Geography - definition, history, major branches and scientific disciplines. Method materials by discipline

Basics of Geography

WORKING PROGRAMM

V.F. Valkov - Professor of the Department of Ecology
and environmental management RSU,
K.Sh. Kazeev - Associate Professor of the Department of Ecology
and environmental management RSU
The program is approved as author's
meeting of the Department of Ecology and Environmental Management of the Russian State University
November 17, 2004, protocol 4.

Program for the course "ZOOLOGY OF INVERTEBRATES"

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE COURSE

The course "Fundamentals of Geography" is included in the cycle of natural science disciplines of the State Educational Standard. The course "Fundamentals of Geography" examines the position of the Earth in the solar system, the shell structure of the Earth, the evolution of the biosphere, geophysical living conditions, and the bioclimatic zones of the Earth. The course "Fundamentals of Geography" creates a system basic knowledge necessary for mastering certain sections of botany and zoology, ecology, biogeography, the course “local flora and fauna,” and disciplines devoted to nature conservation.

Objectives of the course "Fundamentals of Geography"

To form in students a system of knowledge about the structure of the Earth’s shells;

To form in students a system of knowledge about geophysical living conditions and bioclimatic zones of the Earth;

Reveal the dependence of some biological patterns on geographical location ecosystems;

Form initial ideas about the evolution of the biosphere

PROGRAM FOR THE COURSE "FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOGRAPHY"

2.1 System of geographical sciences. Physical geography, orography, biogeography (zoogeography, botanical geography, geobotany). Economic and environmental geography. A brief outline of the history of great geographical discoveries.

2.2 Structure and movement of the Earth. Place of planet Earth in the solar system. Shape and size of the Earth. The revolution of the Earth around the Sun and rotation around its own axis and their consequences.

2.3 Zoning of nature. V.V. Dokuchaev is the author of the law of zoning. Post-Dokuchaevsky development of ideas about the zoning of nature. Modern ideas about zoning. The concept of natural geographical formations: natural zone, province, landscape, biogeocenosis. Natural-geographical prerequisites for the zonality and provinciality of nature. Main climatic features. Heat supply and circulation (sum of positive temperatures, average annual temperature, winter and summer temperatures). Receipt of atmospheric precipitation onto the earth's surface (amount of precipitation, annual, summer and winter periods, moisture coefficients). Atmospheric circulation (trade winds, monsoons, cyclones, anticyclones). Continental climates. Features of the climate on the western and eastern coasts of the continents. Features of climatic conditions in mountain areas.

Components of natural geographical formations: vegetation, zoocenoses, microbiocenoses, weathering crust, hydrogeology and hydrology, soils, atmosphere.

Zoning of the World Ocean. Warm and cold sea currents.

2.4 Systems approach to the study of the geographical environment. V.V. Dokuchaev is the founder of the doctrine of a systematic approach to the knowledge of objects and natural phenomena. Interrelation and interdependence of natural objects. The comparative geographical method is the most important tool for understanding the natural environment. Hierarchy natural systems, unity of part and whole. Openness of natural systems Metabolism, energy and information are the main characteristics of natural systems. Integration and differential phenomena in the development of the geographical environment Systematic approach to forecasting ecological situation and development of measures to protect environment.

2.5 Formation of modern lithosphere. Formation solar system. Place of planet Earth in the solar system. The Earth's neighbors are Venus and Mars, their features. Protocontinent Gondwana. Continental drifts. Geostructure of the Earth: continents, ocean basins, flat-platform areas, mountain belts. Morphological structures: ridges, highlands, plateaus, intermontane depressions, lowlands, high plains, anticlines, synclines, faults, rifts. Mobile platform belts, earthquake zones and volcanic zones. Morphological structures of the ocean floor: shelf, continental slope, oceanic basins, mid-ocean ridges, oceanic mountains and hills, deep-sea trenches, rifts and faults.

2.6 Hydrosphere. World Ocean. Vertical and horizontal movement in the world's oceans. Resources of the World Ocean.

2.7 Polar bioclimatic zone Arctic desert zone, tundra zone, forest-tundra zone. Provincial features of the polar bioclimatic zone zones.

2.8 Boreal bioclimatic zone. Taiga zone, mixed forest zone, forest-steppe zone. Provincial features of the zones of the boreal bioclimatic zone.

2.9 Subboreal bioclimatic zone. Broad-leaved forest zone, steppe zone, dry steppe zone, semi-desert zone, desert zone. Provincial features of the subboreal bioclimatic zone zones.

2.10 Subtropical bioclimatic zone. A zone of deciduous forests with evergreen undergrowth, a zone of xerophilic forests with grassy cover with a Mediterranean climate, a zone of subtropical steppes and semi-deserts. Subtropical deserts. Provincial features of the subtropical biocpimatic zone zones.

2.11 Tropical bioclimatic zone. The zone of permanently moist tropical forests (gilis), the zone of tall grass savannas and deciduous forests, the zones of savannas and dry savannas. Tropical deserts. Provincial features of tropical bioclimatic zones.

2.12 Nature of mountain systems. Vertical zonality of nature. Post-Dokuchaevsky development of ideas about the zonation of mountain systems. Natural individuality of mountain systems and their zoning. Features of natural systems of various bioclimatic zones. The main mountain systems of Russia: the Caucasus, the Urals, Altai, Sayans, the Baikal region, Transbaikalia. Shadow effects of mountain systems.

