The form of existence and development of science is scientific research. In Art. 2 of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation of August 23, 1996 "On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy" the following definition is given: scientific (research) activity – is an activity aimed at obtaining and applying new knowledge.
AT general case scientific research is usually understood as an activity aimed at a comprehensive study of an object, process or phenomenon, their structure and relationships, as well as obtaining and putting into practice useful results for a person. Any scientific research must have its own subject and object, which define the area of research.
object scientific research is a material or ideal system, and as subject maybe the structure of this system, the patterns of interaction and development of its elements, etc.
Scientific research is goal-oriented, so each researcher must clearly formulate the goal of his research. The purpose of scientific research is the projected result of the research work. This can be a comprehensive study of a process or phenomenon, connections and relationships using the principles and methods of knowledge developed in science, as well as obtaining and putting into practice useful results for a person.
Scientific research is classified on various grounds.
By funding source distinguish
scientific research budgetary,
economic contracts
and unfunded.
Budget research is financed from the budget of the Russian Federation or the budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Contractual research is funded by customer organizations under economic contracts. Unfunded research may be carried out at the initiative of a scientist, individual plan teacher.
In normative acts on science, scientific research is divided according to intended purpose on the
fundamental,
Applied.
The Federal Law of August 23, 1996 "On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy" defines the concepts of fundamental and applied scientific research.
Basic scientific research- this is an experimental or theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of a person, society, and the natural environment. For example, studies on the patterns of formation and functioning of the rule of law or on world, regional and Russian economic trends can be attributed to the number of fundamental ones.
Applied Research- these are studies aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific problems. In other words, they are aimed at solving the problems of using scientific knowledge obtained as a result of fundamental research in practical activities of people. For example, as applied, one can consider works on the methodology for evaluating investment projects, depending on their types, or work related to marketing research.
search engines called scientific research aimed at determining the prospects of working on a topic, finding ways to solve scientific problems.
Development called a study that is aimed at putting into practice the results of specific fundamental and applied research.
By deadline scientific research can be divided into
long term,
short-term
and express research.
Depending on the forms and methods of research, some authors distinguish between experimental, methodical, descriptive, experimental-analytical, historical-biographical research and research of a mixed type.
In the theory of knowledge, there are two levels of research : theoretical and empirical.
Theoretical level research is characterized by the predominance of logical methods of cognition. At this level, the facts obtained are investigated, processed with the help of logical concepts, inferences, laws and other forms of thinking.
Here, the objects under study are mentally analyzed, generalized, their essence, internal connections, laws of development are comprehended. At this level, sensory cognition (empiricism) may be present, but it is subordinate.
The structural components of theoretical knowledge are the problem, hypothesis and theory.
Problem is a complex theoretical or practical problem, the methods of solving which are unknown or not fully known. Distinguish between undeveloped problems (pre-problems) and developed ones.
Undeveloped problems are characterized by the following features: 1) they arose on the basis of a certain theory, concept; 2) these are difficult, non-standard tasks; 3) their solution is aimed at eliminating the contradiction that has arisen in cognition; 4) ways to solve the problem are not known. Developed problems have more or less specific indications on how to solve them.
Hypothesis there is an assumption that requires verification and proof about the cause that causes a certain effect, about the structure of the objects under study and the nature of the internal and external connections of structural elements.
A scientific hypothesis must meet the following requirements:
1) relevance, i.e. relevance to the facts on which it relies;
2) testability empirically, comparability with observational or experimental data (with the exception of untestable hypotheses);
3) compatibility with existing scientific knowledge;
4) possessing explanatory power, i.e. a certain number of facts, consequences, confirming it, should be derived from the hypothesis.
The hypothesis from which the greatest number of facts is derived will have greater explanatory power;
5) simplicity, i.e. it should not contain any arbitrary assumptions, subjectivist accretions.
There are descriptive, explanatory and predictive hypotheses.
A descriptive hypothesis is an assumption about the essential properties of objects, the nature of the relationships between the individual elements of the object under study.
An explanatory hypothesis is an assumption about causal relationships.
A predictive hypothesis is an assumption about the trends and regularities in the development of the object of study.
Theory is a logically organized knowledge, a conceptual system of knowledge that adequately and holistically reflects a certain area of reality. It has the following properties:
1. Theory is one of the forms of rational mental activity.
2. Theory is an integral system of reliable knowledge.
3. It not only describes the totality of facts, but also explains them, i.e. reveals the origin and development of phenomena and processes, their internal and external links, causal and other dependencies, etc.
Theories are classified according to the subject of study. On this basis, social, mathematical, physical, chemical, psychological, economic and other theories are distinguished. There are other classifications of theories.
In the modern methodology of science, the following structural elements of the theory are distinguished:
1) initial foundations (concepts, laws, axioms, principles, etc.);
2) an idealized object, i.e. a theoretical model of some part of reality, essential properties and relationships of the studied phenomena and objects;
3) the logic of the theory - a set of certain rules and methods of proof;
4) philosophical attitudes and social values;
5) a set of laws and regulations derived as consequences from this theory.
The structure of the theory is formed by concepts, judgments, laws, scientific positions, teachings, ideas and other elements.
concept- this is a thought that reflects the essential and necessary features of a certain set of objects or phenomena.
Category- a general, fundamental concept that reflects the most essential properties and relationships of objects and phenomena. Categories are philosophical, general scientific and related to a particular branch of science. Examples of categories in legal sciences: law, offense, legal responsibility, state, political system, crime.
^ Scientific term is a word or combination of words denoting a concept used in science.
The set of concepts (terms) that are used in a particular science forms its conceptual apparatus.
Judgment is a thought that affirms or denies something.
Principle- this is guiding idea, the main starting point of the theory. Principles are theoretical and methodological. At the same time, it is impossible not to take into account the methodological principles of dialectical materialism: to treat reality as an objective reality; to distinguish the essential features of the object under study from the secondary ones; consider objects and phenomena in continuous change, etc.
Axiom- this is a provision that is initial, unprovable and from which, according to established rules, other provisions are derived. For example, at the present time it is necessary to recognize as axiomatic the statements that there is no crime without an indication of it in the law, ignorance of the law does not exempt from responsibility for its violation, the accused is not obliged to prove his innocence.
Law- this is an objective, essential, internal, necessary and stable connection between phenomena, processes. Laws can be classified on various grounds. So, according to the main spheres of reality, one can single out the laws of nature, society, thinking and cognition; according to the scope of action - universal, general and private.
regularity- this is: 1) the totality of the action of many laws; 2) a system of essential, necessary general links, each of which constitutes a separate law. So, there are certain patterns of crime movement on a global scale: 1) its absolute and relative growth; 2) the lag of social control over it.
Position- a scientific statement, a formulated thought. An example of a scientific position is the assertion that the rule of law
consists of three elements: hypotheses, dispositions and sanctions.
^ Idea is: 1) a new intuitive explanation of an event or phenomenon;
2) the defining pivotal position in the theory.
Concept is a system of theoretical views united by a scientific idea (scientific ideas). Theoretical concepts determine the existence and content of many legal norms and institutions.
The empirical level of research is characterized by the predominance of sensory cognition (the study of the external world through the senses). At this level, forms of theoretical knowledge are present, but have a subordinate significance.
The interaction of the empirical and theoretical levels of research is that: 1) the totality of facts constitutes the practical basis of the theory or hypothesis; 2) facts can confirm the theory or refute it; 3) a scientific fact is always permeated with theory, since it cannot be formulated without a system of concepts, interpreted without theoretical ideas; 4) empirical research in modern science predetermined, guided by theory. The structure of the empirical level of research is made up of facts, empirical generalizations and laws (dependencies).
The concept of " fact" is used in several meanings: 1) an objective event, a result related to objective reality (fact of reality) or to the sphere of consciousness and cognition (fact of consciousness); 2) knowledge about any event, phenomenon, the reliability of which is proven (truth); 3) a sentence fixing the knowledge obtained in the course of observations and experiments.
^ Empirical generalization is a system of certain scientific facts. For example, as a result of studying criminal cases of a certain category and generalizing investigative and judicial practice, it is possible to identify typical mistakes made by courts in qualifying crimes and imposing criminal penalties on the guilty.
