, the transition from maneuverable to positional forms of military operations; 1915 - breakdown German plan withdrawal of Russia from the war, positional warfare;
1916 - the transition of the strategic initiative to the countries of the Entente; 1917 - the offensive of the Entente, the withdrawal of Russia from the war; 1918 - the general offensive of the Entente, the surrender of Germany.
Influence on the situation in the country. During the war years, it deteriorated significantly financial position. Food difficulties worsened, rail transport was disrupted, economic ties between the city and the countryside were disrupted. Military defeats on the fronts and the deterioration of the economic situation caused an increase in anti-war and opposition sentiments.
36. October 1917 Political and socio-economic transformations in Soviet Russia (October 1917 - spring 1918)
As a result of the armed uprising on October 24-25, all key points in Petrograd were captured. On the evening of October 25, the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets opened, proclaiming the formation of Soviet power. In the area of social economic policy The Bolsheviks were guided by the program announced at the Second Congress of Soviets. On the basis of this program, in October 1917 - February 1918, transformations were carried out that contributed to a radical change in the country's economy. Two main questions remained unresolved: the war and the land. The Decree on Land proclaimed the destruction of private property: landlords, monasteries, church lands were transferred to the disposal of the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies, up to Constituent Assembly. On the basis of the Basic Law on the socialization of land in early 1918. the expropriation of the landlords' lands was practically completed. There was a process of nationalization of banks, forming the Soviet financial system. On November 8, the People's Commissariat of Finance was formed. The transformations of the Bolsheviks in the social sphere were aimed at the abolition of the class division of society, titles and ranks. Introduced: free education and medicine, unemployment insurance, an 8-hour working day and holidays, a ban on the exploitation of child labor, the equal rights of men and women. In the field of church policy, a course was taken for the complete separation of the church from the state. Church marriage was abolished, birth registration was also withdrawn from the Church. December 31, 1917. The Decree on Freedom of Conscience was published. In December 1917 The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission was formed.
52. "Perestroika" in the USSR (1985 - 1991): background, character, main stages and directions, results.
By the beginning of the 1980s, the growing backlog of the USSR in the economy from the leading world powers became obvious. There were interruptions in the supply of food in the country. All this did not coincide with the propaganda slogans about building “developed socialism” in the USSR and advancing society towards communism. Stagnation and decay have captured all aspects of public life. From 11.03.95. General Secretary Gorbachev became the Central Committee of the CPSU. Since 1986 radical changes are taking place in the country: - Entry from the USSR is simplified; - Academician Sakharov and others are released from exile; - the process of rehabilitation of the victims begins Stalinist repressions; -glasnost and democracy entered the new politics.
In September 1985 Gorbachev, without waiting for the technical revolution in production, introduces a multi-shift mode of work, strengthening labor discipline, and state acceptance was introduced to control the quality of products, which required the cost of increasing the administrative apparatus. The quality hasn't improved. An increase in the operation of equipment has resulted in an increase in accidents (Chernobyl). The country is conducting an anti-alcohol campaign that has increased the budget deficit.
1989 - a program for a phased transition to a regulated market economy was adopted, it provided for the transfer of industrial enterprises to rent, the creation joint-stock companies, development of private enterprise.
Since 1990 - Inflation has sharply increased in the industry. Budget deficit in 1989 exceeded 100 billion rubles. The country's gold reserves declined in 1991. 10 times more than in 1985.
In 1990 a new stage of the global socio-political crisis began in the country, which led to the death of the Soviet state.
In the summer of 1990, the "500 Days" program was developed, which envisaged the privatization of state-owned enterprises during this period. enterprises and significantly curtail the economic power of the center.
Under the influence of the conservatives, Gorbachev withdrew his support for this program. In June 1991 Yeltsin was elected the first president of Russia by popular vote.
26. Reforms of the 60-70s XIX in. in Russia, their character, socio-economic and political results.
Reforms 60-70 became a new stage in the Europeanization of Russia.
