Summary of the lesson "transformations in the field of culture of the era of peter the great." Enlightenment of the era of Peter the Great: science, literature, theater and music

The development of Russian culture and enlightenment under Peter I is closely linked with the ongoing shifts in economic life and with the transformation of the state apparatus.

Founding of manufactories, running channels, creating navy demanded the training of specialists in different areas science and technology. For the regular army and navy and new bureaucratic institutions, trained officers and officials were needed. Meanwhile, in the 17th century. learning was still imbued with medieval religious ideology and was far from practical problems. Russian culture in the first quarter XVIII in. [Electronic resource] // Mode free access http://interpretive.ru, free. - Title. from the screen

In the first quarter of the 18th century. the work of enlightenment is largely transferred from the clergy to the state. Theology is giving way to applied sciences.

Remarkable successes were achieved in geography, in the search for new trade routes, in cartographic work, as well as in the study of the country's fossil resources. The systematic study of minerals led to the discovery of deposits of sulfur and oil in the Volga region, coal in the Donbass, iron ores were widely explored in the Urals, and silver-lead ores were found in Transbaikalia.

In metallurgy, talented technicians and administrators VN Tatishchev, V. Genii, N. Kleopin and others came to the fore. The self-taught inventor, merchant and contractor M. Serdyukov reconstructed the Vyshnevolotsk Canal in 1722 and made it practically suitable for navigation. Mechanic A.K. Nartov invented a mechanical support for lathe... Foreign experts were also invited. The attitude towards Peter and his reforms is a kind of touchstone that determines the views of historians, publicists, politicians, scientists and cultural figures. Some experts say that Peter's reforms led to the conservation of the feudal-serf system, violation of the rights and freedom of the individual, which caused further upheavals in the life of the country.

Others argue that this is a major step forward on the path of progress, albeit within the framework of feudal system... It appears that in specific conditions of that time, Peter's transformations were progressive. The objective conditions for the country's development gave rise to adequate measures for its reform.

The church and public figure of the era of Peter I - Feofan Prokopyevich in his historical work "History of Emperor Peter the Great from his birth to the Battle of Poltava" considers various forms government and comes to the conclusion that the most perfect form is absolute monarchy, which should be strengthened in every possible way in Russia. Being one of the most educated people of his time, Feofan Prokopyevich immediately strongly supported the transformative activities of Peter I. Feofan Prokopovich [Electronic resource] // Free access mode http://slovari.yandex.ru, free. -Head. from the screen

The first Russian natural scientist of world importance, encyclopedist, chemist and physicist, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, approached the assessment of the events of the times of Peter I. In his work "A Word Commendable to Peter the Great", along with the major military victories won by Peter and the successes of foreign policy, he put extensive economic transformation and educational reforms.

The great poet, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, most sensitively guessed and understood the essence of that time and the role of Peter in our history. For him, on the one hand, Peter is a genius commander and politician, on the other, an "impatient landowner" whose decrees are "written with a whip." Indeed, Peter created noble empire, which existed until 1917. Anisimov E.V. . Time of Peter's reforms . / E.V. Anisomov - L., 1989.- 406s.

A great contribution to the study of the causes of the Northern War was made by the second-ranked diplomat of Peter the Great's time after Gavrila Golovkin, Pyotr Pavlovich Shafirov. In his essay "History of the Northern War" quite clearly for a contemporary reveals an understanding of the meaning of the events, primarily the creation of the army and navy, military victories, and then cultural reforms, industrial development, and administrative transformations.

An invaluable contribution to the disclosure of the era of Peter was made by the historian, geographer, statesman Vasily Nikitovich Tatishchev. For the first time he saw and realized the connection between geography and history: having started the cartographic and geographical study of Russia on behalf of Peter the Great, he became convinced that knowledge of the geography of a country is impossible without studying its history.

The result of these works was then "Lexicon Historical, Geographical and Political", works on the geography of Siberia and Russia, an extensive unfinished "General Geographical Description of All Siberia." Tatishchev brought his main work "History of Russia" to 1577, having worked on it for about 30 years. In his work, he makes the first attempt to create a generalizing work on the history of Russia.

VN Tatishchev was not only a contemporary of Peter's transformations, but also an active participant in them, which also determined his concept. He considers political development Russia, from the angle of the struggle of the monarchy with the aristocracy, proves the usefulness of autocracy and the harm of aristocratic rule, convinces the reader of the goodness of "monarchical rule", educating subjects in the spirit of obedience to the tsar.

But not everything that happened in Russia after Peter was good. Not everyone, according to at least, were satisfied thinking people XVIII century

They saw, for example, that the assimilation of Western European education, begun under Peter, often turned into a simple renaming of cultural appearance. They saw that acquaintance with the West often brought us the vices of Western European society with benefit. Among them: Prince Shcherbatov, Boltin, Novikov.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin condemned the restructuring of the system government controlled, the elimination of the patriarchate, the subordination of the church to the state, the Table of Ranks, the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg, the breaking of old customs. But at the same time, he had to recognize the great importance of the internal policy of Peter I and those aspects of his transformations, which were aimed at the development of industry, trade and education. With these measures, Peter I, according to Karamzin, put Russia on a famous step in the political system of Europe. He also highly appreciated the personal qualities of Peter I.

Based on the above, we can draw the following conclusion - each era brings out the idea of ​​a historical personality something of its own, characteristic of a given era, revealing those facets and aspects, that meaning and meaning, something special that was viewed by previous eras and this is development of historical thought. Works testify to this. prominent historians, publicists, politicians, scientists and cultural workers.

The source base of historical research is the whole complex of documents and objects of material culture that directly reflected historical process and capturing individual facts and accomplished events, on the basis of which the idea of ​​one or another historical era, hypotheses are put forward about the causes and consequences that entailed certain historical events. Historical reality, therefore, should be studied by a schoolchild on the basis of a complex of material, written and oral sources. Modern textbooks on history XVIII centuries have a fairly complete pictorial range of material sources and use written sources to a lesser extent.

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of historical sources, on which most of the historical studies of the reforms of Peter I in the field of education are based, and also to analyze how information about these sources is taken into account in school textbooks and educational-methodical literature, as well as in the materials of the Unified State Exam. Petrovsky reform education education

Historical Sources to Give Students necessary knowledge on the importance of the reforms of Peter I in the field of education, can be divided into several groups:

• 1. Legislative acts:
  • Decrees of Peter I
  • Senate decrees
  • · Reports of Peter I
  • Spiritual regulations
  • About schools (according to the Spiritual Regulations)
  • Academy establishment project
• 2. Epistolary sources, among which researchers emphasize especially:
  • · Letters of Peter I
  • · Letter from Prince M. Golitsyn from abroad in 1711
  • Comments on the project of Andrey Nartov, on the establishment of the Academy of Arts
• 3. Sources of personal origin, including:
  • Travel journal in Germany, Holland and Italy in 1697-1699
  • · Notes of J.K. Nomen "On the stay of Peter the Great in the Netherlands"
  • · Notes of I.I. Neplyueva
  • · Description of the trip of Count A.A. Matveyev to Paris in 1705
  • Peter I in France (a detailed magazine about the voyage or the journey of his tsarist majesty)
  • Travels of the steward Pyotr Andreevich Tolstoy
  • Diary of a Russian traveler of the first quarter of the 18th century
• 4. Periodic printing:
  • Vedomosti of Peter I
• 5. Tutorials:
  • An honest mirror of youth or punishment for everyday life, collected from different authors
  • · The primer of Feofan Prokopovich "Initial teaching by a youth"
• 6. Educational projects of individuals:
  • · "Propositions" by FS Saltykova
  • Baron de Saint-Hilaire's project for the composition of the Naval Academy
  • · Heinrich Fick's project: "Relation of how young earls, barons, and gentry in Sweden were brought up to public services and then used."

The main documentary sources that allow us to assess the transformative activities of the first Russian emperor from the standpoint of modernity are the laws issued by the state in the form of imperial decrees, regulations, statutes, manifestos. The decrees dealt with the most important and most diverse aspects of the state's activities. Regulations are acts that determine the creation of state governing bodies, their composition, and the procedure for their activities. Charters are collections of laws that unite the norms of law related to a specific area of ​​the state's activity.