2.13 Geographical features of the North Caucasus and the Rostov region. Geographical position, geological structure, relief, hydrographic network. Climatic characteristics of the territory: temperature isotherms, sum of positive and active temperatures, extreme values ​​and amplitude of temperatures, amount and nature of precipitation, humidification coefficient, prevailing direction and speed of winds. Unfavorable weather conditions (frost, ice, dry winds...). Landscapes of the North Caucasus. Soil cover.

2.14 Evolution of the biosphere. The concept of the biosphere and its place among other spheres of the Earth. The evolution of flora and fauna into different geological epochs. Former biospheres and their features. Factors in the evolution of the biosphere. Biogeochemical cycles and the participation of living organisms in them. Transformation and formation of the Earth's shell under the influence of living organisms. The appearance of man, the formation of the noosphere and its genesis.

3. CALENDAR PLAN OF PRACTICAL CLASSES

Lesson 1.

Plan and map. Sides of the horizon. Scale. Degree network and its elements. Map projections. Types of cards. Card meanings. Globe.

Lesson 2.

Physical map of the world. The largest objects of a geographical map (lakes, islands, rivers, deserts, mountain systems, straits, etc.).

Lesson 3.

Climatic map of the world and continents.

Lesson 4.

Soil map of the world and Russia.

Lesson 5.

Map of natural areas of the world and continents.

Lesson 6.

Physical map of Russia.

Lesson 7.

Physical and other maps of the North Caucasus and Rostov region. Ecological atlas of the Rostov region.

Lesson 8. Topographic maps and working with them. Geomorphological profile of the area. Measuring distances and areas using maps. Location orientation. Compass, magnetic declination, azimuth.

LITERATURE:

1. Atlas by physical geography. Continents and oceans. 7th grade. - M.: Education, 1998. - 32 p.
2. Valkov, V.F., Kazeev K.Sh., Kolesnikov S.I. Fundamentals of physical geography. In 3 parts. - Rostov n/a: UPL RSU, 2001. - 167 p.
3. Voitkevich G.V., Vronsky V.A. Fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1996. - 477 p.
4. Valkov, V.F., Kazeev K.Sh., Kolesnikov S.I. Soil science. - Moscow-Rostov n/d: MarT, 2004. - 496 p.
5. Valkov, V.F., Kazeev K.Sh., Kolesnikov S.I. Essays on soil fertility. - Rostov n/d: SKNTs VSh, 2001. - 234 p.
6. We are preparing for the geography exam. Part 2. Physical and economic geography of Russia. - M.: 1998, - 240 p.
7. Lazarevich K.S. Physical geography: A manual on geography for students and applicants to universities. M.: Moscow Lyceum, 1996. - 159 p.
8. World of Geography: Geography and Geographers. Natural environment - M.: Mysl, 1984. - 367 p.
9. Natural conditions and natural resources. Southern District. Rostov region. - Rostov n/d: Bataysk book publishing house, 2002. - 432 p.
10. . Cheshev A.S., Valkov V.F. Fundamentals of land use and land management. - Rostov n/d: MarT, 2002. - 544 p.
11. Ecological atlas of the Rostov region. - Rostov n/d: SKNTs VSh, 2000. - 150 p.

Earth is the only planet currently known to support life, and it natural features are the subject of many scientific studies. It is the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System and the largest in diameter, mass and density among the terrestrial planets. The main climatic features of the Earth are the presence of two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones and one broad equatorial-tropical region. The amount of precipitation on the planet varies widely depending on location and ranges from a millimeter to several meters of precipitation per year. About 71% of the Earth's surface is ocean. The rest consists of continents and islands, with most of the land inhabited by humans located in the northern hemisphere.

The evolution of the Earth took place through geological and biological processes, which left traces of the original conditions. The surface of the planet is divided into several continuously moving lithospheric plates, which lead to the periodic merging and separation of continents. The Earth's interior consists of a thick layer of molten mantle and an iron core that generates a magnetic field. atmosphere geography tectonic ocean

The composition of the current atmosphere has been significantly changed compared to the original one through life activity various forms life that creates an ecological balance that stabilizes conditions on the surface. Despite significant differences in climate depending on latitude and other geographic factors, the average global climate is quite stable during interglacial periods, and changes of 1-2 degrees in average global temperature have historically had a major impact on the ecological balance and geography of the Earth.

Geology

Main article: Geology

Three types of tectonic plate boundaries

Geology is a complex of sciences about the composition and structure of the earth's crust and the minerals located in it. The body of sciences within geology deals with the study of the composition, structure, physical properties, dynamics and history of the earth's materials, as well as the processes by which they are formed, move and change. Geology is a core academic discipline that is important, among other things, for mineral and hydrocarbon extraction, natural disaster prediction and mitigation, geotechnical calculations, and the study of past climates and environments.