1)Peasant reform ;
2)Judicial reform. The judiciary was separated from the legislative and executive, judges became irremovable and gained real independence from government officials. Publicity and competitiveness of the trial were introduced, the prosecutor accused the defendant, defended the lawyer. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects before the law.;
In 1864 Was held zemstvo reform, during which a system of local governments began to be created at two territorial levels - in the county and the province. They were county and provincial zemstvo assemblies. Developed local self-government contributed to the emergence of a public life independent of the authorities. This was facilitated by the reforms in the field of education carried out in 1862 - 1864. Gymnasiums for girls were established, and the principle of equality for all classes and religions was proclaimed in men's gymnasiums.
In 1861 - Reform in the army. The class army was replaced by a new one, created on the basis of universal military service. Corporal punishment was abolished. Reduced service life to 6 years, in the Navy to 7 years. There was a whole system of benefits and deferrals from conscription for various social and professional categories. Of great importance in the field of military education: military gymnasiums were established. In the 60s. the rearmament of the army with modern weapons began.
The reforms met both the needs of the socio-economic development of Russia and the main trends in the development of the leading world powers. They significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization, began to lay the foundation for the evolutionary path of the country's development. Thanks to the reforms, an important step was taken in the formation of a legal and civil society in Russia. At the same time, the reforms were half-hearted, since, on the one hand, the goal was to modernize the country, and, on the other hand, to keep part of the feudal structures as intact as possible.
43. USSR on the eve of the Second World and Patriotic War: domestic and foreign policy. (1937 - 1941)
Foreign policy. The second half of the 1930s was characterized by an aggravation of tension in the world, the creation of aggressive blocs, and a fall in the prestige of the League of Nations. In 1936, the Anti-Comintern Pact was concluded between Germany and Japan. In 1937 Italy, Spain joined him. At the end of September 1938 Great Britain and Germany adopted a declaration "never to fight each other." In 1939 In Spain, a fascist dictatorship was established. Since 1937 In the Far East, Japan waged a war for the capture of China. In 1938 - 1939. Japan attacked Mongolia and the USSR. The Soviet Union put forward a proposal to conclude an Anglo-French-Soviet mutual assistance treaty. August 23, 1939 The Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact was signed in Moscow. In 1939 Europe was split into three military-political camps: Anglo-French, German-Italian and Soviet. On September 1, Germany attacked Poland. On September 3, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany. The 2nd World War began. In October 1939 The USSR offered Finland to lease the territory at the exit to the Gulf of Finland to ensure the protection of Leningrad. In August 1940 Lithuania, Estonia, Bessarabia, Latvia were included in the USSR. April 13, 1941 The USSR signed a neutrality pact with Japan to secure the Far Eastern borders.
Domestic policy. The top leadership realized that war with Germany was inevitable. The volume of industrial and agricultural production increased in the country. The coal and metallurgical base, the oil base expanded, the mode of operation of enterprises became more stringent. The working day was increased from 7 to 8 hours, a seven-day week was introduced. Many industries were transferred to paramilitary facilities. The country was building up the defense power of the USSR. In 1935 - 1939 staffing of the Red Army was carried out. A law on "universal conscription" was adopted. The network of military schools expanded. Work was carried out to strengthen the western borders and border districts. But the repression and the atmosphere of terror and the strengthening of the army.
45. C SSR in the initial period of the Second World War.
June 22, 1941 Nazi Germany invaded the USSR without declaring war. Wow began. During the first period, the Red Army suffered huge losses. On June 23, the Headquarters of the High Command was created, headed by People's Commissar of Defense Marshal Timoshchenko. On July 10, Stalin was appointed chairman of the Stavka. June 30 was organized State Committee defense under the chairmanship of YaStalin. All power in the country was concentrated in his hands. The main activity of the State Defense Committee was the work of deploying the Armed Forces, preparing reserves, providing them with weapons, equipment, and food. Military operations at the front in 1941 were extremely tragic. In the autumn of 1941, Leningrad was blockaded. On the central sector of the front, the Battle of Smolensk unfolded on July 10. A dramatic situation developed in September in the Kyiv area, where there was a threat of encirclement of Soviet troops. The attack on Moscow began on 30 September. Despite the heroic resistance of the Soviet troops, the enemy was approaching Moscow. On October 20, a state of siege was introduced in the capital. On November 7, a military parade took place on Red Square, which had moral, psychological and political significance.