^ Empirical Laws reflect regularity in phenomena, stability in relations between observed phenomena. These laws are not theoretical knowledge. Unlike theoretical laws, which reveal the essential connections of reality, empirical laws reflect a more superficial level of dependencies.
^ 1. 2 Stages of research work
For the success of scientific research, it must be properly organized, planned and carried out in a certain sequence.
These plans and the sequence of actions depend on the type, object and goals of scientific research. So, if it is carried out on technical topics, then the main pre-planning document is first developed - a feasibility study, and then theoretical and experimental studies are carried out, a scientific and technical report is drawn up and the results of the work are introduced into production.
There are five stages in socio-legal research: 1) preparation of the program; 2) sociological observation (collection of empirical information); 3) processing and generalization of the received data; 4) scientific analysis and explanation of data; 5) presentation of results.
With regard to the work of students on economic topics, the following successive stages of their implementation can be outlined:
1) preparatory;
2) conducting theoretical and empirical research;
3) work on the manuscript and its design;
4) implementation of the results of scientific research.
It seems necessary to first give general characteristics each stage of the research work, and then consider in more detail those of them that are of great importance for the implementation of scientific research by students.
^ Preparatory (first) stage includes: choice of topic; substantiation of the need to conduct research on it; definition of hypotheses, goals and objectives of the study; development of a plan or program of scientific research; preparation of research tools (tools).
First, the topic of scientific research is formulated and the reasons for its development are substantiated. By preliminary acquaintance with the literature and materials of previous studies, it becomes clear to what extent the issues of the topic have been studied and what are the results obtained. Particular attention should be paid to questions to which there are no answers at all or they are insufficient.
A list of normative acts, domestic and foreign literature is compiled, when writing dissertation research - a list of topics of dissertations, and if it is impossible to see the entire text of the dissertation, in some cases it is possible to confine oneself to studying abstracts of dissertations.
A research methodology is being developed. Research tools are being prepared in the form of questionnaires, questionnaires, interview forms, observation programs, etc. More details on the process of performing research in accordance with GOST 15.101-98 are given in Appendix A.
Pilot studies may be conducted to test their suitability.
^ Exploratory (second) phase consists of a systematic study of literature on the topic, statistical information and archival materials; conducting theoretical and empirical research, including the collection of socio-economic and statistical information, materials of industrial practice; processing, generalization and analysis of the obtained data; explanations of new scientific facts, argumentation and formulation of provisions, conclusions and practical recommendations and proposals.
^ Third stage includes: definition of the composition (construction, internal structure) of the work; clarification of the title, titles of chapters and paragraphs; preparation of a draft manuscript and its editing; text design, including a list of references and applications.
^ Fourth stage consists of the implementation of research results into practice and the author's support of the implemented developments. Scientific research does not always end at this stage, but sometimes the scientific work of students (for example, theses) and the results of dissertation research are recommended for implementation in the practical activities of government bodies and in the educational process.
^ 1.3 Scientific research method and methodology
Scientific research method It is a way of knowing the objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.
Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished. Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.
Depending on the level of knowledge, there are methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels.
To empirical level methods include
observation,
· description,
comparison,
measurement,
questionnaire survey,
· interview,
test, experiment,
modeling, etc.
To methods of the theoretical level are considered
§ axiomatic,
§ hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive),
§ formalization,
§ abstraction,
§ general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.
Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutical, etc. Some scientists refer the method to this level. system analysis, and others include it among the general logical methods.
Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:
1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;
2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;
3) private - for related sciences;
4) special - for a particular science, area of scientific knowledge.
From the considered concept of method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research.
Under research technique understand a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under research procedure- a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.
Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of knowledge. For example, a methodology for evaluating the effectiveness of investments is understood as a set of rules, principles, formulas and techniques that allow, under certain restrictions, to correctly calculate the effectiveness of investment projects.
Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology th. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings: 1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.); 2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.
There are the following levels of methodology:
1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.
2. Private research methodology for a group of related economic sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, economic relations in the production process.
3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods knowledge, for example, the methodology of political economy, the methodology of management.
^ 1.3.1 Philosophical and general scientific methods of scientific research
Among universal (philosophical) methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. So, the dialectical method in K. Marx was combined with materialism, and in G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism. When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:
1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:
a) unity and struggle of opposites;
b) the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
c) negation of negation.
2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes under study, based on philosophical categories: general, particular and singular; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; cause and effect.
3. Treat the object of study as an objective reality.
4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study: a) comprehensively; b) in universal connection and interdependence; c) in continuous change, development; d) concretely-historically.
5. Check the acquired knowledge in practice.
All general scientific methods for analysis, it is advisable to divide into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.
^ General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.
Analysis- this is a dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its constituent parts. It underlies the analytical method of research. Varieties of analysis are classification and periodization. For example, the analysis method is used in the study and classification of costs, in the formation of sources of profit, etc.
Synthesis- this is a combination of individual aspects, parts of the object of study into a single whole. Thus, the connection of all stages of creation and commercial sale of products was combined into a relatively new discipline "Innovation Management".
Induction is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to the general position. Inductive reasoning "suggests" a thought, a general idea. For example, the method of induction is used in jurisprudence to establish causation between events, actions and consequences.
Deduction - this is the derivation of a single, particular from some general position; movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “deduced” from other thoughts.
Analogy- this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they are similar to others; reasoning in which, from the similarity of the studied objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features. For example, in jurisprudence, gaps in legislation can be filled by applying the law by analogy. The analogy of the law is the application to the social relation unsettled by the rule of law of the norm of the law that regulates a similar relationship.
^ 1.3.2 Theoretical level methods
To methods theoretical level they include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.
^ Axiomatic method - a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.
^ Hypothetical method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.
A variation of this method is the hypothetical-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived.
The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:
1) putting forward a guess (assumption) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects;
2) selection from a set of guesses of the most probable, plausible;
3) derivation from the selected assumption (premise) of the consequence (conclusion) with the help of deduction;
4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.
Formalization- displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of some artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings. natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, uncertainty.
When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of study, they operate with signs (formulas). By operations with formulas artificial languages you can get new formulas, prove the truth of any position.
Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.
abstraction- mental abstraction from some properties and relations of the subject under study and the selection of properties and relations of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and relationships of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and relationships.
Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. selection common properties and relations of the studied subjects, establishing the identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining subjects into a special class; isolation, i.e. highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of research. In theory, other types of abstraction are also distinguished: potential feasibility, actual infinity.
An example of abstraction is the process of formation of economic concepts. These concepts are meaningful scientific abstractions. They do not reflect all the essential properties of economic phenomena and contain only those features that are significant in a certain respect.
Generalization– establishment of general properties and relations of objects and phenomena; definition of a general concept, which reflects the essential, basic features of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the allocation of not essential, but any features of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of general, particular and singular.
^ Historical method consists in revealing historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves the study of the emergence and development of objects of study in chronological order.
^ Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge is that the researcher first finds the main connection of the object (phenomenon) being studied, then, tracing how it changes into various conditions, opens up new connections and in this way displays its essence in its entirety.
^ System method is to study the system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with external environment. At the same time, it turns out that these interrelations and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent from its constituent objects. The application of this method allowed scientists to identify the following legal systems of the world: Anglo-Saxon, Romano-Germanic, socialist, religious, customary law.
Considering the activity of an organization as a system (with subsystems of personnel management, financial management, quality management, etc.) located in a more general economic system, researchers establish the features of the functioning of this system or project common, known patterns, taking into account the features of this system.
^ 1.3.3 Empirical level methods
To empirical level methods include: observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling.
Observation- this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.
As a method of scientific research, observation is used, for example, to collect sociological information or as a method of establishing labor standards (known, in particular, as "photo of a working day").
If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the environmental conditions, the situation were specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on films and in other ways.
Description- this is a fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description is: 1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the features of the object; 2) indirect, when the researcher notes the features of the object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).
Check- this is the definition of quantitative ratios of objects of study or parameters that characterize their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in economic statistics, to study the performance of individual organizations and economic systems.
Measurement- this is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with the standard. In quality management, measurements are used to quantify the quality of objects. These issues are dealt with by a special area of science - qualimetry.
Comparison- this is a comparison of the features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding common ground in them.