Story

Main articles: History of the Earth, Evolution

Animation of the separation of the supercontinent Pangea

According to scientists, the Earth was formed 4.54 billion years ago from an interstellar gas and dust cloud, along with the Sun and other planets. The Moon formed about 20 million years later as a result of the collision of a massive body with the Earth. The molten outer layer of the Earth cooled over time, resulting in the formation of a solid shell - the crust. The release of gases and volcanic activity led to the emergence of the primary atmosphere. The condensation of water vapor (most of it from the ice of comets) led to the creation of oceans and other water resources. It is then believed that high-energy chemistry led to the emergence of a self-replicating molecule about 4 billion years ago.

The Earth's surface has changed over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally coalescing into a supercontinent and then breaking up again into separate continents. About 750 million years ago, the oldest known supercontinent, Rodinia, began to separate. After some time, the continents reconnected and formed Pannotia, which separated about 540 million years ago. Then the last supercontinent, Pangea, formed, which split about 180 million years ago.

It is assumed that during the Neoproterozoic era there was a large-scale glaciation of the Earth, during which ice reached the equator. This hypothesis is called "Snowball Earth" and represents special interest, since this time preceded the Cambrian explosion, which occurred about 530-540 million years ago, during which multicellular life forms began to spread.

There have been five distinct mass extinctions since the Cambrian Explosion. The last mass extinction occurred about 65 million years ago, when a meteorite collision likely caused the extinction of dinosaurs and other large reptiles. The next 65 million years led to the emergence of a wide variety of mammals.

Several million years ago apes In Africa they acquired the ability to walk upright. The subsequent emergence of man and his development of agriculture and civilization caused an impact on the Earth faster than all previous forms of life and affected both nature and the global climate.

The modern era is considered part of a mass extinction event called the Holocene extinction, which is the most rapid of all extinctions. Some scientists, such as E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, believe that human destruction of the biosphere could lead to the extinction of half of all species in the next 100 years. The scale of the current extinction event is still being studied, debated and calculated by biologists.

Atmosphere, climate and weather

Blue light is scattered by gases in the atmosphere more than other wavelengths, thereby giving the Earth a blue halo

The Earth's atmosphere is a key factor in maintaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases surrounding the Earth is held together by the planet's gravity. Dry atmospheric air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, carbon dioxide and other compounds in small quantities. Air also contains variable amounts of water vapor. Atmospheric pressure decreases gradually with increasing altitude and at an altitude of about 19-20 km it decreases to such an extent that water and interstitial fluid in the human body begin to boil. Therefore, from the point of view of human physiology, “space” begins already at an altitude of 15-19 km. The Earth's atmosphere at an altitude of 12 to 50 km (in tropical latitudes 25-30 km, in temperate latitudes 20-25, in polar latitudes 15-20) has a so-called ozone layer, consisting of O3 molecules. It plays an important role in absorbing dangerous ultraviolet (UV) radiation, thereby protecting all life on the surface from harmful radiation. The atmosphere also retains heat at night, reducing temperature changes.

Planetary climate is a measure of long-term weather trends. The planet's climate is influenced by a variety of factors, including ocean currents, surface albedo, greenhouse gases, changes in solar luminosity, and changes in the planet's orbit. According to scientists, the Earth has undergone dramatic climate changes in the past, including ice ages.

The climate of the region depends on a number of factors, primarily on latitude. The range of latitudes with similar climatic features forms the climate of the region. There are several such regions, ranging from the equatorial climate to the polar climate of the southern and north poles. Climate is also affected by seasons, which occur due to the tilt of the earth's axis relative to the orbital plane. Due to the tilt in summer or winter, one part of the planet receives large quantity solar energy than others. This situation changes as the Earth moves in orbit. At any given time, the northern and southern hemispheres have opposite seasons.

Tornadoes in central Oklahoma

Terrestrial weather events occur almost exclusively in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) and serve as a convective system for heat redistribution. Ocean currents are one of the the most important factors, which determine the climate, especially the large submarine thermohaline circulations that distribute thermal energy from the equatorial zones to the polar regions. These currents help moderate the temperature differences between winter and summer in temperate zones. In addition, without redistribution of thermal energy using ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter and the polar regions much colder.

Weather can have both positive and negative effects. Extreme weather conditions such as tornadoes, hurricanes and cyclones can release large amounts of energy along their path and cause severe damage. Surface vegetation has developed a dependence on seasonal changes in weather, and sudden changes lasting just a few years can have a significant impact on both the vegetation and the animals that consume the vegetation for food.

Weather is a chaotic system that changes easily due to small changes in the environment, so accurate weather forecasts are currently limited to only a few days. Currently, two processes are occurring around the world: average temperatures are increasing and regional climates are undergoing noticeable changes.

Water on Earth

Water drops

Water is a chemical substance consisting of hydrogen and oxygen and is necessary for the life of all known forms of life. In the usual understanding, the term water refers only to a liquid form or state, but the substance also has a solid state (ice) and a gaseous state - water vapor. Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface and is concentrated mainly in the oceans and other large bodies of water. In addition, approximately 1.6% of the water is located underground in aquifers and about 0.001% in the air in the form of vapor and clouds (formed from solid and liquid particles water), as well as atmospheric precipitation. The oceans contain 97% surface waters, glaciers and polar caps about 2.4%, rivers, lakes and ponds - the remaining 0.6%. In addition, a small amount of water on Earth is contained in biological organisms and human products.