As noted by M.F. Rumyantsev, the legislation of the 18th century is distinguished by a number of features. At this time, there arise and go through a long and contradictory path of formation, those of its features, which can be defined as features of the legislation of the new time, on the one hand; on the other hand, Russian legislation acquires a number of characteristics characteristic of the legislation of the empire. In the XVIII century. the "philosophical direction" in lawmaking is spreading, which is characterized by "the idea of ​​the possibility of arbitrarily arranging legal life through new laws ", which contributes to a significant intensification of lawmaking and the expansion of the sphere of legislative regulation, as well as the subject of legislation. This is how historian MM Bogoslovsky characterizes the role of laws at the beginning of the 18th century:" The law regulated not only those relations of private life in which and different private interests collide and in which he is an inevitable and natural separator and pacifier; his vigilant care did not stop with this circle of mutual relations of people to the state and to each other, without stopping before the more hidden and unaffected circle of personal life with its individual needs, inclinations, tastes, attitudes, beliefs, thoughts and feelings; concerned such actions of the individual that did not affect anyone or anything, unceremoniously overstepping the limits established by psychology, regulating not only actions, but not hesitating to prescribe feelings and moods. Everything in this personal sphere was determined by a decree, everything was supposed to be “decree”, as it was then expressed. "This statement of the historian is confirmed by dozens of decrees that were continuously poured down on the subjects of Peter the Great. Thus, the study of this type of historical sources will help students to compose a multidimensional picture of the era , to understand the tasks, scale and results of Peter the Great's activities in the field of education. ”Meanwhile, these sources are presented in school textbooks in insufficient quantities, and we will try to fill this gap by demonstrating in the third chapter teaching materials on the topic" Reforms of Peter the Great in the field of education. " ...

Epistolary historical sources make it possible to better understand the process of the formation of the system Russian education during the years of Peter I, the stages of the formation of educational projects of the Peter's environment, historical events through the eyes of their organizers and performers. Peter I, in his extensive plans for the reorganization of the entire state, paid great attention to military and naval sciences. In order to train the relevant personnel, so necessary for the Russian state, at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries, he sent young noblemen abroad to study "navigation sciences". Letters from Russian students from abroad allow us to appreciate the ambiguity of studying abroad, since the volunteers themselves perceived the opportunities that opened up to them differently. In modern school literature, these sources are presented only in textbooks of the profile level. These are small quotes in the text of paragraphs or in the "Documents" section, where an excerpt from a historical source may be more significant. In the topic "Transformations of Peter I in the field of culture and enlightenment", the expansion of the source base is possible by studying such sources as:

• · Letter from Prince M. Golitsyn from abroad in 1711. An analysis of this letter proves that education abroad was not easy for the nobles, they had to experience need and poverty. In addition, the lack of knowledge of the Latin language in which the classes were conducted was a great difficulty. This is how Prince M. Golitsyn writes about his studies abroad to his brother-in-law in 1711: “I proclaim about my life, life has come to me the most miserable and difficult ... but it will not accept, in order, the teacher of the language is unknown, the science is not known ... in paragraphs or articles it is written to Mr.Kamisar, Prince Lvov, about the whole kanpania, which defined the science of navigation, that is, navigation, so that they would be on a dry path to study drawings for the winter four months , and 8 months would always be incessantly on the ship; and if someone does not teach this business, and for that there will be a great misfortune without any mercy. " Similar letters with complaints about the difficult situation were written by other volunteers (for example, a letter from Grigory Turchinov to the tsar, written in 1714, a letter by Alexei Zverev, written in 1715, and others).
• · Comments on the project of Andrey Nartov, on the establishment of the Academy of Arts (with handwritten notes made by the king's hand). This source, firstly, demonstrates the contribution of individuals to educational reforms, and, secondly, the tsar's attentive attitude to these projects.
• · Letter from Peter I "Reaction about printing a book with all the needs"; instructions for volunteers sent to foreign lands; excerpt from training notes on shipbuilding. These documents help to see the tsar's interest in transformations, the desire to penetrate into the very essence of what is happening, show the personal attitude of Peter the Great to the development of education in the country. It is also interesting that when drawing up instructions and in letters to subordinates, the tsar constantly emphasized that the subordinate had the opportunity to take the initiative if necessary ("given for your reasoning (consideration)").

Undoubtedly, the analysis of journals and travel notes of those who were next to Peter I during the Great Embassy to Europe, helped carry out reforms, and studied abroad will be of great importance for the independent work of students. In these sources the picture of the "alien" (European) world is best presented, since they are programmed to capture everything "alien". Travel notes are distinguished by their frankness, brightness, breadth of presentation. They contain interesting geographic and ethnographic information, data on the behavior and emotional reactions of the participants in the events. Considering that the magazines were not originally intended for publication, it can be noted that the authors expressed their views in them and gave assessments to the events and people they met, regardless of public opinion and censorship. "... ambassadors, merchants, scouts, nobles, who traveled alone or accompanied their children on an educational voyage, left unique records, sometimes sparingly, and sometimes too eloquently telling about cultural and religious experiences, about significant or dangerous meetings, about trials, foreign peoples, about strange customs and natural phenomena... Without understanding how the authors of the notes comprehended the "alien", how they correlated the alien with their own, what role their faith played in the development of space, their readiness to see and listen to their surroundings, we will hardly be able to understand the past and the person in history. " others travel notes reflect the individual mental style and peculiarities of the world view. And the problem of studying mentality turns out to be very relevant, as it helps to get closer to understanding the spiritual life of people of the studied period. Thanks to these sources, the story "comes to life", it becomes closer and more understandable for students.

In this circle of sources, we note:

1. Journal of a trip to Germany, Holland and Italy in 1697-1699 by an unknown author. I.F. Gorbunov in 1879 assumed that this traveler could be Boris Ivanovich Kurakin. According to F. Otten, the author of the notes was Andrei Matveyevich Apraksin. The unknown "great person", judging by the latest research by D. and I. Guzevichs, is Alexei Petrovich Izmailov, the room attendant of Tsar Peter I (died c. 1705-1707, leaving no offspring). The author of "Travel" describes in some detail all the wonders seen during a trip abroad. He was clearly inclined to collect everything that concerned natural anomalies or devices of living beings. He kind of "collects" the ugliness or extraordinary abilities of people and animals. For example, "I saw the baby, a female, one and a half years old, the hair is all over the place and much thicker, the face is half a quarter across; I was brought to the fair. I saw a great elephant, which I played with mortars, trumpeted in Turkish, in Circassian, shot from a muskatant and did a lot of fun; made sympathy with the dog surprisingly. ” in the womb and will be born. I saw a human heart, lungs, kidneys, and how a stone will be born in the kidneys; and all the internal rosette is different, and the one on which the liver lives ... ". "3 throat and intestines. She lived on which the lung lives, like an old rag; the veins are those that live in the brain like threads. I saw 50 bodies of babies in alcohol, from many years incorruptible. Saw the male and female four years of age incorruptible and the blood to know, the eyes are safe and the bodies are soft, but lie without alcohols; the female sex inside the heart, liver, intestines, stomach - everything is incorruptible; a snake with legs, a head of duty, a snake with two heads. with a large mouse, without hair, but will give birth from itself through the back of many small ones, half of them came out, big 20. I saw a man without hands, who was playing cards, fired and stuffed with a squeak, he shaved his beard himself. , and put a glass under the chair; stand on the chair with his feet and, bending over, take out a glass with his teeth.