In scientific research, this method is used, for example, to compare the economic systems of different states. This method is based on the study, comparison of similar objects, identification of common and different in them, advantages and disadvantages. In this way it is possible to solve practical tasks improvement of state institutions, domestic legislation and practice of its application.
Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.
Experiments can be classified on various grounds: by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.; according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - ordinary (experimental tools directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the object of research). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real). The above classification is not exhaustive.
Modeling- this is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of study with the help of its substitutes - an analogue, a model. A model is a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object. Based on the similarity of the model and the object being modeled, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.
In modeling theory, there are:
1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, records, signs, mathematical interpretation;
2) material (natural, material) models, for example, models, dummies, analogue objects for experiments during examinations, reconstruction of a person’s appearance according to the method of M.M. Gerasimov.
Economic and mathematical modeling is widely used in various economic studies to describe various kinds of processes, patterns, relationships. Summarized information about research methods is presented in Table 1.
Table 1 - Main research methods used in economics
| Method type | Method name |
| 1. Opinion detection methods | Interviews Questionnaires Sample polls |
| 2. General logical methods | Analysis Synthesis Induction Deduction Analogy |
| 3. Theoretical methods | Axiomatic method Hypothetical method Formalization Abstraction Generalization Historical method Climbing from the abstract to the concrete |
| 4. Analytical methods | System analysis Scenario writing Network planning Functional cost analysis (FCA) Economic analysis SWOT analysis Statistical methods: correlation analysis, elimination, etc. |
| 5. Assessment methods | Evaluation of the scientific and technical level and competitiveness of the development Applied qualimetry methods (expert, direct calculation, parametric, complex, differential) Evaluation of the organizational and technical level of production Evaluation of decision trees Evaluation of project payback Evaluation of project risks Evaluation of project effectiveness (static and dynamic) |
| 6. Methods of directed and systematized search for ideas and solutions | Morphological analysis Method control questions Non-standard solution search system (SPNR) – IdeaFinder Theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ) Method of organizing concepts |
| 7. Methods of psychological activation of creativity | Brain attack(assault and its varieties) Synectics method Method "Six thinking hats" Thought map Method free associations Focal object method RVS method |
| 8. Decision-making methods | Economic and mathematical models Decision tables Comparison of alternatives |
| 9. Methods of forecasting | Expert extrapolations Analogies Delphi method (and its varieties) Regression analysis Simulation models |
| Graphic models Physical models Organigrams Operograms Job descriptions Presentations |
Method- a set of rules, techniques, operations of practical or theoretical development of reality. It serves to obtain and substantiate objectively true knowledge.
The nature of the method is determined by many factors:
The subject of research
The degree of generality of the tasks set,
accumulated experience,
The level of development of scientific knowledge, etc.
Methods that are suitable for one area of scientific research are unsuitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, many outstanding achievements in science are the result of the transfer and use of methods that have proven themselves in other areas of research. Thus, on the basis of the applied methods, opposite processes of differentiation and integration of sciences take place.
The method of scientific research is a way of knowing objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.
Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.
Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.
Depending on the level of knowledge, methods are distinguished:
1. Empirical
2. Theoretical
3. Metatheoretical levels.
The methods of the empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.
The methods of the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.
The methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutical, etc. Some scientists refer the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among the general logical methods.
Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:
1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;
2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;
3) private - for related sciences;
4) special - for a particular science, area of scientific knowledge.
From the considered concept of method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research. Under the research technique is understood a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under the research procedure - a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.
A technique is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.
For example, the methodology of economic research is understood as a system of methods, techniques, means of collecting, processing, analyzing and evaluating information about economic phenomena, their causes and conditions.
Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology.
However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:
1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);
2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.
The doctrine of methods - methodology . It seeks to streamline, systematize methods, establish the suitability of their application in various fields, answer the question of what kind of conditions, means and actions are necessary and sufficient for the realization of certain scientific goals.
Variety of species human activity causes the use of various methods that can be classified according to a variety of reasons. In scientific knowledge, general and specific methods, empirical and theoretical, qualitative and quantitative, etc. are used.
At present, it has become obvious that the system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond it and certainly include the sphere of practice in its orbit. At the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.
As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for their division into groups. So, depending on the role of place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can single out formal and substantive methods, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation, etc.
There are also qualitative and quantitative methods, uniquely deterministic and probabilistic, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative, etc.
Among the characteristic features of the scientific method (whatever type it may be) most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristic, necessity, specificity, etc.
The methodology of science develops a multi-level concept of methodological knowledge, which distributes all methods of scientific knowledge according to the degree of generality and scope.
With this approach, 5 main groups of methods can be distinguished:
1. Philosophical Methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. In essence, each philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a kind of way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two named. They also include such methods as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.
2. General scientific approaches and research methods which have been widely developed and applied in science. They act as a kind of "intermediate" methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.
General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as “information”, “model”, “structure”, “function”, “system”, “element”, “optimality”, “probability”, etc.
The characteristic features of general scientific concepts are, firstly, the "fusion" in their content of individual properties, attributes, concepts of a number of particular sciences and philosophical categories. Secondly, the possibility (unlike the latter) of their formalization, refinement by means of mathematical theory, symbolic logic.
On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.
General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.
3. Private scientific methods - a set of methods, principles of knowledge, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science, corresponding to a given basic form of the movement of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences and humanities.
4. Disciplinary methods - a system of techniques used in a particular scientific discipline that is part of some branch of science or that arose at the intersection of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.
5. Interdisciplinary research methods- a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods (arising as a result of a combination of elements of different levels of methodology), aimed mainly at the junctions of scientific disciplines. These methods are widely used in the implementation of complex scientific programs.
Thus, methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, scope, focus, heuristic possibilities, contents, structures, etc.
1. The concept and structure of the scientific method.
2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge
1. Scientific method- a set of basic ways of obtaining new knowledge and methods for solving problems in the framework of any science. The method includes ways to study phenomena, systematization, correction of new and previously acquired knowledge.
An important side of the scientific method, its integral part for any science, is the requirement of objectivity, excluding the subjective interpretation of the results. Any statements should not be taken on faith, even if they come from reputable scientists. To ensure independent verification, observations are documented, and all initial data, methods and research results are made available to other scientists.
The structure of the method contains three independent components (aspects):
- conceptual component - ideas about one of the possible forms of the object under study;
- operational component - prescriptions, norms, rules, principles that regulate the cognitive activity of the subject;
- logical component - the rules for fixing the results of the interaction of the object and the means of cognition.
2. Methods stand out in the philosophy of science empirical and theoretical knowledge
Empirical method of knowledge is a specialized form of practice closely related to experiment. Theoretical knowledge is to reflect the phenomena and ongoing processes of internal connections and patterns that are achieved by methods of processing data obtained from empirical knowledge.
At the theoretical and empirical levels of scientific knowledge, the following are used: types of scientific methods:
Theoretical scientific method |
empirical scientific method |
theory(ancient Greek θεωρ?α “consideration, research”) is a system of consistent, logically interconnected statements that has predictive power in relation to any phenomenon. |
experiment(lat. experimentum - test, experience) in the scientific method - a set of actions and observations performed to test (true or false) a hypothesis or a scientific study of causal relationships between phenomena. One of the main requirements for an experiment is its reproducibility. |
hypothesis(ancient Greek ?π?θεσις - “foundation”, “assumption”) - an unproven statement, assumption or conjecture. An unproven and undisproved hypothesis is called an open problem. |
Scientific research- the process of studying, experimenting and testing the theory associated with obtaining scientific knowledge. |
law- a verbal and / or mathematically formulated statement that describes the relationships, connections between various scientific concepts, proposed as an explanation of the facts and recognized at this stage by the scientific community. |
observation- this is a purposeful process of perception of objects of reality, the results of which are recorded in the description. Repeated observation is necessary to obtain meaningful results. |
dimension- this is the definition of quantitative values, properties of an object using special technical devices and units of measurement. |
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idealization- creation of mental objects and their changes in accordance with the required objectives of the research |
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formalization- reflection of the obtained results of thinking in statements or exact concepts |
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reflection- scientific activity aimed at the study of specific phenomena and the process of cognition itself |
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induction- a way to transfer knowledge from individual elements of the process to knowledge of the overall process |
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deduction- the desire for knowledge from the abstract to the concrete, i.e. transfer from general patterns to their actual manifestation. |
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abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object with the aim of in-depth study of one specific side of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.) |
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classification - combining various objects into groups based on common features(classification of animals, plants, etc.) |
The methods that are used at both levels are:
- analysis- the decomposition of a single system into its constituent parts and the study of them separately;
- synthesis- combining into a single system of all the results of the analysis, which allows expanding knowledge, constructing something new;
- analogy- this is a conclusion about the similarity of two objects in any feature based on their established similarity in other features;
- modeling is the study of an object through models with the transfer of knowledge gained to the original. Object modeling is the creation of models of reduced copies with certain duplicating original properties. Mental modeling - using mental images. Mathematical modeling is the replacement of a real system with an abstract one, as a result of which the problem turns into a mathematical one, since it consists of a set of specific mathematical objects Sign or symbolic - is the use of formulas, drawings. Computer simulation - A model is a computer program.