On July 28, the people's commissar of defense issued order No. 27 - "not a step back!". In August 42, the enemy reached the banks of the Volga in the region of Stalingrad and the foothills of the Caucasus Range. On August 25, the battle for Stalingrad began, which became decisive for the outcome of the entire war. At the cost of the enormous efforts of the people, from December 41, the decline in industrial production stopped, and from March 42 its volume began to grow. By the middle of 42 perestroika Soviet economy on a military basis was completed.
46. A radical change in the Second World War. The economy of the USSR in the war.
November 19, 42 Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive and closed the ring around the enemy troops on November 23. On February 2, 1943, the grandiose battle near Stalingrad ended. The operation near Stalingrad developed into a general strategic offensive, which continued until the end of March 43. Stalingrad raised the prestige of the USSR, led to the rise of the resistance movement in European countries, and contributed to the strengthening of the anti-Hitli coalition. By mid-February 43g. most of the North Caucasus was liberated. In the summer of '43 Wehrmacht command decided to organize a powerful offensive in the Kursk region. The plan "Citadel" was based on the idea: with unexpected counter strikes from Orel and Belgorod, to surround and destroy Soviet troops on the Kursk ledge, and then develop an offensive inland. At dawn on July 5, the Germans attacked the defenses of the Soviet fronts. The Soviet units stubbornly defended each defensive line. On July 12, an unprecedented tank battle unfolded near Prokhorovka, in which about 1,200 tanks took part. On August 5, Soviet troops captured Orel and Belgorod, and on August 23 they liberated Kharkov. With the capture of Kharkov, the Battle of Kurskayade ended. Having liberated Orel, Belgorod, Kharkov, the Soviet troops launched a general strategic offensive at the front. The radical turning point in the course of the war, begun near Stalingrad, was completed by the battle for the Dnieper. On November 6, Kyiv was liberated.
The most difficult for the Soviet economy were the first six months of the war. Industrial production more than halved, production dropped sharply military equipment and ammunition. People, industrial enterprises, material and cultural values, and livestock were evacuated from the frontline zone.
47. The final period of WWII. The role of the USSR in the world war. The meaning and cost of victory.
In the winter of 1943-44. the German army group "South" was defeated, the Pravoberezhnaya and part of Western Ukraine were liberated. Soviet troops went to the state border. In January 1944, the blockade of Leningrad was completely lifted. On June 6, 1944, a second front was opened in Europe. During the operation, "Bagration" almost mirrored the German blitzkrieg. Having passed on June 33, 44. on the offensive in Belarus, the Soviet troops fought 700 km in five weeks. In January 45, the Vistula-Oder operation began. Its goal was to break the enemy grouping on the territory of Poland, reaching the Order, seizing bridgeheads here and providing profitable terms attack on Berlin. At the final stage of the war, German troops in the West stopped serious resistance, the Allies advanced to the East. The Red Army was faced with the task of inflicting a final blow on fascist Germany. Berlin offensive started April 16, 1945. and continued until May 2. After the German command rejected the ultimatum to surrender, the assault on Berlin began. On May 1, the banner of Victory fluttered over the Reichstag, and the next day the garrison capitulated. On the night of May 9, an act of unconditional surrender of Germany was signed in the suburbs of Berlin. However, the Germans still held Prague. Soviet troops quickly liberated Prague.