He danced with swords, threw the sword very quickly at the wall, wrote with his foot. "

• 2. Another important source for the reconstruction of the events of those years is the "Travel of the steward Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy". In 1697, Peter sent 37 people of the best surnames abroad to study the science of military affairs, namely, nautical affairs. Among them was the steward Pyotr Tolstoy, who at that time was 52 years old, and his willingness to start studying special sciences during these years shows amazing willpower. Most the time of P.A. Tolstoy devoted himself to acquaintance with the localities: he traveled all over Italy, carefully studied it and even mastered the Italian language quite well, in which he later spoke and wrote. The object of the special and primary interest of the Orthodox Russian steward in Italy was Catholic churches and the peculiarity of the rituals of another Christian denomination. “It is amazing how this deeply religious man, with all the confessional isolation and tendency to reject and reject dissent and other customs, with all the immanent Orthodoxy, perceived what he saw in the Catholic churches of Italy: without any exaggeration, we can say that he looked at their architecture , decor, icon painting and liturgical utensils not so much with eyes Orthodox Christian how much with the enthusiastic gaze of an enlightened connoisseur and connoisseur of art and admired what he saw not as an object of worship, but as a work of art. "
• 3. Interesting evidence of the events under study is contained in the Notes of Ya.K. Nomen "On the stay of Peter the Great in the Netherlands". This source was written by a simple Dutch merchant, contemporary of the events described. He creates the image of Peter - a tall exotic king who learned to build ships with his own hands in the Amsterdam shipyards, the image of a "carpenter king" who still excites the imagination. "It is difficult to imagine that a comrade and ally of Peter I in the royal craft, Louis IV, worked in shipyards, and in the evening he drank with ship carpenters and sailors in port taverns."
• 4. Description of the trip of Count A.A. Matveyev to Paris in 1705 - this was the first "book about France" compiled by a Russian. For Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. a work of this genre was new. The author gives a detailed description of Paris, its squares, streets, buildings, monuments. A prominent statesman who shared the tsar's views on the need to "open a window to Europe", A.A. Matveyev watched the life of France with close attention. It is characteristic that he was deeply interested in everything new, and he never tired of celebrating it. A.A. Matveev showed great interest in academies. They deserved all the more attention because they were organized by the government, moreover, relatively recently - in the middle and in the second half of the 17th century. The French Academy, the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Inscriptions, the Academy of Architecture, the Academy of Fine Arts, all were subsidized and controlled by the government. Matveyev saw with his own eyes the results of their activities: French art, French architecture, French science, the French language achieved great perfection and won a world reputation not without the efforts made by these academies. For such a highly educated person and art lover, such as the Russian ambassador, the "family" of various French academies aroused noticeable admiration. He also admired the royal cabinet of curiosities in the Louvre. The same impression, but to a lesser extent, is evident in his notes concerning the University of Paris. A.A. Matveev visited the Sorbonne, described the activities of the theological, legal and medical faculties... He was also at the College of the Four Nations for a theatrical performance. Undoubtedly, he was greatly interested in the setting of higher education. He treated the oldest university in France and its procedures with due attention.
• 5. What the volunteers from Russia were taught abroad, and what were the conditions of their life and study, was vividly described in his "Notes" by former volunteer I.I. Neplyuev. Peter most often selected future captains himself. This happened with the Neplyuev group. In 1715 he was enrolled in the Novgorod Mathematical School, despite the fact that he was already married and had two children. In June he was transferred to the Narva Navigation School, and three months later to the Maritime Academy, which had opened in St. Petersburg, from which he graduated in 1716. In September of the same year, among 27 people, he was sent to Venice to study maritime affairs and manage galleys. Russian youths were assigned to the Royal Naval Academy, where their classes consisted of the study of mathematics, artillery, fencing, soldier's articulations and dances. This study could not bring significant benefits due to the midshipmen's ignorance of the Spanish language: "They came to mathematics, they just sat idle, it was impossible to study before, because we did not know their language." In addition, Russian students were in an extremely difficult financial situation. In May 1720, Neplyuev and his comrades, after five years of foreign ordeals, returned to St. Petersburg. On July 1 of the same year, young sailors with varying degrees of success passed difficult exams in the presence of Peter I, according to the results of which Ivan Neplyuev was promoted to lieutenant of the galley fleet.
• 6. "The Diary of a Russian Traveler of the First Quarter of the 18th Century" is another interesting source for our period. In the text, the author does not indicate his name, but often writes: "go with my brother", "my brother gave me a present," etc. The famous researcher P.P. Pekarsky assumed that the author of this diary was I.L. Naryshkin (1700-1734). The entries in the Diary begin in November 1714. Together with the Naryshkins, other persons who studied with them traveled. In the Diary, the author names Leontyev, Prince Ivan Alekseevich, Prince Ivan Borisovich. The Diary can be used to trace the travel route. It should be noted that unlike the diaries mentioned (for example, P.A.Tolstoy, etc.), I.L. Naryshkina does not claim literary merit. It must be remembered that its author was a very young man, brought up in old Moscow customs and who first encountered European culture. Despite the fact that the diary offers us a not quite typical Moscow point of view, it is nevertheless remarkably well-documented evidence. educational process, carefully thought out as the completion of the study of navigation, to which the Russian youths devoted the first half of their stay abroad. The pedagogical efforts of Peter, who surrounded his young cousins ​​with vigilant care during their long stay abroad, pursued the same goals, which almost at the same time prompted him to publish The Youth of an Honest Mirror. Unfortunately, we know little about the life of Ivan Naryshkin after his return to his homeland, in order to establish whether the results of his training met Peter's hopes.

Periodicals contain rich material for basic and additional study in history lessons. Periodicals are a type of historical sources represented by long-term periodicals, the functions of which are the organization (structuring) of public opinion, the implementation of the ideological influence of the state, information services economic activity in the field of private entrepreneurship, the establishment feedback in the control system. Periodicals are divided into three types: newspapers, magazines, time-based publications of scientific societies.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, only one newspaper was published in Russia. On December 15, 1702, the tsar signed a decree on the creation of the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti", and on December 17, 1702, the first issue of this newspaper appeared. It is his journalism researchers who call him the pioneer of the Russian periodical press. On the pages of "Vedomosti" were printed mainly materials of a military and economic nature. For example, the newspaper reported on the siege of Noteburg, the Narva, Poltava battles and other events. The content of Vedomosti fully corresponded to the tasks set for this newspaper by the Russian state. At the same time, Vedomosti did not have that subjectivity that became a sign of journalism in subsequent periods.

A year after the start of publication, the circulation of Vedomosti reached several thousand copies. The largest circulations marked the major successes of Russia in the war. For example, the message about the Battle of Poltava was printed in the amount of 2.5 thousand copies. However, there were reports both about schools and about the pupils studying in them: "By the command of His Majesty, schools multiply, and 45 people listen to philosophy and have already graduated from dialectics. More than 300 people study at the mathematical school of study and accept good science ...". The peculiarity of the Petrine "Vedomosti" was that they did not sin with artificial "newspaper" language. They sounded juicy, everyday speech military people, common people, trading rows, craft settlements, clergy. The inevitable terms of foreign languages ​​were accompanied by translations. In the early years of its existence, the newspaper focused on propaganda tasks. The first issues of Vedomosti were edited by the director of the printing house Fyodor Polikarpov, a literary educated person, a poet. At first, Vedomosti was typed in Church Slavonic script. However, with the introduction on February 1, 1710 of a civil alphabet, which was more convenient for printing, the newspaper switched to a new font.

When planning to work with periodical materials in the classroom, it is important to correctly define the goal methodically, think over the information needs and the corresponding age-related cognitive capabilities of students, and also consider in advance the type of material used. Periodicals are an important "addition" to the text of history textbooks. They often contain diagrams, maps, excerpts from official documents, which can successfully fit into the general outline of the lesson, enrich its content. At the same time, it must be remembered that the first condition for using materials from the press in the lesson is the competent presentation of diverse information to students.

Speaking about the sources used to study the reforms of Peter the Great in the field of education, one cannot but dwell on the book "An Honest Mirror of Youth, or an Indication for Everyday Circumstance, Collected from Various Authors." This monument of Russian enlightenment from the early 18th century is a guide both for schools and for the home education of secular youth. Peter's associate, Jacob Bruce, took an active part in the creation of this textbook and supervised its publication. The first edition was published in St. Petersburg in February 1717, was a great success, and in the same year it was reprinted twice, and then reprinted many times during the 18th century. The Mirror was published in accordance with the spirit of Peter the Great's reforms, when the basis of all book printing was made up of various kinds of manuals and instructions. The first part of the book contained the alphabet, tables of syllables, numbers and numbers, and religious instructions. The second part of the book consisted of the rules of conduct for young men and women of the nobility. It should be noted that the majority of modern textbooks contain excerpts from "The Mirror" and questions to them. but given source can be used more widely for middle-level students.