Oceans

Atlantic Ocean bird's-eye

The ocean contains the bulk of the Earth's salt water and is also the main component of the hydrosphere. Although it is generally accepted that the Earth's waters are divided into several separate oceans, together they form one global, interconnected body of salt water, often called the World Ocean or global ocean. About 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of ​​361 million square kilometers) is covered by the World Ocean. The depth in most of the world's oceans exceeds 3000 meters, and the average salinity is about 35 parts per thousand (ppt), i.e. 3.5%.

The main boundaries of the oceans are determined by continents, various archipelagos and other criteria. The following oceans are distinguished on Earth (in descending order of size): Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, South ocean and the Arctic Ocean. Parts of the World Ocean surrounded by land or elevated underwater terrain are called seas, bays, or bays. There are also salty bodies of water on Earth, which are smaller in size and are not connected to the World Ocean. Two typical examples are the Aral Sea and the Great Salt Lake.

Lake Mapourika in New Zealand

A lake is a component of the hydrosphere, which is a natural or artificially created reservoir, filled within the lake bowl (lake bed) with water and not having a direct connection with the sea (ocean). On Earth, a body of water is considered a lake when it is not part of the World Ocean, but it is larger and deeper than a pond, and is also fed by river waters. The only one famous place, in addition to the Earth, where the lakes are fed by external sources, Titan is - largest satellite Saturn. On the surface of Titan, scientists have discovered lakes of ethane, most likely mixed with methane. Now the exact sources of recharge for the lakes of Titan are not known, but its surface is carved by numerous river beds. Natural lakes on Earth are typically found in mountainous regions, rift zones, and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are located in drainless areas or along the flow of large rivers. In some parts globe lakes are present in large numbers due to the chaotic drainage structure left over from the last ice age. All lakes are temporary structures on geological time scales, as they will slowly fill with sediment or overflow from the basins that contain them.

Perekoshka Pond in Slobozhanshchina

Pond - a body of standing water, natural or artificial origin, with dimensions smaller than those of the lake. Ponds are a variety of artificial bodies of water: water gardens (English) intended for aesthetic decoration, fish ponds (English) intended for commercial fish farming, and solar ponds (English) for storing thermal energy. Ponds and lakes differ from streams in the speed of water flow.

Rivers

Nile in Cairo - the capital of Egypt

A river is a natural water stream (watercourse) flowing in a depression created by it - a permanent natural bed and fed by surface and underground runoff from its basin. Usually a river flows into an ocean, sea, lake or other river, but in some cases it can become lost in sand or swamps, or dry up completely before reaching another body of water. A stream, channel, spring, source, spring are considered small rivers. The river is part of the hydrological cycle. Water in rivers is typically collected from precipitation through surface runoff, melting of natural ice and snow cover, and from groundwater and springs.

Streams

Stream in the Arkhangelsk region

A stream is a small watercourse, usually ranging in width from several tens of centimeters to several meters. Streams are important as channels in the water cycle, tools for deep drainage, and corridors for fish and migration to wildlife. The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of streams is called the riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction event, streams play an important role in connecting fragmented habitats and therefore preserving biodiversity. Surface hydrology is the study of streams and waterways and is a fundamental element of environmental geography.

1. Is it possible to observe the Sun in the north in the Northern Hemisphere north of the Tropic of the North?
With the existing angle of inclination of the earth's axis (66 degrees 30"), the Earth is facing the Sun with its equatorial regions. For those living in the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun is visible from the South, and in the Southern Hemisphere, from the North. But to be more precise, the Sun is at its zenith at the entire zone between the tropics, so the solar disk is visible from the side where the Sun is this moment at the zenith. If the Sun is at its zenith over the Northern Tropic, then it shines from the North for everyone to the south, including residents of the Northern Hemisphere between the equator and the tropic. In Russia, beyond the Arctic Circle, during the polar day the Sun does not set below the horizon, making a full circle in the sky. Therefore, passing through the northernmost point, the Sun is at its lowest culmination, this moment corresponds to midnight. It is beyond the Arctic Circle that you can observe the Sun in the North from the territory of Russia at night.
2. If the earth’s axis had an inclination of 45 degrees to the plane of the earth’s orbit, would the position of the tropics and polar circles change, and how?
Let's mentally imagine that we will give the earth's axis a tilt of half right angle. At the time of the equinoxes (March 21 and September 23), the cycle of days and nights on Earth will be the same as now. But in June the Sun will be at its zenith at the 45th parallel (and not at 23½°): this latitude would play the role of the tropics.

At a latitude of 60°, the Sun would miss the zenith by only 15°; The height of the sun is truly tropical. The hot zone would be directly adjacent to the cold one, and the temperate zone would not exist at all. In Moscow, Kharkov and other cities, a continuous, sunsetless day would reign throughout June. In winter, on the contrary, the continuous polar night would last for entire decades in Moscow, Kyiv, Kharkov, Poltava...

At this time, the hot zone would turn into a moderate one, because the Sun would rise there at noon no higher than 45°.

The tropical zone would lose a lot from this change, as well as the temperate one. The polar region would gain something this time too: here, after a very severe (severe than now) winter, a moderately warm summer period would begin, when even at the pole itself the Sun would stand at noon at an altitude of 45° and would shine longer six months. The eternal ice of the Arctic would gradually disappear.
3. What type of solar radiation and why prevails over eastern Siberia in winter, over the Baltic states in summer?
Eastern Siberia. In the territory under consideration, all components of the radiation balance are mainly subject to latitudinal distribution.