The victory over Nazi Germany contributed to the growth of sympathy for the USSR among the peoples of many countries. The USSR has become a great world power. The victory in the war objectively contributed to the strengthening of the Stalinist political regime. During the war, which lasted 1418 days and nights for the people, 607 enemy divisions were defeated on the Soviet-German front. Germany lost more than 10 million people in the war.
The victory came at a heavy price. The war claimed almost 27 million people. About 4 million partisans and underground fighters died in the enemy rear. More than 6 million ended up in fascist captivity. Many of them, after returning from the Nazi concentration camps after the war, ended up in Stalin's camps with the stigma of traitors.
48. International relations and foreign policy of the USSR in the postwar years. The beginning of the Cold War. (45-53gg.)
The anti-fascist coalition broke up. The confrontation between the USA and the USSR intensified. The world has been drawn into a debilitating Cold War, which can be characterized as a state of military-political confrontation and balancing on the brink of a global nuclear war accompanied by an arms race, ideological and psychological warfare, local military conflicts, spy mania, mutual distrust and hostility. After World War II, American policy makers sought to create a US-led world based on the superiority of American political, military, and economic power, as well as American values. The disagreement of the world with the absolute dominance of the United States led the world society to the "cold war." Back in March 45, the head of the US intelligence agency, Dulles, proposed a plan for the post-war struggle against the USSR, during which "episode after episode, the grandiose tragedy of the death of the most recalcitrant on land of the people." By December 45 A plan was drawn up for the atomic bombing of the USSR and world communism. President of the United States in February 47 promulgated the "Truman Doctrine", according to which the world as a whole should accept the American system. The "Truman Doctrine" was aimed at combating Soviet influence and satisfies tensions in the world.
Setting " cold war", the confrontation between the two systems destroyed the hopes for peaceful cooperation between yesterday's allies, changed the geopolitical climate in the world, caused a large-scale arms race, ideological confrontation, forcing chauvinist propaganda and ultimately turned into the greatest tragedy of the 20th century.
49. Soviet society in the postwar years. Economic recovery. Social and political life (45-53)
The transition to a peaceful life required the restoration of the destroyed economy, the solution of numerous problems. An acute problem was the problem of reporting 5 million Soviet citizens to their homeland. The consequence of the war were armed anti-Soviet nationalist organizations in the territories of Western Ukraine and the Baltic states. The fight against the bandits was fierce and bloody. The victory in the war strengthened the political regime and the cult of Stalin. With the onset of the Cold War, the domestic policy of the USSR became tougher. Repression resumed. The main task of the internal policy of the USSR in the first post-war years was the restoration of the national economy. To restore the economy, it was planned to develop the national economy, increase the output of industrial and agricultural products. Much attention was paid to heavy industry. Agriculture developed much more slowly. Measures were planned for agriculture, agricultural machinery, fertilizers and rural electrification. At the turn of the 40-50s. collective farms were strengthened. During these years, the standard of living of the people increased. The recovery of the economy required the improvement of the financial system. Therefore, in 47g. the currency reform was carried out. It consisted in the exchange of money in circulation and the revaluation of monetary accumulations in the form of loans and deposits in savings banks. At the beginning of the 1950s, the restoration processes were basically completed, but it was far from the complete elimination of the consequences of the wars.
50. USSR during the "thaw" of the second half of the 50s - the first half of the 60s.
After Stalin's death in March 1953. the reins of government of the country were concentrated in the hands of Malinkov, Beria and Khrushchev. The struggle for leadership began. Khrushchev won. In 1953 Khrushchev managed to arrest Beria and hand him over to the court - this was a landmark event for the whole country, the so-called "thaw" began.
1956-1957 - political charges are removed from the repressed peoples, their statehood is restored. Among the communists, there was a general confusion of minds, depressive moods due to the exposure of Stalin's personality cult. On the other hand, student youth, the intelligentsia, perceived the de-Stalinization of the party as the beginning of a broad democratization of society.