The basis of the methods of cognition is the unity of its empirical and theoretical aspects. They are interconnected and condition each other. Their break, or the predominant development of one at the expense of the other, closes the way to the correct knowledge of nature - theory becomes pointless, and experience becomes blind.
test questions
- What is a methodology?
- How is a method defined? scientific method?
- What are the structure and properties of the scientific method?
- What are the methods of empirical research?
- What methods are included in the theoretical level of scientific knowledge?
- How is the unity of empirical and theoretical in scientific knowledge realized?
- What methods are used both at the theoretical and empirical levels of knowledge?
- Why is the unity of empirical and theoretical knowledge important?
Methodology and methodology of scientific research
Methods of the empirical level of research
Quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research
Special (private scientific) research methods in the field of library, information and documentation activities
Literature
1. The concept of the method, methodology and methodology of scientific research
The organization and conduct of scientific research is impossible without relying on scientific methodology, without the use of appropriate methods. When building a methodological base for scientific research, it is necessary to clarify the basic concepts (method, technique, methodology, etc.).
) The method is understood as a specific method of research, construction and substantiation of a system of knowledge about the subject, which includes various research methods.
Another definition can be given: a research method is a method of study based on a certain conceptual apparatus and rules that correspond to the characteristics of the subject of research, the purpose and nature of the tasks being solved.
Already studied phenomena, processes, patterns serve as samples, models for the subsequent study of other phenomena and processes. Therefore, in scientific research, not only the result is important, but also the path to it, the method of cognition, the chain of inferences leading to the conclusion.
) Methodology - a fixed set of methods of practical activity leading to a predetermined result; concretization of the method, bringing it to the instruction, algorithm, a clear description of the mode of existence.
) Methodology is a system of basic principles, methods, techniques, methods and means of scientific research. The methodology of scientific research involves the ability to properly organize scientific activity using effective methods of work, rules and logical conclusions.
) Methodological approach - a group of methods that have a common basis.
) The methodological principle is the fundamental rule, position, normative coordinate of the methodological paradigm.
) The methodological paradigm is a set of fundamental scientific principles, principles and main methodological approaches adopted in the scientific community within the framework of an established scientific tradition in a certain period of time. Ensures the continuity of the development of science and scientific creativity.
There are many types of methods of scientific knowledge. What methods to use for research is determined by the scientist, based on his own experience and the experience of his predecessors and colleagues. But the decisive criterion for determining the necessary methods is the subject of research.
Types of methods are distinguished by:
· degrees of generality (general scientific and special or particular scientific);
· level of abstraction (empirical and theoretical);
· the nature of the functions performed (quantitative and qualitative).
Let us characterize the main groups of scientific research methods.
General scientific research methods
General scientific research methods are based on such general principles scientific thinking as induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, concretization, analogy, comparison, identification, generalization, extrapolation, etc.
Induction is a mental operation based on the logic of generalizing private facts; conclusion, reasoning from "private to general"; inference from facts to some general hypothesis.
Deduction is a mental operation that involves the development of reasoning from general patterns to particular facts (“from the general to the particular”).
Analysis is a theoretical research method that involves such a mental operation in which the process or phenomenon under study is divided into components for their special and in-depth independent study.
Synthesis is a mental operation, during which the identified elements and facts are restored the whole picture.
Abstraction is a mental distraction from a number of non-essential features (properties, relationships) of an object while highlighting other features that are of interest to the researcher when solving a specific problem.
Idealization is one of the types of abstraction. The concepts formed as a result of idealization do not exist in reality in a specific form, but are only thought with approximate analogues (images).
Concretization is a process opposite to abstraction, it involves finding a holistic, interconnected, multilateral object.
Analogy - similarity, similarity of various objects, phenomena or concepts in any properties, features or relationships.
Comparison is a method that involves comparing objects in order to identify their similarities and differences, common and special.
Identification - the identification of the object under study with some sample, model, archetype.
Generalization is one of the important mental operations, as a result of which relatively stable properties of objects and their relations are identified and fixed.
Extrapolation is the spread of trends and patterns found in one area to another area.
3. Methods of the empirical level of the study
The methods of the empirical level of research include: observation, description, survey, questioning, interviewing, conversation, experiment, monitoring, method of expert assessments, etc.
Observation is the most informative research method that allows you to see from the outside the processes and phenomena under study that are available for perception. Its essence lies in the fact that the object under study should be in normal, natural conditions and should not be affected by the observer.
Description - a method based on fixing information obtained as a result of observation.
A survey is a research method used to collect primary verbal information containing mass judgments of the studied individuals, their subjective assessments, opinions, and motives for activity. This is the main way to identify public opinion. There are two main types of surveys - questionnaires and interviews.
Questioning is a remote survey in which all respondents in an identical printed form are offered a system of questions with possible options answers (or no).
Interviewing is a face-to-face oral survey based on a developed list of questions.
Conversation is an empirical method that involves personal contact with the respondent.
Experiment is a general empirical method of research, which is based on strict control over the objects under study under controlled conditions. The experiment involves intervention in the natural conditions of the existence of objects and phenomena or the reproduction of certain aspects of them in specially created conditions.
Monitoring is a constant supervision, regular tracking of research results.
The method of expert assessments is a method of obtaining information about an object with the help of specialists - experts in a particular field. The opinion of a specialist (or a team of specialists) should be based on professional, scientific and practical experience. Distinguish between individual and collective expert opinions.
Methods of the theoretical level of research
The group of methods of the theoretical level of research includes: modeling, systematization, classification, formalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, axiomatic, historical, dialectical, activity, systemic, structural-functional and other methods.
Modeling is a theoretical research method involving the construction of a model (substitute) of real objects. A model is a mental or materially realized system that replaces another system with which it is in a state of similarity. The modeling method makes it possible to obtain information about various properties of the studied phenomena on the basis of experiments with models.
Systematization is a mental activity in the process of which the studied objects are organized into a certain system based on the chosen principle. The most important type of systematization is classification.
Classification is a theoretical method based on the ordering of the studied objects, facts, phenomena and their distribution into groups based on the establishment of similarities and differences between them (for example, the classification of animals, plants, chemical elements).
Formalization is a description of the content characteristics of an object and the processes occurring in it based on the creation of a generalized sign model (for example, using mathematical or logical symbols).
The ascent from the abstract to the concrete is a universal form of the movement of scientific knowledge, the law of reflecting reality in thinking. A method according to which the process of cognition is divided into two relatively independent stages. At the first stage, there is a transition from sensory-concrete cognition of the object to its abstract definitions. A single object is divided, described with the help of many concepts and judgments, turning into a set of abstractions fixed by thinking. The second stage of the process of cognition is the ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Its essence lies in the movement of thought from the abstract definitions of the object to the concrete in cognition. At this stage, the original integrity of the object is restored, it is reproduced in thinking in all its concreteness and versatility.
Axiomatic method - a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which some statements (axioms) are accepted without proof and then used to obtain the rest of the knowledge according to certain logical rules.
In studies related to the study of the history of the development of the object under study, are widely used historical methods: historical-genetic, historical-comparative, historical-typological.
Historical-genetic method - a method that allows you to reveal the sequence historical development of the object under study (from its origins to its current state), to show cause-and-effect relationships and patterns of its historical movement.