Territory of Eastern Siberia, lying south of the Arctic Circle, is located in two climatic zones - subarctic and temperate. In this region, the influence of relief on the climate is great, which leads to the identification of seven regions: Tunguska, Central Yakut, North-Eastern Siberia, Altai-Sayan, Angara, Baikal, Transbaikal.

Annual amounts solar radiation is 200–400 MJ/cm2 more than at the same latitudes European Russia. They vary from 3100–3300 MJ/cm2 at the latitude of the Arctic Circle to 4600–4800 MJ/cm2 in the southeast of Transbaikalia. Over Eastern Siberia the atmosphere is cleaner than over European territory. The transparency of the atmosphere decreases from north to south. In winter, greater transparency of the atmosphere is determined by low moisture content, especially in the southern regions of Eastern Siberia. South of 56°N. direct solar radiation predominates over diffuse radiation. In the south of Transbaikalia and in Minusinsk Basin direct radiation accounts for 55–60% of total radiation. Due to the long-term occurrence of snow cover (6–8 months), up to 1250 MJ/cm2 per year is spent on reflected radiation. The radiation balance increases from north to south from 900–950 MJ/cm2 at the latitude of the Arctic Circle to 1450–1550 MJ/cm2.

Two areas are distinguished, characterized by an increase in direct and total radiation as a result of increased transparency of the atmosphere - Lake Baikal and the highlands of the Eastern Sayan.

The annual arrival of received solar radiation on a horizontal surface under clear skies (that is, the possible arrival) is 4200 MJ/m2 in the north of the Irkutsk region and increases to 5150 MJ/m2 to the south. On the shores of Baikal, the annual amount increases to 5280 MJ/m2, and in the high mountainous regions of the Eastern Sayan reaches 5620 MJ/m2.

The annual amounts of scattered radiation under cloudless skies are 800-1100 MJ/m2.

An increase in cloudiness in certain months of the year reduces the flow of direct solar radiation by an average of 60% of the possible amount and at the same time increases the share of scattered radiation by 2 times. As a result, the annual amount of total radiation fluctuates between 3240-4800 MJ/m2 with a general increase from north to south. In this case, the contribution of scattered radiation ranges from 47% in the south of the region to 65% in the north. In winter, the contribution of direct radiation is insignificant, especially in the northern regions.

In the annual course, the maximum monthly amounts of total and direct radiation on a horizontal surface in most of the territory occurs in June (total 600-640 MJ/m2, direct 320-400 MJ/m2), in the northern regions it shifts to July.

The minimum arrival of total radiation is observed everywhere in December - from 31 MJ/m 2 in the high-mountainous Ilchir to 1.2 MJ/m 2 in Erbogachen. Direct radiation to the horizontal surface decreases from 44 MJ/m2 in Ilchir to 0 in Erbogachen.

Let us present the values ​​of monthly amounts of direct radiation on a horizontal surface for some points in the Irkutsk region.
Monthly amounts of direct radiation on a horizontal surface (MJ/m2)

Items

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

Erbogachen

16,8

58,7

175,8

268

272,2

372,6

443,8

230,2

134

62,8

20,9

4,19

4,19

25,2

113

184,2

167,5

222

276,3

129,8

79,5

20,9

8,4

0

Tulun

54,4

100,5

255,4

280,5

368,4

443,8

376,8

334,9

238,6

125,6

50,2

29,3

16,8

50,2

125,6

154,9

242,8

238,5

293

167,5

121,4

58,7

20,9

12,6

Khomutovo

62,8

117,3

276,3

301,4

401,9

418,7

448

381

208,8

150,7

67

37,6

37,6

92,1

217,7

217,7

280,5

280,5

276,3

247

169,4

108,8

46

29,3

Irkutsk

46

104,7

255,4

372,6

427

477,3

422,8

397,7

305,6

171,6

66,9

29,3

16,8

71,1

188,4

209,3

272,1

330,7

280,5

188,4

184,2

96,2

29,3

16,8

Khuzhir

71.1

154,9

276,3

347,5

443,8

485,7

485,7

410,3

280,5

159

62,8

37,6

33,5

83,7

71,2

171,7

284,7

351,7

309,8

226

180

100,4

29,3

25,1

The annual cycle of direct and total radiation is characterized by sharp increase monthly amounts from February to March, which is explained both by an increase in the height of the sun and by the transparency of the atmosphere in March and a decrease in cloudiness.

The daily course of solar radiation is determined primarily by the decrease in the height of the sun during the day. Therefore, the maximum solar radiation is observed volumetrically at noon. But along with this, the daily course of radiation is influenced by the transparency of the atmosphere, which is noticeably manifested in clear sky conditions. Two areas stand out in particular, characterized by an increase in direct and total radiation as a result of increased transparency of the atmosphere - Lake. Baikal and the highlands of the Eastern Sayan.

IN summer time Usually in the first half of the day the atmosphere is more transparent than in the second, so the change in radiation during the day is asymmetrical relative to midday. As for cloudiness, it is precisely this that is the reason for the underestimation of irradiation of the eastern walls compared to the western ones in the city of Irkutsk. For the southern wall, sunshine is about 60% of what is possible in summer and only 21-34% in winter.