Another important textbook for the entire first half of the 18th century that determined primary education was Feofan Prokopovich's primer "Primary Teaching by a Adolescent". This primer was used by children in all secular and religious schools of the first half of the 18th century. In the primer, Prokopovich expresses progressive views on the education and upbringing of children, while the text of the book is distinguished by a simple and understandable style of presentation, and the content of the primer is conducive to meaningful and in-depth reading. Throughout his life, Feofan Prokopovich improved his knowledge (in languages, philosophy, sciences) and called on others to constant learning, as he believed that "an enlightened person never has satiety in his knowledge by direct teaching, but never ceases to learn."

Exploring various educational projects allows you to see the contribution of individuals to the development of education in the first quarter of the 18th century. Of interest is the "Proposition" by FS. Saltykov, which outlines the distribution plan in Russia female education and the creation of a library in each province. I.T. Pososhkov in his "Book of Poverty and Wealth" and the essay "Fatherly Testament to his Son" outlined progressive ideas about the need to teach the people to read and write, create schools, print books in Russian, and simplify the Church Slavonic alphabet. In his opinion, it is necessary to issue a law obliging the landowners to teach the peasants, because literate peasants will bring more benefits to both the landowner and the state. "... Paki is not a small dirty trick to the peasants because they do not have literate people. Even if there are twenty or thirty yards in any village, but they do not have a single literate person, and which person does not come to them with any decree or and without a decree, let him say that he has a decree, then they believe that and therefore take unnecessary losses for themselves, because all of them, as if they are blind, do not see anything, do not understand. but they cannot argue, they extorted a lot of surplus money from them, and therefore they accept a loss for free.

And for the sake of protection from such unnecessary losses, it seems it would not be bad for the peasants to reluctant to give their children, who are ten years old or less, to the sexton for scientific letters and, having taught them to read and write, would teach them to write. And tea, it would not be bad to teach so that it would not be in a small village without a literate person.<…>And when they learn to read and write, they will be more convenient not only for the landowners to manage their affairs, but they will also be pleasing to state affairs. Most of all, in the sotsk and in the fifties they will be suitable and no one will offend them and will not take anything from them in vain. "

Summing up the results of the second part of the work, it is necessary to emphasize the importance of working with written historical sources

Lesson date:

7a -

7c -

Lesson topic: "Transformations in the field of culture."

Target: To acquaint students with the achievements of Russian culture of the first quarter of the 18th century, to highlight new features.

Tasks:

Educational:

Tell students about the changes in the cultural life of Russia in the era of Peter; reveal the meaning of these transformations.

Educational:

- contribute to the development of a culture of business communication;

Continue the formation of ethical norms and values;

Continue the formation of patriotic feelings on the basis of the studied material.

Developing:

Promote the skills of finding and highlighting the necessary information from the teacher's story and structuring knowledge;

Formation of the skills of a conscious and arbitrary construction of a speech utterance in oral and written form;

Formation of the skills of semantic reading and extraction of the necessary information from the text, the definition of basic and secondary information;

Develop cognitive skills - the ability to prove, draw conclusions;

Develop thinking skills - analyze information, establish causal relationships between events;

Promote the development of communication skills

Lesson type: combined.

Lesson form: traditional.

Basic concepts:

ASSEMBLY - a meeting-ball with the participation of women in the houses of the Russian nobility.

GRAVURE - a printed embossed drawing on paper.

Lesson equipment: blackboard, chalk, textbook "History of RussiaXvii – Xviiicenturies "(EV Pchelov -M .: Education, 2008), PC, multimedia projector, interactive whiteboard, presentations" Transformations in the field of culture ", a workbook on the history of Russia (Kanilov, Kosulina)

During the classes.

Etapuroka,

duration

Teacher activities

Student activities

Notes (edit)

1.Orgmoment

2 minutes

Hello everyone, please sit down. Is everyone present at the lesson?

Welcome. They say if everyone is present

2.Checking hometasks

min

Popular movements of the first coupletwirlXviii

Xviiicentury?

Xviicentury?

Xviiicentury?

3. Updating new knowledge

3 min

Record the topic of the lesson: "Transformations in the field of culture under PeterI».

Write a lesson plan:

Education and Science

Noble life

4. Studynewmaterial

30 minutes

Education and Science

Under PeterIbegan to form.

system

Schools

Educational establishments:

Lower stage:

G. in Moscow.

In 1715G. Marine Academy

In 1707 were foundedmedical schools mining schools. Ariseengineering andartillery schools.

Xviii

- lexicon.

civil alphabet

first printed newspaper- "Vedomosti",

Kunstkamera Museum. scientific library.

Academy of Sciences and Arts

secular character

Under PeterI

Music edging

In the visual arts first quarterXviiiengraving A.F. Zubov .

portrait Ivan Nikitich Nikitin (1690 -1742), I

Sculpture. I

Architecture St. Petersburg J. . I. Korobov and M.G. Zemtsov.

3.Noble life

Xviii

order introduced wearing euro pei clothing

assemblies

5. Consolidation of the studied material

5 minutes

Ibecamegain her secular principles .

Xviiicenturies, but also centuriesXIX.

dailyRus.

6. Summing up. Homework recording

2 minutes

You did a great job today.

Exposing and argumentation of grades.

Open your journal and write down your homework for the next lesson.

See you in the next lesson, everyone is free.

Students write down their homework.

Homework:

- §

Organizational moment.

Homework check.

In the last lesson, we covered the topic:Popular movements of the first coupletwirlXviiicentury, and found out that throughout the reign of Peter 1 there were actions of various strata of the population against the government.

1. What were the reasons for the popular performances in the first quarterXviiicentury?

2. Did they differ from the reasons that caused the popular demonstrations in Xviicentury?

3. What folk performances took place in the Peter the Great's era?

4. What served the main reason the Astrakhan uprising?

5. What are the goals of the Don uprising led by Kondraty Bulavin?

6. Using the map, tell us about the Bulavin uprising.

7. What are the results? (how did the uprising end?)

8. What were the specific features of the Bashkir uprising?

9. What was the significance of the popular performances of the first quarterXviiicentury?

Updating new knowledge.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, great changes took place in the field of culture.

Today in the lesson we will learn about the changes in the cultural life of Russia in the era of Peter, highlight new features in culture, consider the features of the development of education, science, artistic culture, and also consider what changes have occurred in the life of people.

Write down the topic of the lesson:"Transformations in the field of culture under Peter I ».

Write downlesson plan:

Education and Science

Arts: painting, sculpture, architecture

Noble life

Learning new material.

Education and Science

The first innovation of Peter was the introduction of the European chronology. By his decree of 1699, the tsar ordered to keep track of the years not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. Thus, the holiday was postponed from September 1 to January 1 and 7208 became 1700. The festivities were accompanied by the decoration of houses with fir and pine branches, fun and mutual congratulations.

Under PeterIbegan to formgovernment education policy .

For study and practical development of sciences, Russians were sent abroad. Most often they were young men from noble families. Upon returning to their homeland, a strict examination awaited them. Peter I himself performed the role of an examiner more than once. At that time, study was equated to public service, and therefore the demand was special.

Previously, church education prevailed. The tsar-reformer understood perfectly well that a school based only on church knowledge, as well as sending talented young people to study abroad, could not give a good result. The country began to formsystem vocational education.

Schools at first they were wordless: children from different layers population. However, soon in many special educational establishments, where they trained specialist officers, began to accept only children of nobles. The children of serfs in public schools could not study.

Educational establishments:

Lower stage:

digital schools: students mastered the skills of reading, writing, counting.

Digital schools have opened in more than 40 cities in Russia. (1714)

garrison schools for children of soldiers

admiralty schools for children of sailors.

More extensive and diverse knowledge (algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drawing, astronomy, etc.) was given by the organized in 1701G. School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow.

In 1715G. some of the classes were transferred to St. Petersburg and on this basis they createdMarine Academy ... Navigation schools were also opened in Novgorod, Narva, Revel, Astrakhan.