Historical-comparative (or comparative-historical) method - a method in which comparative analysis historical phenomena, their similarities and differences, general and special, are revealed. (See Comparison method).
The historical-typological method is a method aimed at dividing (ordering) a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively defined types (classes) based on their common essential features.
The dialectical method (dialectical methodology) is a method (methodology) of cognition of reality, the main principles of which are the recognition of development in all its infinite diversity and the universal connection of everything with everything. The main dialectical laws: the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa; unity and struggle of opposites; denial of denial.
The activity method (activity methodology) is a widely used method (methodology), in which the object is comprehensively studied as a specific area of social (human) activity. At the same time, this type of activity is differentiated into parts, components (subject, object, processes, means, result, etc.) and into types, varieties, distinguished according to various criteria.
System method (system methodology) - a method (methodology) that allows you to explore an object not as a set of disparate and isolated objects and phenomena, but as a systemic, holistic formation, that is, a complex of interrelated and interacting elements. The entry of these elements into the system gives them new, integrative qualities that are not inherent in them in their original, separate existence.
The structural-functional method consists in dividing the object under study into its constituent structural parts and identifying the internal connection, conditionality, the relationship between them, as well as determining their functions.
5. Quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research
Quantitative methods are methods for analyzing phenomena and processes based on quantitative indicators. The most commonly used quantitative methods are statistical, bibliometric, content analysis, scientometric.
Statistical - a set of interrelated methods aimed at collecting, measuring and analyzing massive quantitative data. With the help of statistical methods, mass objects and phenomena are studied in order to obtain quantitative characteristics and identify general patterns by eliminating random features of individual single observations.
Bibliometric - a group of quantitative methods that study the structure, dynamics and relationships of various phenomena in the field of library, information and documentation activities. The composition of bibliometric methods includes the method of counting the number of publications, the method of analyzing literature citation (“citation index”), thesaurus, content analysis, etc. Using bibliometric methods, the dynamics of the development of documentary flows (by their types, types, topics, author composition) is studied. etc.); dynamics of indicators of use and negotiability of documents; the processes of citation of publications are studied; productive types of publications and the most developed thematic areas are identified; the degree of provision of certain areas of scientific research with fundamental works; the core of specialized publications is determined, according to which the acquisition of library collections is carried out in the future.
Content analysis is one of the bibliometric methods, which also has independent significance. It is used to study significant arrays of documents: printed works, normative-official, reporting and other documentation. The essence of the method lies in the fact that certain semantic units (“observation units”) are distinguished in the texts of documents, which can be the authors and titles of works, type of publication, release date, etc. A careful calculation of the identified units and the frequency of their use, with the obligatory consideration of the assessments that are given to them in the texts, makes it possible to identify trends in the development of various phenomena: the informational interest of various user groups in certain types, types, genres of documents, the level of information culture, the effectiveness of methods of working with consumers of documentary information, etc.
Scientometric methods are closely related to bibliometric methods and are used for the same purposes. However, the specificity of scientometrics lies in quantitative studies of the structure and dynamics of arrays and flows of not all types of documentary information, but only scientific.
Qualitative research methods are methods aimed at obtaining such “qualitative data” that allow revealing the significance of certain social phenomena through an analysis of the structure and dynamics of public opinion. Qualitative methods, in particular, make it possible to explore the underlying mechanisms of the process of the influence of mass communication on individual consciousness and to see the patterns of perception of social information. Qualitative methods are most often used in sociological and marketing research.
The main methods of qualitative research include: in-depth interviews, expert interviews, focus group discussions (interviews), observation, experiment. Let's consider the main ones.
The most well-known and frequently used qualitative method is conducting an in-depth interview. In its process, questions are used, the answer to which is not supposed to be an unambiguous “yes” or “no”, but a detailed answer. An in-depth interview is an informal, free conversation conducted by the interviewer according to a predetermined plan and based on the use of techniques that encourage respondents to lengthy and detailed discussions on a range of issues of interest to the researcher. During the interview, the personal opinion of the respondent, his beliefs, motivations and values are examined.
An expert interview is one of the varieties of an in-depth interview, its main feature is the status and competence of the respondent, who is an experienced participant in the problem under study. Experts are specialists who know the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study. In expert interviews, it is not so much the respondent himself that is important, but his expert knowledge in a particular area. In most cases, expert interviews are conducted with representatives of the executive and legislative authorities, scientists, employees of universities and research organizations, employees of non-governmental, private expert or consulting structures, members of expert councils, company executives, etc.
Focus group discussions (interviews) are one of the qualitative research methods. A focus group is a group of respondents (no more than 10-15 people) united to study a wide range of reactions, opinions and assessments regarding the phenomenon under study. The essence of the method lies in the fact that the attention of the participants is focused on the topic or object under study ( government programs, socio-political problems, socio-economic situations, communication processes, goods, services, advertising). Focus group discussion or interviews are aimed at determining the attitude of participants to a particular problem, obtaining information about their personal experience, priorities, perception of the object of study, drawing up a “portrait” of a particular social group. Focus group interviews are conducted in a free form according to a previously developed scenario. The participants are not familiar with the content of the script, it is known only to the moderator (leader), under whose leadership the discussion is taking place. The organization of the discussion in a relaxed atmosphere contributes to the activation of associative links in the minds of the participants. During focus group discussions, respondents communicate not only with the moderator, but also with each other, which is a source of information that often cannot be obtained in an individual interview.
The main difference between qualitative methods and quantitative methods is that in the first case, data are collected from a relatively small group of respondents and are not analyzed using statistics, while when using quantitative methods, large group people, and the data is further analyzed using statistical methods. However, quantitative and qualitative methods are not competitors, but rather two tools that complement each other. Qualitative methods make it possible to understand the essence of the problem, to formulate tasks and a conceptual apparatus for subsequent quantitative research.
6. Special (private scientific) methods of scientific research in the field of library, information and documentation activities
Apart from listed groups methods, there are also special methods of individual sciences (private scientific) - mathematical, political science, economic, sociological, psychological, pedagogical, cultural, linguistic, semiotic, etc.
The following special (private scientific) library methods are widely used in library research: analysis of reader's forms, bibliographic inquiries journals, reader surveys, sociological and quantitative methods for studying collections and readers, methods of library statistics, and others. Common research methods are also the source study method (a method of studying historical documentary sources of library subjects: archival materials, unpublished manuscripts, library reports for different periods time, memoirs and diaries of librarians) and the bibliographic method (the method of bibliographic “folding” of information: bibliographic analysis, description, classification of documents, etc.).
In scientific research on document management, special (private scientific) methods are also widely used: source study, archeographic, analytical and synthetic processing of documents, etc. These methods are actively used by students in their graduation studies.
An indispensable method of research is the source study method - a method of studying historical documentary sources: archival and unpublished materials, reports of institutions, official regulatory and regulatory documentation, etc. Using this method, the following is carried out: determining the authenticity of the source (external or textual criticism), ascertaining the reliability information contained in it (internal criticism), establishing the time, place of creation of the source, analysis of its content, formal and qualitative characteristics, etc.
The archaeographic method is very close to the source study method. It is used in studies that require in-depth work with handwritten, written sources: identifying and collecting historical documentary monuments, developing methods for their publication, developing rules for the scientific-critical publication of sources, etc.
Methods of analytical and synthetic processing of documents - a group of methods by which information analysis, description, summarizing, systematization, classification, codification of documents, etc. are carried out.
Ultimately, the choice of method is dictated by many factors, the most important of which are: the correspondence of the method's capabilities to solving research problems, heuristics (the quality that provides the most optimal result), simplicity and accessibility for the researcher. In order to comprehensively study the subject in scientific (including diploma) research, as a rule, a complex of various methods is used.
library empirical private scientific documentation
Literature
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2. Goneev A.D. Fundamentals of correctional pedagogy / Ed. V.A. Slastenin. - M.: Academy, 2007.
History of Pedagogy and Education. From the origin of education in primitive society to the end of the twentieth century: / Ed. acad. RAO A.I. Piskunov. - M.: TC "Sphere", 2008.