Transformations in the economy. In 1953 measures have been taken to boost agriculture: the purchase price for collective farm and state farm products, increased funding for the agricultural sector, strengthened the material and technical base and human resources. Since 1957 a company was launched to develop virgin lands in Kazakhstan, Siberia. By the beginning of the 1960s, the grain problem had been removed.
By the beginning of the 60s, the USSR entered a new qualitative stage of development - a modern industrial society. A material basis was created for the implementation of large-scale measures for the country's accession. The country has the lowest retirement age in the world. Pensions have been raised. There was a jump in life expectancy. By the mid-60s, it became clear that all of Khrushchev's democratic, progressive transformations did not arouse enthusiasm in society, because accompanied by a deterioration in the socio-economic system. Trying to get out of the crisis, the government froze wages, increased production rates, and raised food prices. forced against the will of the people
22. Decembrist movement: origins, causes of Decembristism, organizations and programs, reasons for the defeat of the Decembrists.
The formation of the Decembrist ideas was influenced by the patriotic upsurge caused by the war of 1812, a closer acquaintance with the people and socially - political relations in Western Europe during the war. The first secret societies of the Decembrists arose shortly after the end of the foreign campaigns of the Russian army. In 1816 Petersburg, the Union of Salvation was created (Muravyovs, Trubetskoy, Muravyovs-Apostles, Yakushkin, Lunin, Pestel). In 1818 on the basis of the Union, a broader organization arose - the Union of Welfare. The most important task Union considered the formation of an advanced public opinion. In 1821 and 1823. Southern and Northern secret societies of the Decembrists arose. After 21 years. activity Decembrist societies took place in an atmosphere of increased political reaction, which forced the Decembrists to move to a stricter conspiracy, the development of new tactics, which was based on the idea of a military revolution - a military uprising without the participation of the masses of the people in it. Two political programs of revolutionary transformations were developed. Russian Truth provided for the establishment of a republic in Russia in the form of a unitary state, the abolition of serfdom with the allocation of land to the peasants and the transfer of half of the land to private and half to public ownership. Muravyov's constitution, based on the principle of the priority of individual rights, provided for federal structure Russia, establishing constitutional monarchy, the elimination of serfdom while retaining the land for the landowners in a larger share than Pestel assumed. There was a strict division of power between the judiciary, the legislature and the executive. The Decembrists became the pioneers of the liberation struggle against autocracy and serfdom, contributed to the awakening of the freedom-loving spirit of the nation, demonstrated high standards of morality and self-sacrifice in the interests of the people.
32. Third June Monarchy. Political development of the country in 1907-1914.
After the revolution of 1905-1907. in the domestic policy of the government, which since 1906 was headed by Stolypin, two directions can be traced. The first is to calm the country by taking emergency measures, suppressing the anti-government movement. In 1906 The law on courts-martial was enacted. Many organizations of peasants, students, and intelligentsia were destroyed, some of the trade unions, many newspapers and magazines were closed. Another direction of policy was the implementation of reforms with the aim of partially renewing relations and fundamentally modernizing the economy. June 3, 1990 The State Duma was dissolved and a new law was issued. These events are rated as state. coup. The political system that took shape after June 3 is called the June Third Monarchy. This system combined features of parliamentarism and traditional autocracy. Her visible embodiment was the State. thought. The new electoral law made it possible to form two majorities in the Duma: the Right-October and the Octobrist-Cadet. Thus, the mechanism of the parliamentary pendulum was created, and the government got the opportunity to maneuver between various social forces. Such a policy was supposed to ensure the implementation of reforms. The Duma is becoming an important element of the political system, but it must be emphasized that the elections to it were not universal, class-based, unequal, multistage and indirect. The tsar retained a power monopoly, remained a legislator, head of state, government, and supreme judge. Russian empire 1907-1917 was essentially a feudal state, only embarked on the path of transition from absolutism to a legal state.
28. Social movement and political trend in Russia in the second half XIX century. (Revolutionary democrats, populists, liberals, conservatives).
In the post-reform period, three directions were finally formed: conservative, liberal, and radical.