In 1707 were foundedmedical schools in Moscow, a few years later such a school began to operate in St. Petersburg. In the Urals and in Karelia,mining schools. Ariseengineering andartillery schools.

The creation of the education system required the publication of many books (textbooks, reference books, visual aids). Only for the first quarterXviiimore books were published in Russia than in all 150 years that have passed since the beginning of Russian book printing.

In 1711 the first printing house was founded in St. Petersburg. One of the first books printed in it was "The Book of Mars, or Military Affairs", beautifully designed, with many engravings about the Northern War. In 1718 the printing house reprinted the first Russian history textbook - "Synopsis". Magnitsky's "Arithmetic", tables of logarithms, a trigonometry textbook, Smotritsky's "Grammar", Dictionary foreign languages - lexicon.

Great importance to increase the level of literacy of the population had an introduction in 1710civil alphabet ... Church Slavonic letters were replaced with simpler ones. As MV Lomonosov later noted, "under Peter the Great, not only boyars and boyars, but also letters threw off their wide fur coats and dressed up in summer clothes."

Since 1703, it began to be publishedfirst printed newspaper- "Vedomosti", in which mostly foreign chronicles were published.

A major scientific institution was founded by Peter in St. Petersburg in 1714Kunstkamera (room for curiosities). It contained collections of minerals, medicines, ancient coins, a zoological study, an ethnographic collection, several earthly and heavenly "globes". It was the first RussianMuseum.At the same time in St. Petersburg were foundedNaval and Artillery Museums ... In 1714, the oldest in our country was opened in St. Petersburg.scientific library.

The crown of Peter's transformations in the field of science and education was the decree of 1724 on the establishmentAcademy of Sciences and Arts (it was opened after the death of the tsar in 1725).

So, the distinctive features of education are:

secular character

practical knowledge

2.Art: painting, sculpture, architecture

Under PeterIartistic culture has taken a new place in the spiritual life. It became secular, more diverse in genre, and received active support from the state.

However, in general, it was of a transitional nature, since in many ways it still retained the features of the previous era.

Music was represented by simple everyday forms: dance, military, table melodies. Particularly popular wereedging (polyphonic everyday singing, usually sounded during state and military holidays).

In the visual arts first quarterXviiicentury, such a new phenomenon appeared asengraving (she came to Russia from Europe). She won her popularity primarily because of the cheapness. Soon, engravings were already widely used in educational literature, newspapers, and calendars. The famous master engraver wasA.F. Zubov .

Another hallmark fine arts of the era of Peter becameportrait ... One of the founders of Russian secular painting wasIvan Nikitich Nikitin (1690 -1742), received by order of Peter the opportunity to study in Italy. His portraits ("Floor Hetman", "PeterIdeathbed ") is characterized by a truthful portrayal of their heroes, interest in inner peace person, showing not only individual external traits, but also character.

Sculpture. Many foreign craftsmen came to Russia. The famous sculptor Bartolomeo Carlo Rastrelli owns several images of PeterI... Among them are the "wax person", with great accuracy conveying the features of the tsar's appearance, and the equestrian statue of Peter in St. Petersburg.

Architecture Peter's time is represented primarily by constructionSt. Petersburg , for which the best foreign experts were invited -J. Leblon, D. Trezzini, F.B. Rastrelli . But Russian architects also took part in this work.I. Korobov and M.G. Zemtsov.

The most important architectural monuments of this time were Peter and Paul Cathedral and Peter-Pavel's Fortress, the building of the Twelve Collegia, the Menshikov Palace in St. Petersburg, the Menshikov Tower in Moscow, the first buildings of the imperial palace ensemble in Peterhof.

A regular urban layout appears, this is how St. Petersburg was built.

3.Noble life

By the abundance of new phenomena in the way of life of people, the first quarterXviiicentury occupies a special place in Russian history.

By order of the king, it was mandatory for the noblesorder introduced wearing euro pei clothing - camisoles, stockings, shoes, ties, hats. On pain of disgrace the boyars andnobles had to shave off their beards ... For disobedience, they were threatened, at best, with a large monetary fine ("beard tax"), and at worst - with exile. For the right to wear a beard, peasants had to pay a tax, which was levied every time a peasant entered the city. Only the clergy retained their right to wear traditional clothing and beards free of charge.

The tsar brought from Europe and introduced in Russianew forms of communication and entertainment : holidays with illumination and fireworks, masquerades. Since 1718, he introduced by a special decreeassemblies , arranged in the homes of the nobility. They were attended by dignitaries, officers, clergy, wealthy merchants. A feature of these balls was the permission to participate in them for women. The evening was spent in small talk, discussing the latest news and gossip, dancing and attractions. An obligatory part of the assembly was a grand dinner. Each host of the assembly strove to surpass his predecessor with the splendor of the furnishings and new secular manners.

The playing of the clavichord (a prototype of the piano), violin, and flute became widespread. Amateur orchestras became popular, at whose concerts in mandatory representatives of the nobility had to go.

There were so many innovations in the life of the upper strata of the population that a special manual with the rules of good form was needed. In 1717, the famous"Honest Mirror of Youth, or Testimony to Everyday Circumstance, Collected from Various Authors."

Consolidation of the studied material.

The main features of the development of culture in the era of PeterIbecamegain her secular principles and active penetration and evenplanting Western European culture .

On the basis of the grandiose changes of Peter's time, domestic science was born and developed, the education system took shape, artistic culture flourished not only in the following decadesXviiicenturies, but also centuriesXIX.

However, the culture of Peter's time was still of a transitional nature. She combined the innovations of Peter and the traditions of prdailyRus.

Moreover, all these innovations and achievements have become the property of only the upper strata of the population of a huge country. The main part of him perceived the new features of life that had appeared under Peter, no more than an eccentricity of the tsar and the lords himself.

Homework.

§24, TPO No. 1, 3, 4, 5 pp. 52-54. TPO No. 6, page 54 (optional)

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era ("from the creation of Adam") to "from the Nativity of Christ." 7208 by the Byzantine era became the year 1700 from the birth of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, a uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.

After returning from the Grand Embassy, ​​Peter I fought against the outward manifestations of an "outdated" way of life (the ban on beards is best known), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, and many books were translated into Russian. Success in the service Peter made for the nobility dependent on education.

Under Peter in 1703, the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared. Until that date, they were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1710, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified outline of letters (the Church Slavonic script remained for printing church literature), the two letters "xi" and "psi" were excluded.

Peter created new printing houses, in which 1312 titles of books were printed in 1700-1725 (twice as many as in the entire previous history of Russian printing). Thanks to the rise of book printing, paper consumption increased from 4,000-8,000 sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50,000 sheets in 1719.

There have been changes in the Russian language, which includes 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the organized Academy of Sciences (opened in 1725 after his death).

Assembly under Peter I.

Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unknown forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. have changed.

By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, in contrast to previous feasts and feasts. The reforms carried out by Peter the Great affected not only politics, economics, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study "arts" abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the 18th century. "Peter's pensioners" began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.

On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702), Peter issued a decree, which ordered to write names in petitions and other documents in full instead of derogatory half names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), do not fall on your knees in front of the tsar, a hat in winter in the cold in front of the house where the king is, do not shoot. He explained the need for these innovations: "Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the king ..."

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He, by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724), prohibited forced marriage and marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between the betrothal and the wedding, "so that the bride and groom could recognize each other." If during this time, it was said in the decree, "the bridegroom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom," no matter how the parents insisted, "there is freedom." Since 1702, the bride herself (and not only her relatives) was given the formal right to terminate the betrothal and upset the agreed marriage, and neither of the parties had the right to "beat the forehead for a penalty." Legislative prescriptions 1696-1704 on public celebrations, it was mandatory for all Russians, including the "female", to participate in the celebrations and celebrations.

Gradually, among the nobility, a different system of values, perception of the world, aesthetic ideas took shape, which radically differed from the values ​​and worldview of most representatives of the other classes.

Peter was clearly aware of the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end.