Kraevsky V.V. Methodology of pedagogy: a new stage: Proc. allowance for students of higher education. textbook institutions / V.V. Kraevsky, E.V. Berezhnova. - M.: Academy, 2009.
Mizherikov V.A. Introduction to pedagogical activity / V.A. Mizherikov, T.A. Yuzefavicius. - M.: Rospedagency, 2009.
Mudrik A.V. Social Pedagogy: Proc. for students ped. universities / A.V. Mudrik / Ed. V.A. Slastenin. - M.: Academy, 2007.
Orlov A.A. Introduction to pedagogical activity: Workshop: Textbook.-method. settlement / A.A. Orlov, A.S. Agafonov. Ed. A.A. Orlov. - M.: Academy, 2007.
Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook institutions / Ed. P.I. piddly. - M.: Ped. Society of Russia, 2009.
Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. B.M. Bim-Bad. - M., 2007.
Pedagogical technologies: Tutorial for students of pedagogical specialties / Ed. V.S. Kukushina. - M.: ICC "Mart"; Rostov n / a: ICC "Mart", 2008.
Pityukov V.Yu. Basics pedagogical technology. Teaching aid. - M .: Publishing house "Gnome and D", 2007.
Robotova A.S. Introduction to pedagogical activity / Robotova A.S., Leontieva T.V., Shaposhnikova I.G. etc. - M.: Academy, 2009. - 208 p.
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Empirical (what is perceived by the senses) knowledge is carried out in the process of experience, understood in the very broad sense, i.e. as the interaction of the subject with the object, in which the subject not only passively reflects the object, but also actively changes, transforms it.
The empirical method consists in the successive performance of the following five operations: observation, measurement, modeling, forecasting, checking the forecast.
In science, the main forms of empirical research are observation and experiment. In addition, they also include numerous measuring procedures, which, although closer to theory, are nevertheless carried out precisely within the framework of empirical knowledge and especially experiment.
The initial empirical procedure is observation, since it is included in both the experiment and measurements, while the observations themselves can be carried out outside the experiment and do not involve measurements.
1. Observation - a purposeful study of objects, based mainly on the data of the sense organs (sensations, perceptions, ideas). In the course of observation, the knowledge gained is not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but - as ultimate goal- about its essential properties and relationships.
The concept of methods and techniques is often used as synonyms, but they are often distinguished when methods are used to refer to more complex cognitive procedures that include a whole set of different research techniques.
Observation can be direct and mediated by various devices and technical devices(microscope, telescope, photo and movie camera, etc.) With the development of science, observation becomes more and more complex and indirect.
Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design; availability of a system of methods and techniques; objectivity, i.e., the possibility of control by either repeated observation or using other methods (for example, experiment).
Usually, observation is included as an integral part of the experimental procedure. An important point of observation is the interpretation of its results - decoding of instrument readings, a curve on an oscilloscope, on an electrocardiogram, etc.
The cognitive result of the observation is the description - the fixation by means of natural and artificial language of the initial information about the object under study: diagrams, graphs, charts, tables, drawings, etc. Observation is closely related to measurement, which is the process of finding the ratio of a given quantity to another homogeneous quantity, taken as a unit of measurement. The measurement result is expressed as a number.
Observation is of particular difficulty in the social sciences and humanities, where its results depend to a greater extent on the personality of the observer, his attitudes and principles, and his interest in the subject being studied.
In the course of observation, the researcher is always guided by a certain idea, concept or hypothesis. He does not just register any facts, but consciously selects those of them that either confirm or refute his ideas.
In this case, it is very important to select the most representative, i.e., the most representative group of facts in their relationship. The interpretation of an observation is always carried out with the help of certain theoretical propositions.
2. Experiment - an active and purposeful intervention in the course of the process under study, a corresponding change in the object or its reproduction in specially created and controlled conditions.
Thus, in an experiment, an object is either reproduced artificially, or placed in a certain way given conditions that meet the objectives of the study. During the experiment, the object under study is isolated from the influence of side circumstances that obscure its essence and is presented in its purest form. At the same time, the specific conditions of the experiment are not only set, but also controlled, modernized, and repeatedly reproduced.
Every scientific experiment is always guided by some idea, concept, hypothesis. Experimental data are always theoretically loaded in one way or another - from its formulation to the interpretation of its results.
The main features of the experiment:
a) a more active (than during observation) attitude towards the object, up to its change and transformation;
b) multiple reproducibility of the object under study at the request of the researcher;
c) the possibility of detecting such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;
d) the possibility of considering a phenomenon in its "pure" form by isolating it from the circumstances complicating and masking its course or by changing, varying the conditions of the experiment;
e) the ability to control the behavior of the object of study and verify the results.
The main stages of the experiment: planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, methods of conducting); control; interpretation of results.
The experiment has two interrelated functions: experimental testing of hypotheses and theories, as well as the formation of new scientific concepts. Depending on these functions, experiments are distinguished: research (search), verification (control), reproducing, isolating.
By the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, social experiments are distinguished. Of great importance in modern science is the decisive experiment, the purpose of which is to refute one and confirm the other of the two (or more) concepts that compete.
This difference is relative: an experiment conceived as a confirmatory experiment may turn out to be a refuting one, and vice versa. But in any case, the experiment consists in posing specific questions to nature, the answers to which should provide information about its regularities.
One of the simplest types of scientific experiment is a qualitative experiment, which aims to establish the presence or absence of a phenomenon assumed by a hypothesis or theory. A more complex quantitative experiment that reveals the quantitative certainty of some property of the phenomenon under study.
A thought experiment has become widespread in modern science - a system of mental procedures carried out on idealized objects. A thought experiment is a theoretical model of real experimental situations. Here the scientist operates not with real objects and conditions of their existence, but with their conceptual images.
Social experiments are developing more and more widely, which contribute to the introduction of new forms of social organization and optimization of social management. An object social experiment, in the role of which a certain group of people acts, is one of the participants in the experiment, whose interests have to be taken into account, and the researcher himself is included in the situation he is studying.
3. Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. With the help of comparison, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are revealed.
To compare is to compare one with the other in order to identify their relationship. The simplest and important type relations revealed by comparison are relations of identity and difference.
It should be borne in mind that comparison makes sense only in the aggregate of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in a class is carried out on the basis of features that are essential for this consideration, while objects compared on one basis may be incomparable on another.
Comparison is the basis of such a logical device as analogy, and serves as the starting point for the comparative historical method.
This is the method by which, by means of comparison, the general and particular in historical and other phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various stages of development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena is achieved.
This method allows you to identify and compare the levels in the development of the phenomenon under study, the changes that have occurred, and determine development trends. scientific methods theoretical research
1. Formalization - displaying meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form. Formalization is based on the distinction between natural and artificial languages. The expression of thinking in natural language can be considered the first step of formalization. Natural languages as a means of communication are characterized by ambiguity, versatility, flexibility, inaccuracy, figurativeness, etc. This is an open, continuously changing system that constantly acquires new meaning and meaning.
Further deepening of formalization is associated with the construction of artificial (formalized) languages, designed to express knowledge more accurately and rigorously than natural language, in order to exclude the possibility of ambiguous understanding - which is typical for natural language (the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.)
Symbolic languages of mathematics and others exact sciences pursue not only the goal of shortening the record - this can be done with the help of shorthand. The language of artificial language formulas becomes a tool of knowledge. It plays the same role in theoretical knowledge as the microscope and telescope in empirical knowledge.
It is the use of special symbols that makes it possible to eliminate the ambiguity of ordinary language words. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.
As a universal medium for communication and the exchange of thoughts and information, language performs many functions.
An important task of logic and methodology is to convey and transform existing information as accurately as possible and thereby eliminate some of the shortcomings of natural language. For this, artificial formalized languages are created. Such languages are used primarily in scientific knowledge, and in recent years they have become widespread in programming and algorithmization of various processes using computers.
The advantage of artificial languages lies primarily in their accuracy, unambiguity, and most importantly, in the possibility of representing ordinary meaningful reasoning by means of calculation.