The coservatives fought for the inviolability of the autocracy, curtailing reforms and carrying out counter-reforms. Their efforts were aimed at strengthening the position of the nobility, the preservation of landownership. The ideologists were Pobedonostsev, Tolstoy, Katkov, Meshchersky. Kaikov was close to the moderate liberals, in the 60s. becomes an ardent supporter of the protective direction and reaches the heights of his political power, influencing the formation of the domestic and foreign policy of the government of Alexander III.
Liberalism as a special ideological and political trend arose in Russia during the crisis of the feudal system. In its class content, liberalism was a bourgeois phenomenon. The class composition of this trend was heterogeneous: bourgeois landlords, the liberal bourgeoisie, and the intelligentsia. A characteristic feature of the development of liberalism in the first decades after the reform was that the main bearers of its ideas were bourgeois landowners, part of the bourgeoisie and intelligentsia, and their activities took place mainly within the framework of zemstvo institutions. The liberals defended the idea of a common path of historical development with Western Europe, advocated the peaceful establishment of constitutional forms of government, political and civil freedoms, and the enlightenment of the people. They advocated the creation of a legal state and civil society in Russia.
The democratization of public enlightenment opened the way to higher education for people from all of all classes. For the democratically minded intelligentsia, both social and political alienation from the state and the dynasty became characteristic. In this environment, revolutionary ideas took root with surprising ease. The desire to change the existing state of affairs as soon as possible and more radically was inherent in many intellectuals - raznochintsy.
The Narodniks believed that Russia could pass to socialism without going through the capitalist stage. Recognizing the development of capitalism in Russia, they considered it a decline, a regression. Unlike Chernyshevsky, who saw the main driving force of progress in the masses, the populists of the 70s. assigned a decisive role to "heroes", "critical thoughts of the individual", who direct the masses, the crowd. The main theorist of populism in the 70s. were Bakunin, Lavrov, Tkachev reflected in their views different directions of populist thought - rebellious, propagandistic and conspiratorial.
8. Completion of the unification of Russian lands at the end XV – beginning XIV centuries The formation of a single Russian state and its socio-economic and political system.
During the reign of Vasily III, Rostov, Novgorod the Great, Dvina land, Tver, Kazan, Vyatka land were annexed to the Moscow principality. The growth of the authority of the new Russian state under Ivan III was facilitated by the victory of Russian troops in the so-called First and Second Frontier Wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. As a result of these battles, Moscow annexed the region of the upper reaches of the river. Okie and northern cities. From the accession of Ivan the Terrible, the expansion of the territory of the Russian state was carried out by capturing and colonizing the territory of the disintegrated Golden Horde.
18. Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II .
After the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II adjusted her domestic policy. She forced to pay more attention to the reform of the state system, finally made a bet on the nobility as the backbone of the autocracy, made concessions to the nobles and merchants. She improved the system of local self-government. The Russian Empire was divided into 50 provinces with a population of 300 to 400 thousand people in each, subdivided into counties of 20-30 thousand. human. During the reign of Catherine II, the rights of the nobles as the highest, privileged class Russian Empire. With the introduction of the regulation on the provinces in 1775. the nobility was given the right to broad and influential participation in local government and courts. During the second half of the 18th century, landownership of the nobility increased significantly. The nobility received part of the land on completed grounds. Significant changes have taken place in the life of the merchant class. In 1775 the merchant class, divided into 3 guilds, was exempted from the poll tax and, instead, was taxed with a guild duty of 1% of the capital declared in conscience.
In foreign policy, several strategic tasks were solved at once. The first task is to gather together the Russian lands in the north-west of Europe. The second task is to secure the borders of Russia from the southeast, to achieve full access to the Black Sea and then to the Mediterranean Sea, to take Orthodox Christians in the Caucasus, in the Ottoman Empire, under the protectorate of Russia. The second task of the Russian government was to populate the then still deserted Novorossiysk region and the steppes of the Don. In the future, foreign policy became the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, which were under the economic and spiritual power of the Ottoman Empire and Persia. During the conquest of the western part of Ciscaucasia, troops made up of Ukrainian Cossacks played an important role.