On January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. The first gymnasium in Russia was opened in 1705. The goals of mass education were supposed to serve the digital schools created by the decree of 1714 in provincial cities, designed to "teach children of every rank to read and write, digital and geometry." It was supposed to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children; a network of theological schools was created in 1721 to train priests.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

By decrees of Peter, compulsory training of nobles and clergy was introduced, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance and was canceled. Peter's attempt to create an all-class elementary school failed (the creation of a network of schools after his death ceased, most of the digital schools under his successors were re-profiled into estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, in his reign, the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

1. Introduction …………………………………… 2

2. Schools ……………………………………… .2-4

3. Books ………………………………………… 4-5

4. Assemblies ………………………………… ..5-6

5. "Honest Mirror of Youth" .. …………… ..6-7

6. The Grand Embassy ………………… ........ 7-11

7. Academy of Sciences …………………………… ... 12

8. Kunstkamera ……………………………… ... 13

9. Geography ………………………………… ... 14

10. Conclusion ………………………………… 15

11. References ……………………… ..16
Introduction.

Russian culture in the first quarter of the 18th century developed under the influence of three interrelated processes, the origins of which appeared in the previous century: a further secularization of culture took place, the personal principle developed, and finally its national isolation was overcome. But, noting the continuity of the culture of Peter's time with the culture of the 17th century, it should be emphasized that this was a smooth development, devoid of qualitative shifts, but a leap accompanied by the emergence of numerous innovations. Under Peter the first appeared: a printed newspaper, a museum, a regular city, special educational institutions, assemblies, domestic portrait painters, etc. at the same time, much of what in the 17th century was only making its way and manifested itself in the form of a development trend, during the years of transformations acquired such a rapid growth and scale that an impression was created that there was no continuity with the previous time. Such are civil architecture, translated literature and the printing of books of secular content, the secularization of temple architecture, the establishment of cultural ties with other peoples.

Schools.

Peter is the founder of secular education in Russia. He strove with all his might not only to lead European customs in Russian society, but also to raise Russian technology and education to the level of European ones.

The secularization of the school, the prevalence of the exact sciences among the disciplines taught is characteristic feature staging education. Along with educational institutions opened in the first period of transformations (Navigatskaya, Artillery schools - in 1701, Engineering - 1712, Medical School- 1707), the network of schools was later replenished with digital schools opened in 1714 in the provinces. Children studied arithmetic and the beginnings of geometry in these schools, and graduates of the Navigation School acted as teachers. By the end of the first quarter of the 18th century, 42 digital schools with 2000 students were opened in the provinces. Children of the clergy were trained in 46 diocesan schools, and children of soldiers - in garrison schools. At metallurgical plants in the Urals and in the Olonets Territory, the government organized the first mining schools in Russia to train mining specialists.

To keep the commanding heights in the state, the nobility had to master knowledge. Therefore, the education of noble children became a duty for them. Along with training in Russian schools, young nobles were sent abroad to master the navigation business. Upon arrival in St. Petersburg, the navigators held exams, often in the presence of the tsar. Most of the ignorant noblemen, especially from aristocratic families, tended to evade education, so in 1714 a decree was issued threatening the ignorant to marry. On the other hand, in the hope of winning the trust of the tsar, elderly nobles were sent abroad to study sailing. So, the famous diplomat P.A.Tolstoy went to Venice, already having grandchildren.

A special group of educational institutions consisted of schools preparing highly educated cadres of the clergy. First of all, it is the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow, founded in the 17th century. Transferred to the Synod in 1727, it is now more often referred to as "schools", the first of which is Slavic-Latin. In 1727, there were 357 students in it. The second is Slavic-Russian (143 students), and the third is Hellenic (41 students). Last school under Stefan Yavorsky it was strangled and barely survived. Another major center of spiritual education was Kiev, where the Kiev-Mohyla Academy operated in Podil, in the Bratsk monastery. In 1727 more than 500 people studied there (Little Russians, Great Russians, and "from Poland").

Finally, the most important in the system of Peter's education were technical special educational institutions. The most famous of them is the Navigation School in Moscow. It accepted children from 12 to 17, and later up to 20 years. Preparatory students taught Russian literacy and arithmetic in two classes. Then - geometry, trigonometry with applications in geodesy, astronomy, navigation and navigation. Among the subjects were painting and "rapier". Hundreds of engineers, sailors, hydrographers, topographers, bombardiers, etc., graduated from the Navigation School. Soon, similar schools were opened in Revel, Narva and Novgorod.

In 1715, by decree of the tsar, the Naval Academy was founded in St. Petersburg. Its staff (305 students) was staffed from the students of the Navigation school, as well as from the Novgorod and Narva navigation schools. Mainly children from noble families from 10 to 18 years old studied there. Among the special items were navigation, fortification, artillery, musketry, etc. The main thing is that shipbuilding was taught here. As in the Navigation School, at the Maritime Academy, for the first time, the main teachers were foreign professors. Magnitsky, the author of the famous textbook "Arithmetic", worked for a long time at the Navigation School. A number of textbooks were also authored by V. Kupriyanov ("A New Method of Arithmetic"), G. Skornyakov - Pisarev ("Static Science or Mechanics"). But, of course, the bulk of the textbooks were either translations or the results of the work of foreign teachers.

Books.

The expansion of the school network is associated with the emergence of a variety of educational literature. The teacher of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy Fyodor Polikarpov in 1701 published "An ABC book in Slovenian, Greek, Roman writing for those who want to learn." In 1703, the famous "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers" by Leonty Magnitsky was published, which for half a century served as the main textbook in mathematics. Magnitsky's textbook gave practical advice, such as how to determine the depth of a well, the height of the walls, etc.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, several new printing houses were opened: in 1705, the townsman Vasily Kipriyanov opened the first private printing house, in 1711 a printing house began to work in St. Petersburg, printing materials of the official content: decrees, manifestos, reports. Small printing houses existed under the Senate, the Alexander Nevsky Lavra and the Maritime Academy founded in 1715.

In addition to textbooks, books on natural science and technology began to be published. These are works on astronomy, hydroelectric construction, medicine, fortification, artillery, navigation, shipbuilding, architecture. There are books and software humanitarian knowledge... The printing houses also printed calendars, which were in great demand among readers. They reported information about the time of sunrise and sunset, about expected eclipses, about the weather.

The reform of the civil type was of great importance in the enlightenment. Word-maker Mikhail Efremov created the first samples of civilian letters. Their final choice (as well as Arabic numerals) was made in 1710 by Peter himself. Such a radical reform contributed to a more massive consumption of printed books. Books on history ("Synopsis" by I. Gisel, "Introduction to European history" by S. Puffendorf, "Theatron" by Stratemil, etc.), translations of ancient authors (Josephus Flavius, Julius Caesar, Aesop, Ovid, etc.) were not published in circulation 200-500 copies, and many times more. Of great importance was the publication of the print newspaper Vedomosti, the circulation of which in the first years ranged from 100 to 2500 copies.

Assembly.

At the end of 1718, the population of the capital was notified of the introduction of the assemblies. Peter himself drew up the rules for organizing assemblies and the rules of conduct for guests at them, established the order of their convocation.

Assembly, the tsar explained in the decree, is a French word, it means a certain number of people gathered together either for their amusement, or for reasoning and friendly conversations. An elected society was invited to the assembly, together with their wives, senior officers, nobles, officials, ship craftsmen, wealthy merchants and scientists were supposed to appear there. They began at four or five o'clock in the afternoon and lasted until ten in the evening. The hosts, to whom the guests came to the assembly, had to provide them with a room, as well as a light treat: sweets, tobacco and pipes, drinks to quench their thirst. Special tables were set up for the game of checkers and chess.