The value of formalization in scientific knowledge is as follows.
o It makes it possible to analyze, clarify, define and clarify (explicate) concepts. Ordinary ideas (expressed in colloquial language), although they seem clearer and more obvious from the point of view of common sense, turn out to be unsuitable for scientific knowledge due to their uncertainty, ambiguity and inaccuracy.
o It takes on a special role in the analysis of evidence. Presentation of the proof in the form of a sequence of formulas obtained from the original ones with the help of precisely specified transformation rules gives them the necessary rigor and accuracy.
o It serves as the basis for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thus the computerization of not only scientific and technical, but also other forms of knowledge.
When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas). The relations of signs replace statements about the properties and relations of objects.
In this way, a generalized sign model of a certain subject area is created, which makes it possible to discover the structure of various phenomena and processes, while abstracting from the qualitative, meaningful characteristics of the latter.
The main thing in the process of formalization is that it is possible to perform operations on the formulas of artificial languages, to obtain new formulas and relations from them.
Thus, operations with thoughts about objects are replaced by actions with signs and symbols. Formalization in this sense is a logical method of refining the content of thought by refining its logical form. But it has nothing in common with the absolutization of logical form in relation to content.
Formalization, therefore, is a generalization of the forms of processes that differ in content, the abstraction of these forms from their content. It clarifies the content by identifying its form and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness.
2. The axiomatic method is one of the ways of deductively constructing scientific theories, in which:
a) a system of basic terms of science is formulated;
b) from these terms a certain set of axioms (postulates) is formed - provisions that do not require proof and are initial, from which all other statements of this theory are derived according to certain rules;
c) a system of inference rules is formulated that allows one to transform the initial positions and move from one position to another, as well as introduce new terms (concepts) into the theory;
d) the transformation of postulates is carried out according to the rules, which make it possible to obtain a set of provable provisions - theorems from a limited number of axioms.
Thus, to derive theorems from axioms, special rules of inference are formulated.
All the concepts of the theory, except for the primitive ones, are introduced by means of definitions expressing them in terms of previously introduced concepts.
Therefore, the proof in the axiomatic method is a certain sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom or is obtained from the previous formulas according to some rule of inference.
The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing scientific knowledge. It has limited application, since it requires a high level of development of axiomatic content theory.
3. Hypothetical-deductive method. Its essence lies in the creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived.
This method is thus based on the derivation (deduction) of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the true meaning of which is unknown. Therefore, the conclusions here are probabilistic.
This nature of the conclusion is also connected with the fact that conjecture, intuition, imagination, and inductive generalization are involved in the formation of a hypothesis, not to mention the experience, qualifications and talent of a scientist. And all these factors are almost not amenable to strictly logical analysis.
Initial concepts: hypothesis (assumption) - a position put forward at the beginning of a preliminary conditional explanation of a certain phenomenon or group of phenomena; assumption about the existence of some phenomenon. The truth of such an assumption is uncertain, it is problematic.
Deduction (inference): a) in the most general sense - this is the transition in the process of cognition from the general to the particular (single), the derivation of the latter from the first; b) in a special sense - the process of logical inference, i.e., the transition, according to certain rules of logic, from certain given assumptions (premisses) to their consequences (conclusions).
The general structure of the hypothetical-deductive method (or the method of hypotheses):
Familiarization with actual material, requiring a theoretical explanation and an attempt to do so with the help of existing theories and laws. If not, then:
Making guesses (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using many logical techniques.
Evaluation of the severity of the assumptions and selection of the most probable from the set of guesses.
In this case, the hypothesis is checked for: a) logical consistency; b) compatibility with the fundamental theoretical principles of this science (for example, with the law of conservation and transformation of energy).
However, it should be borne in mind that during periods of scientific revolutions, it is the fundamental principles that collapse and insane ideas arise that cannot be derived from these principles.
o Derivation from a hypothesis (usually by deductive means) of consequences with specification of its content.
o Experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. However, confirmation does not guarantee its truth in general (or falsity).
From a logical point of view, the hypothetical-deductive method is a hierarchy of hypotheses, the degree of abstractness and generality of which increases with distance from the empirical basis.
At the very top are the hypotheses that have the most general character and therefore have the greatest logical force. Hypotheses of a lower level are derived from them as premises. At the lowest level are hypotheses that can be compared with empirical reality.
A variation of the hypothetical-deductive method can be considered a mathematical hypothesis, where some equations are hypotheses that represent a modification of previously known and verified relationships. By changing these ratios, they make up a new equation expressing a hypothesis that refers to unexplored phenomena.
The hypothetical-deductive method is not so much a method of discovery as a way of constructing and substantiating scientific knowledge, since it shows exactly how a new hypothesis can be arrived at. Already in the early stages of the development of science, this method was especially widely used by Galileo and Newton.
Zahalological methods and techniques of cognition
1. Analysis - the division of an object into its component parts for the purpose of their independent study. It is used both in real (practice) and in mental activity.
Types of analysis: mechanical dismemberment; definition of dynamic composition; identification of forms of interaction of elements of the whole; finding the causes of phenomena; identification of levels of knowledge and its structure, etc.
The analysis should not miss the quality of the items. Each field of knowledge has, as it were, its own limit of division of an object, beyond which we pass into another world of properties and regularities (atom, molecule, etc.). A variation of analysis is also the division of classes (sets) of objects into subclasses - classification and periodization.
2. Synthesis - the union - real or mental - of various aspects, parts of the subject into a single whole.
The result of synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are not only an external connection of the properties of the components, but also the result of their internal relationship and interdependence.
Analysis and synthesis are dialectically related, but some activities are primarily analytical (eg analytical chemistry) or synthetic (eg synergetics).
3. Abstraction. Abstraction:
a) side, moment, part of the whole, a fragment of reality, something undeveloped, one-sided, fragmentary (abstract);
b) the process of mental abstraction from a number of properties and relations of the phenomenon under study with the simultaneous selection of those of interest to the cognizing subject in this moment properties (abstraction);
c) the result that abstracts the activity of thinking (abstraction in the narrow sense).
These are various kinds of abstract objects, which are both individual concepts and categories, and their systems (the most developed of them are mathematics, logic and philosophy).
Finding out which of the properties under consideration are essential and which are secondary is the main question of abstraction.
The question of what in objective reality is distinguished by the abstract work of thinking, from which thinking is abstracted, in each specific case is decided depending primarily on the nature of the object being studied, as well as on the tasks of cognition.
In the course of its historical development, science ascends from one level of abstraction to another, higher one.
Exist different kinds abstractions:
Abstraction of identification, as a result of which the general properties and relations of the objects under study are singled out. Here, classes corresponding to them are formed on the basis of establishing the equality of objects in given properties or relations, the identical in objects is taken into account, and all differences between them are abstracted.
Isolating abstraction - certain properties and relationships are highlighted, which begin to be considered as independent individual objects.
Abstraction of actual infinity in mathematics - when infinite sets are considered as finite. Here the researcher is distracted from the fundamental impossibility of fixing and describing each element of an infinite set, accepting such a problem as solved.
The abstraction of potential feasibility is based on the fact that any, but a finite number of operations can be carried out in the process of mathematical activity.
Abstractions also differ in levels (orders). Abstractions from real objects are called first-order abstractions. Abstractions from first-level abstractions are called second-order abstractions, and so on. Philosophical categories are characterized by the highest level of abstraction.
4. Idealization is most often considered as a specific kind of abstraction. Idealization is the mental construction of concepts about objects that do not exist and are not feasible in reality, but those for which there are prototypes in the real world.
In the process of idealization, there is an extreme abstraction from all the real properties of the object with the simultaneous introduction into the content of the formed concepts of features that are not realized in reality. As a result, a so-called idealized object is formed, which can be used by theoretical thinking when reflecting real objects.
As a result of idealization, such a theoretical model is formed in which the characteristics and aspects of the cognized object are not only abstracted from the actual empirical material, but, through mental construction, appear in a more sharply and fully expressed form than in reality itself.
An idealized object ultimately acts as a reflection of real objects and processes.
Having formed theoretical constructs with the help of idealization of such objects, one can further operate them in reasoning as real an existing thing and build abstract schemes of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them.
Thus, idealized objects are not pure fictions that have nothing to do with reality, but are the result of a very complex and indirect reflection of it.
An idealized object represents real objects in cognition, but not according to all, but only according to some, rigidly fixed features. It is a simplified and schematized image of a real object.