IN individual years depending on cloudiness, the ratio of direct and diffuse radiation and the total arrival of total radiation may differ significantly from the average values. The difference between the maximum and minimum monthly arrival of total and direct radiation can reach 167.6-209.5 MJ/m 2 in the summer months. The differences in scattered radiation are 41.9-83.8 MJ/m2. More Big changes observed in daily amounts of radiation. The average maximum daily amounts of direct radiation may differ from the average by 2-3 times.

The arrival of radiation to differently oriented vertical surfaces depends on the height of the sun above the horizon, the albedo of the underlying surface, the nature of the building, the number of clear and cloudy days, and the course of cloudiness during the day.

Baltics. Cloudiness reduces, on average, the annual total solar radiation by 21%, and direct solar radiation by 60%. Number of hours of sunshine - 1628 per year.

The annual arrival of total solar radiation is 3400 MJ/m2. In autumn-winter, diffuse radiation predominates (70-80% of the total flow). In summer, the share of direct solar radiation increases, reaching approximately half of the total radiation input. The radiation balance is about 1400 MJ/m2 per year. From November to February it is negative, but the heat loss is largely compensated by the advection of warm air masses from the Atlantic Ocean.
4. Explain why in the deserts of temperate and tropical zones Does the temperature drop a lot at night?
Indeed, in deserts there are large daily temperature fluctuations. During the day, in the absence of clouds, the surface becomes very hot, but cools quickly after sunset. Here the main role is played by the underlying surface, that is, sands, which are characterized by their own microclimate. Their thermal regime depends on color, humidity, structure, etc.

A peculiarity of sands is that the temperature in the upper layer decreases very quickly with depth. The top layer of sand is usually dry. The dryness of this layer does not require heat to evaporate water from its surface, and the solar energy absorbed by the sand goes mainly to heating it. Under such conditions, the sand warms up very much during the day. This is also facilitated by its low thermal conductivity, which prevents heat from leaving the upper layer into deeper layers. At night, the top layer of sand cools significantly. Such fluctuations in sand temperature are reflected in the temperature of the surface layer of air.

Due to rotation, it turns out that not 2 air flows circulate on the earth, but six. And in those places where the air sinks to the ground, it is cold, but gradually warms up and acquires the ability to absorb steam and, as it were, “drinks” moisture from the surface. The planet is surrounded by two belts of arid climate - this is the place where deserts originate.

It's hot in the desert because it's dry. Low humidity affects temperature. There is no moisture in the air, therefore, the sun's rays, without stopping, reach the soil surface and heat it. The surface of the soil heats up very much, but there is no heat transfer - there is no water to evaporate. That's why it's so hot. And heat spreads into the depths very slowly - due to the absence of the same heat-conducting water.

It's cold in the desert at night. Due to dry air. There is no water in the soil, and there are no clouds above the ground - which means there is nothing to retain heat.

Tasks
1. Determine the height of the level of condensation and sublimation of air not saturated with steam rising adiabatically from the Earth’s surface, if its temperature is known t = 30º and water vapor pressure e = 21.2 hPa.

Water vapor elasticity is the main characteristic of air humidity, determined by a psychrometer: the partial pressure of water vapor contained in the air; measured in Pa or mmHg. Art.

In rising air, the temperature changes due to adiabatic process, i.e. without exchanging heat with the environment, due to the conversion of internal gas energy into work and work in internal energy. Since internal energy is proportional absolute temperature gas, a temperature change occurs. The rising air expands, produces work, which expends internal energy, and its temperature decreases. The descending air, on the contrary, is compressed, the energy spent on expansion is released, and the air temperature rises.

Air that is dry or contains water vapor but not saturated with it, when rising, cools adiabatically by 1° for every 100 m. Air saturated with water vapor, when rising by 100 m, cools by less than 1°, since condensation occurs in it, accompanied by the release heat, partially compensating for the heat spent on expansion.

The amount of cooling of saturated air when it rises 100 m depends on the air temperature and atmospheric pressure and varies within significant limits. Unsaturated air, descending, heats up by 1° per 100 m, saturated air by a smaller amount, since evaporation occurs in it, which consumes heat. Rising saturated air usually loses moisture through precipitation and becomes unsaturated. When descending, such air heats up by 1° per 100 m.

Since the air is heated mainly from the active surface, the temperature in the lower layer of the atmosphere, as a rule, decreases with height. The vertical gradient for the troposphere averages 0.6° per 100 m. It is considered positive if the temperature decreases with height, and negative if it increases. In the lower, surface layer of air (1.5-2 m), vertical gradients can be very large.

Condensation and sublimation.In air saturated with water vapor, when its temperature drops to the dew point or the amount of water vapor in it increases, condensation occurs - water turns from a vapor state into a liquid state. At temperatures below 0°C, water can, bypassing the liquid state, turn into a solid. This process is called sublimation. Both condensation and sublimation can occur in the air on condensation nuclei, on the earth's surface and on the surface various items. When the temperature of the air cooling from the underlying surface reaches the dew point, dew, frost, liquid and solid deposits, and frost settle from it onto the cold surface.