The Assembly is a place of light-hearted meetings, where the upper classes of society went through the school of secular education. Everyone could spend time in such a way as to get pleasure: some were interested in dancing, and they were circling in pairs, others had a lively conversation, shared news, others were intensely thinking at a chess or checkers table over the next move. Still others allotted to themselves the role of spectators or listeners. Such an assembly was presented to the king, this is how he wanted to see it. But ease, and genuine fun, and the ability to conduct small talk or insert an appropriate remark, and, finally, dance were not achieved immediately. At the first balls of Peter's time, depressing boredom reigned, the guests were threatened with provoking the tsar's irritation by any act. They danced as if they were serving the most unpleasant duty. Conversations also did not work out - instead of them monosyllabic answers to simple questions and painfully long pauses. A contemporary sketched such an assembly from nature: “Ladies always sit separately from men, so that not only is it impossible to talk to them, but it is almost impossible to say a word; when they are not dancing, everyone sits as dumb and only looks at each other. "

Assemblies were most often held during the winter months, less often in the summer. There was no periodicity. In 1719, for example, the first assembly was held with General Veide on January 18, the next - on Thursday, January 22, with Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Golitsyn, then on Sunday, January 25, with Prince Dolgoruky. Sometimes the king himself was the master of the assembly.

Assemblies opened up a new form of communication between people. Their main significance was that they put an end to the reclusive life of women in the capital.

"Honest Mirror of Youth"

The offspring of nobles, high officials and officers learned the ability to lavish smiles and be helpful not only in assemblies and in educational institutions where students mastered fencing, dancing, eloquence, but also by studying special instructions. One of them, under the obscure title "Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indication for Everyday Circumstance," was especially popular among the capital's population. Under Peter, it was printed three times, which indicates a huge demand for it. The unknown compiler of this work used several foreign works, of which he translated those parts that he considered useful to the Russian reader.

"Yunosti honest mirror" set out the rules of behavior for young people in the family, at a party, in in public places and in service. It instilled in young men modesty, hard work, obedience, courtesy and prudence.

The family had to "support the father and mother in great honor." The children were taught the idea that orders for the house could only come from their parents: "In the house, do not command anything with your name, but with the name of your father or mother."

The "Honest Mirror of Youth" did not leave young men without guidance even when they found themselves outside the family. They had to show consideration for their elders, respectfully, without interrupting, listen to their speech, not be annoying.

Recommendations on how to behave in public places and at the table are interesting. Everything is provided here, from the gait and posture of a young man to the ability to take food: "No one has hanging his head and looking down the street, or looking askance at people, but step straight and not bent over."

The last pages of "The Youth of an Honest Mirror" are dedicated to girls. If a young man was to have three virtues - "humble, affable and courteous", then a girl should have had much more of them: humility, diligence, mercy, bashfulness, thrift, loyalty, cleanliness, etc.

Great embassy.

The "Great Embassy" was a very significant event in the history of diplomacy. The unusualness of this event was primarily in the fact that for the first time the Russian tsar himself went to Europe.

The official part consisted in "confirming friendship and love for common to all Christianity, to weaken the enemies of the Lord, Saltan Turetsky, the Crimean Khan and other Busurman hordes."

But this was only the official appointment of the "great embassy".

Peter himself pointed out three goals:

1) see political life in Europe.

2) Find allies.

3) Study maritime affairs.

The third interested Peter especially strongly. Peter set the task

explore shipbuilding and navigation in England and Holland.

The embassy consisted of 35 volunteers, including the tsar under the name of Peter Mikhailov. Many members of the embassy had servants. The staff includes numerous attendants - from priests, healers and translators to cooks, bakers and even four Karls. Together with the guards, the number of the embassy exceeded 250 people. His motorcade consisted of 1000 sleds.

Peter had an ambivalent position in the embassy: he was officially listed as one of the foremen of a detachment of volunteers. At the same time, he was the de facto head of the embassy, ​​in which Lefort, as the right-wing ambassador, was assigned a ceremonial role.

In early April, the embassy arrived in Riga, where he was given red carpet meeting... Peter, who first crossed the border of Russia, eagerly watched his surroundings. He expressed his impressions in a letter: "Here we lived in a slavish custom and were fed only with sight ...".

Peter did not manage to completely hide his stay in the embassy. Already in Riga, they guessed about this, although they did not have exact data on this matter. The tsar left inhospitable Riga, keeping incognito. He did not reveal his name in the Duchy of Courland either, although, according to a contemporary, the embassy was received in Mitava with all kinds of courtesy and splendor.

But in Konigsberg, where Peter arrived by ship, he had a secret meeting with the Elector of Brandenburg Frederick 3, who was looking for rapprochement with Russia.

Among the ceremonial receptions, feasts and amusements, the embassy, ​​with the active participation of Peter, negotiated with the Brandenburg Elector regarding the anti-Turkish coalition. They ended with the conclusion of an oral agreement on an alliance, but not against Turkey, but against Sweden. This was the first step towards changing Russia's foreign policy orientation.

From the time Peter moved from the Brandenburg Elector to Holland, only a few of his letters have survived. In particular, letters to Vinius. The subject of their correspondence was concern about hiring foremen for metallurgical plants. Even before Peter's departure abroad, iron ore of excellent quality was found in the Urals. Vinius, who ruled Siberia, pestered the tsar with requests to hire specialists who could build blast furnaces, cast cannons, and smelt ore. Peter promised on his arrival in Holland "about the craftsmen of the prospector."

The border of Holland, the richest country in Europe, famous for its developed industry and trade, Peter crossed in early August and immediately went to the center of shipbuilding - the city of Sardam. According to his custom, Peter was ahead of the embassy, ​​and before the latter arrived in Amsterdam he had a week of time to dress in the dress worn by the Saardam people, get acquainted with the shipyards, inspect sawmills and paper mills, and even work with an ax. He bought carpentry tools from a widow.

On August 16, 1697, the ceremonial entry of the embassy to Amsterdam took place. In the retinue of the embassy, ​​in secondary roles, dressed in a caftan, a red shirt and a felt hat, there was also Peter, who had arrived on this occasion from Saardam. The everyday life of the embassy began, work on the implementation of the goals for which the king, his diplomats and volunteers made such a long journey. The success of the embassy was not the same everywhere. The most successful business was the training of volunteers in shipbuilding. Peter made extensive use of the mediation of Nikolai Widzen, who was in Russia and knew Russian. Widzen, along with the post of mayor of Amsterdam, served as one of the directors of the Post - India Company. This made it possible to enroll Peter and volunteers at the shipyard of this company. The directors of the company ordered the laying of a special ship so that "a noble person who is staying here incognito" could get acquainted with all the stages of its construction and rigging.

Ten more volunteers studied sailing skills together with the tsar, among them two people would later become famous as Peter's closest associates: Menshikov and Golovkin.

The end of August and the beginning of September passed in the assimilation of the wisdom of shipbuilding, and on September 9, a frigate was laid down, completely built by volunteers under the guidance of the Dutch master Paul. Not all volunteers liked the hard work, the need to follow the example of the tsar, who was very unassuming in clothing, food, and comfort. A group of Russian young people, who arrived in Holland a little earlier than Peter, tried to return to their homeland, having learned only how to use a compass, never having been to the sea. This attempt was immediately stopped by Peter. Among some of the volunteers, there were conversations condemning the participation of the king in the construction of the ship. Peter, whose will no one dared to contradict in Russia, ordered to put the critics in chains, then to cut off their heads. Only the protest of the burgomasters, who reminded the tsar that it was impossible to execute a person without trial in Holland, forced him to change his decision and instead of execution, send them to distant colonies.

In mid-November, the frigate "Peter and Paul", on the construction of which the volunteers worked, was released. The students received a certificate of mastery. The certificate issued to the tsar from his ship teacher Paul stated that Pyotr Mikhailov "was a diligent and intelligent carpenter", learned to perform various shipbuilder operations, and also studied "ship architecture and drawing plans", as thoroughly as we can imagine.

Less successfully, the great embassy coped with other tasks for which it arrived in Holland - hiring foreign specialists and obtaining assistance for the war with Turkey. Vinius, preoccupied with the construction of the Ural factories, persistently reminded Peter of hiring "iron masters", and the tsar, who did not let this request out of sight, could not fulfill it in any way. The attraction of specialists to the Russian service was complicated by their lack of knowledge of the Russian language.

The idea that Russia, waging a war with Turkey, protects the interests of all Christian states against the "busurman" and that "such a war, everyone can understand, cannot be without great millions and numerous troops" did not meet with understanding in Holland either. Four times the ambassadors met with representatives of the Dutch government and each time they received a polite but firm refusal of assistance, motivated by the fact that Holland had just ended an exhausting war with France and did not have either money or extra weapons.