Moscow State University of Instrument Engineering and Informatics
National history
Lecture notes
Moscow, 2011
UDC 94 (100) "654"
Compiled by: prof., d.h.s. Bodrova E.V., Associate Professor, Ph.D. Gusarova M.N., Ph.D. Assoc. Zakharov V.Yu.
National history. Lecture notes. 3rd edition. M.: MGUPI, 2011, 149 p.
© Bodrova E.V., 2011.
© Gusarova M.N., 2011.
© Zakharov V.Yu., 2011
© Moscow State
University of Instrument Engineering
and Informatics 2011.
Topic 1. Introduction to the training course "Patriotic History" Patterns and stages of historical development .. 5
1. The subject of national history. Functions of historical knowledge, sources of studying history, historiography. 5
2. General periodization of world history. ten
3. The problem of the place and role of Russia in world history. eleven
Topic 2. Kievan Rus in context European history Middle Ages (IX-XIII centuries) 17
1. Kievan Rus. Main characteristics. Stages of development. 17
2. The development of Russian lands in the period of the middle of the XII ─ the beginning of the XV centuries. Specific Russia. 29
3. The struggle of Russia with foreign invaders. 33
Topic 3. Formation of the Russian state. Formation of autocracy 35
2. Moscow kingdom. Reforms of the Chosen Rada. 35
3. Causes and consequences of the oprichnina. 35
1. Formation of the Moscow centralized state. 35
1439 - The Union of Florence, which subordinated to the Pope all Orthodox parishes, except for the northeastern ones. 38
2. Moscow kingdom. Reforms of the Chosen Rada. 38
3. Causes and consequences of the oprichnina (1565-1572) 40
Topic 4. Russia at the beginning of the New Age. "Time of Troubles" of the Moscow State.. 42
1. The emergence of the capitalist structure. 42
2. Causes, main stages, consequences of the Time of Troubles. 44
3. Muscovy during the reign of the first Romanovs. 47
Topic 5. Age of Enlightenment. Russian Empire in the 18th century 59
1. "Peter's revolution" and its meaning. 59
2. XVIII century in European and world history. Age of Enlightenment. 66
3. Enlightened absolutism in Russia. 69
Russia's foreign policy in the 18th century. 72
Topic 6. The Russian Empire on the way to an industrial society in the 19th century. Features of the industrial revolution in Russia.. 75
1. Place and role of the 19th century in world and Russian history: main development trends 75
2. The reign of Alexander I ─ the time of missed opportunities? 79
3. Political reaction and bureaucratic reformism under Nicholas I 81
4. Reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century in the context of global development. 83
5. Social thought and social movements in the XIX century. 87
6. Foreign policy of Russia in the XIX century. 93
Topic 7. Socio-economic modernization and evolution state power in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century.. 97
1. The beginning of capitalist industrialization, its features. 97
2. Agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin. 98
3. Causes, main stages, results of the first Russian revolution. 100
4. Political parties in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century. The experience of Duma parliamentarism. 102
Topic 8. The revolutionary crisis in Russia in 1917 103
1. Causes of the revolution. 103
2. Results of the February Revolution. The collapse of the monarchy. 104
3. Dual power regime. Crises of the Provisional Government. 104
Topic 9. Soviet Russia: the practice of survival.. 107
1. The first transformations of Soviet power. 107
2. Civil war in Russia: causes, stages, opposing forces, consequences 108
3. Soviet state. Models of socialist construction. 110
Topic 10. Origins, main stages, consequences of the crisis of international relations in the first half of the twentieth century.. 116
1. The genesis of the military-political crisis in the first half of the 20th century. 116
2. The Russian Empire and the 1st World War: the global balance of power and national interests 117
3. Versailles-Washington system of peace settlement and its contradictions. 120
4. Soviet Russia in the system of international relations in the 1920s - 30s. 124
5. World War II as a continuation of the crisis. 125
6. The Great Patriotic War: triumph and tragedy. 126
Topic 11. The Soviet Union in the post-war period. Scientific and technological revolution and its influence on the course of social development.. 128
1. The emergence and evolution of the Cold War as a complex geopolitical process 128
2. Scientific and technological revolution, its socio-economic consequences. 129
3. Scientific and technological revolution: the USSR and modern Russia. 131
4. Thaw in the USSR: (1953-1964) 132
5. Years of "developed socialism" or a period of stagnation? (1964 - 1985) 134
6. Perestroika (1985-1991) 135
7. The collapse of the USSR. 136
Topic 12. Modern Russia.. 138
1. Consequences of the collapse of the USSR. 138
2. Reasons for changing the social model. 138
3. Folding a new political system.. 143
4. Foreign policy concept of the Russian Federation. 144
Conclusion to the course.. 148
Topic 1. Introduction to the training course "Patriotic History" Patterns and stages of historical development