To find the height of the condensation level, it is necessary to determine the dew point T of the rising air using psychrometric tables, calculate by how many degrees the air temperature must drop in order for the condensation of the water vapor contained in it to begin, i.e. determine the difference. Dew point = 4.2460

Determine the difference between air temperature and dew point ( t – T) = (30 - 4.2460) = 25.754

Let's multiply this value by 100m and find the height of the condensation level = 2575.4m

To determine the level of sublimation, you need to find the temperature difference from the dew point to the sublimation temperature and multiply this difference by 200m.

Sublimation occurs at a temperature of - 10°. Difference = 14.24°.

The height of the sublimation level is 5415m.
2. Reduce the pressure to sea level at an air temperature of 8º C, if: at an altitude of 150 m the pressure is 990.8 hPa

zenith radiation condensation pressure

At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure is 1013 hPa. (760mm.) Naturally, atmospheric pressure will decrease with altitude. The height to which one must rise (or fall) for the pressure to change by 1 hPa is called the barometric (barometric) step. It increases with warm air and increasing altitude above sea level. At the earth's surface at a temperature of 0ºC and a pressure of 1000 hPa, the pressure level is 8 m/hPa, and at an altitude of 5 km, where the pressure is about 500 hPa, at the same zero temperature it increases to 16 m/hPa.

"Normal" atmospheric pressure is the pressure equal to the weight of a 760 mm high column of mercury at 0°C, 45° latitude, and sea level. In the GHS system 760 mmHg. Art. equivalent to 1013.25 MB. The basic unit of pressure in the SI system is the pascal [Pa]; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In the SI system, a pressure of 1013.25 mb is equivalent to 101325 Pa or 1013.25 hPa. Atmospheric pressure is a very variable weather element. From its definition it follows that it depends on the height of the corresponding column of air, its density, and the acceleration of gravity, which varies with the latitude of the place and altitude above sea level.

1 hPa = 0.75 mm Hg. Art. or 1 mm Hg. Art. = 1.333 hPa.

An increase in altitude by 10 meters leads to a decrease in pressure by 1 mmHg. We bring the pressure to sea level, it = 1010.55 hPa (758.1 mm Hg), if at an altitude of 150 m, the pressure = 990.8 hPa (743.1 mm)

The temperature is 8ºC at an altitude of 150 meters, then at sea level = 9.2º.

Literature
1. Geography tasks: a manual for teachers / Ed. Naumova. - M.: MIROS, 1993

2. Vukolov N.G. "Agricultural meteorology", M., 2007.

3. Neklyukova N.P. General geography. M.: 1976

4. Pashkang K.V. Workshop on general geoscience. M.: Higher School.. 1982

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Methodological foundations of geography and the process of geographical knowledge, theory of geographical science (problems, ideas, hypotheses, concepts, laws), theoretical basis geographical forecast.

Methodology– a set of the most essential elements of theory necessary for the development of science itself, i.e. it is a concept for theory development.

Methodology– a set of technical techniques and organizational forms for conducting scientific research.

Hypothesis– this is some kind of purely theoretical generalization of the material, without evidence.

Theory– a system of knowledge supported by evidence.

Concept– this is a set of the most essential elements of the theory, presented in a form that is constructively acceptable for practice, i.e. it is a theory translated into an algorithm for solving a specific problem.

Paradigm– the initial conceptual scheme, the model for making the decisions made, the solution method that is dominant at a given time.

Scientific apparatus– an apparatus of facts, systems and classifications of scientific knowledge. The main content of science is the empirical scientific apparatus.

Subject of study of geography (physics-geo) – geographical envelope, biosphere, taking into account the main characteristics geographic envelope– zonality, extremeness, etc.

There are 4 principles: territoriality, complexity, specificity, globality.

Zoning: consequence – the presence of natural zones and subzones.

Integrity is the relationship of everything to everything.

The heterogeneity of matter at any point on the earth’s surface (for example, azonality) is spatial polymorphism.

Cyclicality - closure. Rhythmicity – has some kind of vector.

Gyroscopicity (object location parameters) – the appearance of a gyroscopic effect in any object moving parallel to the Earth’s surface (Coriolis force).

Centrosymmetricity – central symmetry.

Limitality – there are clear boundaries of spheres.

Material polymorphism is a result of the presence of a landscape shell, physical, chemical and other conditions that contribute to the emergence of diverse forms and structures of matter.

Geographical thinking– complex; thinking tied to territory.

Globality is the relationship between local and regional problems and the global background.

Systematics – classification and typification. Classification is the division into groups based on a population that differs in quantitative characteristics. Typing is based on quality.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “forecast” and “forecasting”. Forecasting is the process of obtaining data about the possible state of the object under study. Forecast is the result of forecast research. There are many general definitions of the term “forecast”: a forecast is a definition of the future, a forecast is a scientific hypothesis about the development of an object, a forecast is a characteristic of the future state of an object, a forecast is an assessment of development prospects.

Despite some differences in the definitions of the term “forecast,” which are apparently associated with differences in the goals and objects of the forecast, in all cases the researcher’s thought is directed to the future, that is, the forecast is a specific type of cognition, where, first of all, it is not what is , but what will happen. But a judgment about the future is not always a forecast. For example, there are natural events that do not raise doubts and do not require prediction (change of day and night, seasons of the year). In addition, determining the future state of an object is not an end in itself, but a means of scientific and practical solution to many general and particular modern problems, the parameters of which, based on the possible future state of the object, are set at the present time.