From Holland, Peter, accompanied by 16 volunteers, went to England. There he wanted to become a shipbuilder-engineer, to learn the secrets of theory. Many years later, in his own preface to the Maritime Regulations, Peter explained in detail the purpose of his trip to England.

Under the guidance of the master Paul, he learned everything "that befits a good carpenter to know." Paul was an excellent master-practitioner, but neither he nor other Dutch shipbuilders knew the theory, and Peter "was very disgusted that he took such a long journey for this, but did not reach the desired end."

On January 11, 1698, the yacht, on which the king and his companions were, dropped anchor near London.

Peter spent most of his four-month stay in England studying shipbuilding. In addition to the shipyards, the tsar examined London enterprises, visited the English Royal Society, which was the center of scientific thought, got acquainted with Oxford University, several times went to the Greenwich Astronomical Observatory and the Mint. The king was not content with explanations. While in the workshop of the famous watchmaker Karthe, he was so carried away by the technique of making watches that he himself perfectly mastered their assembly and disassembly. It was hardly a simple curiosity that overcame Peter when he frequently visited the Greenwich Observatory and the Mint. Interest in astronomy was associated with navigation, and interest in coinage was fueled by the possibility of using a machine for minting coins recently invented in England in Russia. Getting acquainted with the technique of minting coins, Peter hoped to use the invention of the British at home.

In England, as in Holland, Peter remained incognito. This, however, did not prevent him from significantly expanding his circle of acquaintances. They also made acquaintances with representatives of the church world. Having discovered a thorough knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, Peter, however, during his conversations with representatives of the clergy, was interested not so much in questions of theology as in clarifying the relationship between ecclesiastical and secular authorities in England. In the head of the king, plans were apparently ripening church reform in Russia, which he began to implement shortly after returning from a trip abroad.

Peter established contacts with people belonging to the environment well known to him from the German settlement in Moscow. They were merchants. With them, he negotiated the granting of the right to monopoly trade in tobacco.

After that, Peter also traveled to Holland, Leipzig, Prague, Dresden (here Peter studied the Royal Kunstkamera) and Vienna, from where he left for Russia on July 19, 1698.

Academy of Sciences.

For the development and dissemination of scientific knowledge, the Academy of Sciences was established in St. Petersburg. It was supposed to serve as a center for scientific research and train young scientists.

Peter had been thinking about organizing it for a long time, but he took the first steps towards organizing it in June 1718. His resolution on one of his reports read: “To create an academy. And now to look for the Russians who are learned and have a penchant for that. Also start translating books: jurisprudence and related to that. I have begun to do this this year. " However, Peter failed to fulfill this intention neither in 1718, nor in the coming years. The creation of the Academy was delayed partly due to the fact that Peter was busy with more urgent matters, partly due to the difficulties in attracting foreign scientists to work there. The tsar insisted that not scientists in general, but the largest scientists of Europe should be invited to the St. Petersburg Academy, and they did not dare to go to a distant northern country.

On January 22, 1724, a meeting of the Senate was held, which was attended by the tsar. On it, Peter, after his conviction, approved the draft charter of the Academy. The draft said: “It is impossible to follow here in other states adopted image". Thus, a negative attitude was expressed towards the organization of such institutions in the countries Western Europe... The peculiarity of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was that it was called upon to unite three institutions operating in Western European states independently and independently of each other, namely, a university, which meant a "gathering of scientists" who were obliged to teach young men medicine, philosophy and law; a gymnasium that prepared students for a course at a university; the Academy itself, that is, "a collection of scientists and skilled people."

The opening of the Academy of Sciences took place after the death of Peter - in 1725, when the first conference of academicians took place. Among the academicians invited to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences are the largest scientists of Europe: the physiologist and mathematician D. Bernoulli, the astronomer and geographer Delisle, and others.

Kunstkamera.

Scientific knowledge was also promoted by the Kunstkamera, the first natural history museum in Russia, opened for public viewing in 1719. Peter acquired the first exhibits for the museum during his trip abroad in 1697-1698. then he met two naturalists: the anatomist Frederic Ruysch, famous for his skill at skillfully embalming corpses, and the zoologist Levenguk, who, with the help of a microscope invented by him, discovered the passage of blood from arteries to veins. Ruysch's anatomical collection, which he had been collecting for half a century, formed the basis of the Kunstkamera.

The collection of rarities within the country was also associated with the initiative of Peter. He issued several decrees urging the population to bring everything that is "very old and extraordinary": bones of extinct animals and birds, antiquities, ancient letters, handwritten and printed books, as well as freaks.

The influx of exhibits - monsters (freaks) and rarities (rarities) - increased every year: a sheep was sent from Vyborg, which has four eyes and two tongues instead of two; Several lambs were obtained from Tobolsk: one of them has eight legs, the other has three eyes, two bodies and six legs. V Nizhny Novgorod a baby with three legs was born, and in Ufa - with two heads. They also turned out to be exhibits of the Kunstkamera.

The Kunstkamera also kept cannons of ancient casting, stuffed birds and animals, preparations on human anatomy, etc.

Initially, the Kunstkamera was housed in the "Kikin Chambers" - the house of the executed Kikin, who was involved in the case of Tsarevich Alexei. The first floor housed the museum itself - the Kunstkamera, and the second - the library. By the time of Peter's death, it numbered about 11 thousand volumes and was one of the richest in Europe.

The Kunstkamera and the library were opened in 1719 for free viewing and use. From their very inception, the tsar gave both institutions an educational character. "I want," he reasoned, for people to watch and learn. "

Geography.

Geographers made a major contribution to the development of Russian science. Brave Russian explorers, often poorly educated, but observant and with a sharp mind, described Siberia and the discovered "new lands". Among them is the Ustyug peasant Vladimir Atlasov, who was appointed clerk in the Anadyr prison. On their modest funds Atlases in 1697 - 1699. compiled the first ethnographic and geographical description of Kamchatka. In 1713 - 1714 Russian explorers visited the Kuril Islands.

However, domestic geography achieved its main successes in surveying already known territories and mapping them. Russian cartographers F. Soimonov and K. Verdun mapped the Caspian Sea and described it. In 1720, the map was published in Russia, donated by Peter I to the Paris Academy, which elected him as a member. Cartographers of Peter's time "discovered" the Aral Sea, about which Western European scientists did not have reliable information. The works of Vasily Kipriyanov, Alexei Zubov and Yakov Bryus were used to plot the Baltic and Azov sea, Don basin.

The study of the country's productive forces was initiated in the time of Peter the Great. In 1720, the government organized the first expedition in Russia to explore Siberia, for which exclusively scientific goals were set. The expedition, led by Daniil Messerschmidt, collected a large number of natural-historical and ethnographic collections characterizing the life and religion of Siberian tribes, the nature of Siberia.

The search for minerals was crowned with the discovery of coal deposits in the Moscow region, Don and Kuznetsk and oil in the Volga region. "Earthen" coal at that time did not yet know how to use it for practical purposes, only the first experiments were carried out using it as a fuel for salt boiling, and oil was used only in medicine. The study of the mining resources of the Urals and Siberia was especially successful.

Conclusion.

New phenomena, as soon as they have arisen, tend to develop irresistibly, punch their way and ultimately become decisive. Of course, Russia is landlocked, in the end it would acquire it. It would have a regular army, a navy, an Academy of Sciences, a manufacturing industry, and professional educational institutions, people would shave their beards and wear European clothes. The whole question is when would all this appear.

Peter's merit is that he did not confine himself to passive contemplation of how the processes that had arisen before him continued to develop automatically. He imperiously invaded all spheres of the country's life and gave his extraordinary talent and ebullient energy to the accelerated development of all principles that had arisen before him. Peter, as it were, spurred events.

References.

1. Pavlenko N.I... Peter the First and his time. Moscow, 1989

2. Pavlenko N.I... Peter the Great. Moscow, 1990

3. Anisimov E.V... Time of Peter's reforms. L., 1989

4. Anisimov E.V... Peter the First: the birth of an empire. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. Moscow, 1991, part 1.