Theoretical statements, as a rule, directly refer not to real objects, but to idealized objects, cognitive activity with which allows you to establish significant connections and patterns that are inaccessible in the study of real objects, taken in all the variety of their empirical properties and relationships.
Idealized objects are the result of various mental experiments that are aimed at realizing some case that is not actually realized. In developed scientific theories, not individual idealized objects and their properties are usually considered, but integral systems of idealized objects and their structures.
5. Generalization - the process of establishing the general properties and characteristics of objects. Closely related to abstraction. The epistemological basis of generalization are the categories of the general and the singular.
It is necessary to distinguish between two types of general:
a) abstract-general as simple similarity, external similarity, superficial similarity of a number of single objects (the so-called abstract-common feature). This type of general, distinguished by comparison, plays an important but limited role in cognition;
b) the concrete-general as the law of the existence and development of a number of individual phenomena in their interaction as part of the whole, as unity in diversity. This type of general expresses the inner, deep, repeating basis for a group of similar phenomena - the essence in its developed form, that is, the law.
The general is inseparable from the individual (separate) as its opposite, and their unity is special. Single (individual, separate) is a philosophical category that expresses the specificity, originality of a given phenomenon (or a group of phenomena of the same quality), its difference from others.
In accordance with the two types of general, two types of scientific generalizations are distinguished: the selection of any features (abstract-general) or essential (concrete-general, law).
On another basis, generalizations can be distinguished:
a) from individual facts, events to their expression in thoughts (inductive generalization);
b) from one thought to another, more general thought (logical generalization). The mental transition from the more general to the less general is a process of limitation.
The generalization cannot be unlimited. Its limit is philosophical categories that do not have a generic concept and therefore cannot be generalized.
6. Induction - a logical method of research associated with the generalization of the results of observations and experiments and the movement of thought from the singular to the general.
In induction, the data of experience point to the general, induce it. Since experience is always infinite and incomplete, inductive inferences are always problematic. Inductive generalizations are usually viewed as empirical truths or empirical laws. Allocate the following types inductive generalizations: A. Popular induction, when regularly repeating properties observed in some representatives of the studied set and fixed in the premises of inductive reasoning are transferred to all representatives of the studied set - including its unexplored parts.
B. The induction is incomplete, where it is concluded that all representatives of the set under study have a property on the basis that this property belongs to some representatives of this set.
The induction is complete, in which it is concluded that all representatives of the studied set have a property based on the information obtained during the study that each representative of the studied set owns this property.
Considering the full induction, it is necessary to keep in mind that:
D. Scientific induction, in which, in addition to the formal substantiation of the generalization obtained by induction, an additional substantive substantiation of its truth is given, including with the help of deduction (theories, laws). Scientific induction gives a reliable conclusion due to the fact that here the emphasis is on necessary, regular and causal relationships.
E. Mathematical induction - is used as a specific mathematical proof, where induction is organically combined with deduction, assumption with proof.
The considered methods of establishing causal relationships are most often used not in isolation, but in interconnection, complementing each other. In this case, one should not make the mistake: "after this, because of this."
7. Deduction:
a) the transition in the process of cognition from the general to the individual (private); derivation of the individual from the general;
b) the process of logical inference, i.e., the transition, according to certain rules of logic, from some given sentences - premises to their consequences (conclusions).
As one of the methods of scientific knowledge is closely related to induction, these are dialectically interconnected ways of thought movement.
Analogy does not give reliable knowledge: if the premises of reasoning by analogy are true, this does not mean that its conclusion will also be true.
To increase the likelihood of conclusions by analogy, it is necessary to strive to ensure that:
a) internal rather than external properties of the objects being matched have been captured;
b) these objects were similar in the most important and essential features, and not in random and secondary ones;
c) the circle of matching signs was as wide as possible;
d) not only similarities were taken into account, but also differences - so that the latter would not be transferred to another object.
8. Modeling. Inferences by analogy, understood extremely broadly, as the transfer of information from one object to another, form the epistemological basis of modeling - a method of studying objects on their models.
A model is an analogue of a certain fragment of reality, a product of human culture, conceptual and theoretical images, that is, the original of the model.
This analogue is a representative of the original in knowledge and practice. It serves to store and expand knowledge (information) about the original, construct the original, transform or manage it.
There must be a known similarity between the model and the original (similarity relation): physical characteristics, functions; the behavior of the object under study and its mathematical description; structures, etc. It is this similarity that allows you to transfer the information obtained as a result of the study of the model to the original.
The forms of modeling are varied and depend on the models used and the scope of the modeling.
According to the nature of the models, material and ideal modeling are distinguished, expressed in the corresponding sign form.
Material models are natural objects which obey in their functioning natural laws - physics, mechanics. In the physical (objective) modeling of a specific object, its study is replaced by the study of some model that has the same physical nature as the original (models of aircraft, ships).
With ideal (sign) modeling, models appear in the form of diagrams, graphs, drawings, formulas, systems of equations, and proposals.
9. System approach - a set of general scientific methodological principles (requirements), which are based on the consideration of objects as systems.
A system is a general scientific concept that expresses a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and with the environment, forming a certain integrity, unity.
The types of systems are very diverse: material and spiritual, inorganic and living, mechanical and organic, biological and social, static and dynamic, open and closed.
Any system is a set of various elements with structure and organization.
Structure: a) a set of stable connections of the object, ensuring its integrity and identity to itself; b) a relatively stable way of connecting the elements of a complex whole.
The specificity of the system approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the study on the disclosure of the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that ensure it, on the identification of diverse types of connections of a complex object and their reduction into a single theoretical picture.
The main requirements of a systematic approach include the following:
a) identifying the dependence of each element on its place and functions in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are not reducible to the sum of the properties of its elements;
b) analysis of the extent to which the behavior of the system is determined both by the characteristics of its individual elements and by the properties of its structure;
c) study of the mechanism of interdependence, interaction of the system and the environment;
d) study of the nature of the hierarchy inherent in this system;
e) providing a plurality of descriptions for the purpose of multidimensional coverage of the system;
f) consideration of the dynamism of the system, its presentation as an integrity that develops.
An important concept of the systems approach is the concept of self-organization. This concept characterizes the process of creating, reproducing or improving the organization of a complex, open, dynamic, self-developing system, the links between the elements of which are not rigid, but probabilistic.
10. Probabilistic (statistical) methods - based on taking into account the action of many random factors that are characterized by a stable frequency. This makes it possible to reveal the necessity that "breaks through" through the cumulative action of many accidents.
Probabilistic methods are based on the theory of probability, which is often called the science of randomness, and in the view of many scientists, probability and randomness are practically inseparable.
There is even a statement that today chance appears as an independent beginning of the world, its structure and evolution. The categories of necessity and chance are by no means obsolete; on the contrary, their role in modern science has increased significantly.
To understand these methods, it is necessary to consider the concept of dynamic patterns, statistical patterns and probability.
In laws of the dynamic type, predictions have a precisely defined unambiguous character. Dynamic laws characterize the behavior of relatively isolated objects, consisting of not a large number elements in which you can abstract from a number of random factors.
In statistical laws, predictions are not reliable, but only probabilistic. This nature of predictions is due to the action of many random factors.
A statistical regularity arises as a result of the interaction of a large number of elements that make up a collective, and therefore characterizes not so much the behavior of an individual element as the collective as a whole.
The necessity that manifests itself in statistical laws arises as a result of mutual compensation and balancing of many random factors.
Statistical laws, although they do not give unambiguous and reliable predictions, are nevertheless the only possible ones in the study of mass phenomena of a random nature. Behind the combined action of various factors of a random nature, which are almost impossible to capture, statistical laws reveal something stable, necessary, repetitive.
They serve as confirmation of the dialectic of the transformation of the accidental into the necessary. Dynamic laws turn out to be the limiting case of statistical ones, when probability becomes practically certainty.
Probability is a concept that characterizes a quantitative measure of the possibility of the occurrence of some random event when certain conditions, which can be repeated many times. One of the main tasks of the theory of probability is to elucidate the regularities arising from the interaction of a large number of random factors.
Probabilistic-statistical methods are widely used in the study of mass phenomena - especially in such scientific disciplines as mathematical statistics, statistical physics, quantum mechanics, cybernetics, synergetics.