The general logical diagram of the forecasting process is presented as a sequential set:

1) ideas about past and current patterns and trends in the development of the forecast object;

2) scientific justification for the future development and condition of the object;

3) ideas about the causes and factors determining the change in the object, as well as the conditions that stimulate or hinder its development;

4) fourth, forecast conclusions and management decisions.

Geographers define a forecast primarily as a scientifically based prediction of trends in changes in the natural environment and production-territorial systems.

Geography methods– set ( system) including general scientific methods, private or working techniques and methods for obtaining factual material, methods and techniques for collecting and processing the obtained factual material.

A method is a system of rules and techniques for approaching the study of phenomena and patterns of nature, society and thinking; way, way to achieve certain results in knowledge and practice, reception theoretical research or practical actions based on knowledge of development patterns objective reality and the subject, phenomenon, process being studied. The method is the central element of the entire system of methodology. Its place in the structure of science in general, its relationships with others structural elements can be visualized in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 11), in which the relevant elements of science are arranged in an ascending manner in accordance with the origin of scientific knowledge.

According to V.S. Preobrazhensky, the modern stage of development of all sciences is characterized by a sharp increase in attention to the problems of methodology, the desire of sciences to know themselves. This general trend is manifested in the intensified development of questions of the logic of science, the theory of knowledge, and methodology.

What objective processes are responsible for these trends, and what are they connected to?

Firstly, the use of scientific knowledge is expanding, penetration into the essence of natural phenomena and the relationships between them is deepening. It is impossible to solve this problem without improving the methodology.

The second reason is the development of science as a unified process of cognition of nature. At the same time, new questions arise about the properties of natural bodies and systems. And new questions often require the search for new methodological ways and techniques to be solved.

In modern conditions, it is becoming increasingly important to predict the behavior of complex systems, including both natural complexes and technical structures. At the same time, the need for a new increase in work on the development of the methodology is becoming more acute.

It is impossible not to note the existence of a mutual connection between the methodology and the theoretical level of science: the more perfect the methodology, the deeper, broader and stronger the theoretical conclusions; on the other hand, the deeper the theory, the more diverse, clearer, more definite, and more refined the methodology.

The third impetus for the accelerated development of the technique is determined by the gigantic growth geographic information. The volume of scientific data about the earth's nature is growing so quickly that it is impossible to cope with this flow using already established methods and purely intuitive solutions. There is an increasing need for scientific organization research, in choosing not just any methods, but in creating the most rational and effective system methods, techniques.

The task arises of searching for fundamentally new methodological techniques. The search is always associated with the solution of problems that have not yet been solved or remain unresolved.

Before moving on to consider the actual methods of geography, it is necessary to establish some concepts.

Geography is a fascinating subject scientific direction, studying the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means “description of the earth.” Below is a general definition of the term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies physical features Earth and environment, including the influence of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production."

Scientists who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although cartographers ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialization. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas of geographical study: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps surrounding area, and also explained the differences between people and natural landscapes in different places on Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the brightest Islamic minds. The Islamic Golden Age witnessed amazing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their innovative discoveries. New lands were explored and the first grid base for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also contributed instrumentally to the development of early geography. The compass, developed by the Chinese, was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A new interest in geography arose in the European world. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new era research. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main impetus for travel in those times. Europeans advanced in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and... Geography's enormous potential for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized and, in the 18th century, it was introduced as a core discipline at university level. Relying on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software radically changed the science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in Earth space, as well as develop ways to solve problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification of geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

is defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: deals with the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps clarify various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also tries to predict future changes physical characteristics appearance Earth.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological studies.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all the water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine flora, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition sea ​​waters and their impact on marine forms life), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another one important industry physical geography, which studies the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. She explores the planet's rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the Earth's surface, through.
• Soil Science: branch of science that studies Various types soils in their natural environment on the Earth's surface. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (soil formation), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the distribution of living organisms in the geographical space of the planet. She also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship to physical geographic features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (study of factors influencing individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: branch of physical geography that studies geographical features at different points in time in the geological history of the Earth. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics, determined through the study of paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: Scientific research climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in the modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate, as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: studies weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that influence local and global weather.
• Environmental Geography: explores the interactions between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial perspective.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes, forming coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape changes. The study also seeks to understand the impacts of coastal communities on coastal topography and ecosystems.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Earth's Quaternary period (the geographic history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about environmental changes that occurred in the planet's recent past. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• Landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human Geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures of the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the focus of the research:

• Geography population: studies how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle, and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. Although this section is considered as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography attempts to understand why, how, and when places and regions of the Earth change and the impact they have on human society.
• Cultural Geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it studies the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, etc.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of location, distribution and organization economic activity person in geographical space.
• Political geography: examines the political boundaries of countries around the world and the divisions between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the subdisciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact of geographic location on people's health and well-being.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the world's human population and attempts to understand how and why such standards vary across places and spaces.
• Geography settlements: deals with the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies the animal world of the Earth and the interdependence between people and animals.

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