Plan
1. The subject of national history. Functions of historical knowledge, sources of studying history, historiography.
2. General periodization of world history
3. The problem of the place and role of Russia in world history.
The subject of national history. Functions of historical knowledge, sources of studying history, historiography
Any science has an object and subject of study. History is a human science, therefore object study is human society. Currently, there are about 30 definitions of historical science.
« History exists by itself, and it does not care whether we approve of it or disapprove of it.».
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History has always been of great public interest. In past years, Russian history as a science was largely politicized, permeated with one-sided ideological dogmas, which left a certain imprint on the formation of the historical thinking of people, especially young people. Today we are moving away from these stereotypes and from everything that prevents historians from being extremely objective. At the same time, there are many cases when a number of researchers rush to extremes when evaluating historical events, departing from historical objectivity, and see nothing in Russian history but tragedies and mistakes. Such approaches are unacceptable.
Historical science has accumulated extensive experience in creating works on the history of Russia. In recent years, fundamental works on the history of Russia by major pre-revolutionary domestic historians(N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky and others). Today these are the works of such prominent historians as S. V. Bakhrushin, B. D. Grekov, B. A. Rybakov, I. Ya. Froyanov, L. N. Gumilev, T. A. Fomenko and others. Many of these authors contradict each other in their conceptual approaches. But the meaning of historical science is not the achievement of unanimity, but the development of acceptable theories that explain the realities of the past as fully as possible.
We must take into account that the study of national history must take place in the context of world history. Students of history should understand the ways of Russia's development and its place in the world historical process. The subject of study of Patriotic history is the patterns of socio-economic and political development of Russia and its peoples, which are manifested in historical events and facts.
The basis of any historical research is a historical source. Without their study in a deep dialectical unity of content and form, scientific knowledge of the history of the development of society is impossible. Among the most ancient sources on the history of Russia can be attributed archaeological. These are complexes of material finds in the cultural layer of the earth. Chronicles are the most important and oldest among written sources. Most early work chronicler historians appeared as early as the 10th-12th centuries. The most famous of them is "The Tale of Bygone Years" (XII century). One of valuable sources are Novgorod letters on birch bark. Among legislative materials one cannot do without such as "Russian Truth", Sudebnik of 1497, the Cathedral Code of 1649, "Challenge" letters to the nobility and others.
According to the History of Russia from the XVIII century. Until now, there are a huge number of different sources: documents and materials of government bodies, political parties and socio-political movements); periodicals (newspapers, magazines, etc.); documents and materials of museums; film and photo documents.
Methods of studying history are grouped according to the principle of systematics of general, special and auxiliary historical disciplines. Among other approaches, it is important to name the unique methods of genealogy, which make it possible to reveal the origin of individuals, families and clans of different social status.
Thus, the totality of methodological principles and methodological techniques, sources and methods of describing historical science should form a consistent system of cognition of the laws of reality of the past.
