In the article “Paracelsus: biography”, Interesting Facts and video" - briefly about the life of the famous Swiss alchemist, doctor, philosopher of the Renaissance.
Paracelsus: biography briefly
This one was born a famous person in October 1493 near Zurich (Switzerland). Our hero's real name is Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, and Paracelsus is a pseudonym.
Apparently, Philip did not suffer from modesty or was confident in his future successes when he called himself Paracelsus. He added the prefix “para,” meaning “similar,” to the name of the famous Roman Platonist philosopher Celsus (2nd century).
Philip's father was good doctor and came from an old but impoverished noble family. Mother worked as a nurse in the abbey. In a family of doctors, Phillip received an excellent education in medicine and philosophy. The family lived very modestly, but had a good library.
At the age of 16, the guy already knew the basics of surgery and alchemy. Soon Paracelsus leaves Father's house and goes to the University of Basel.
He then acquired valuable knowledge of astrology, alchemy and magic from the famous abbot Johannes Trithemius. Paracelsus received his university education in Ferrara (Italy), where he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine.
Trips
Paracelsus traveled a lot, continuing to study medicine and alchemy. He took part in military expeditions and served as a military surgeon. The thirst for knowledge never left him. He collected useful information not only from scientists in other countries, but also by communicating with barbers, fortune tellers, midwives, shepherds and executioners.
After ten years of wandering, with a wealth of experience and knowledge, he returned to Basel, becoming the city doctor and university professor.
His unique lectures attracted many listeners. Paracelsus criticized scholastic medicine and publicly burned the medical textbook of ancient scientists. The number of his opponents among pharmacists and doctors continued to grow. Soon Paracelsus leaves Basel, fleeing trial for freethinking.
He again had to wander around the countries. Finally, in Salzburg (Austria) he found his patron - the archbishop. Paracelsus settled in this city and spent last years life, dying (presumably from violent death) at the age of 48.
Contribution to medicine
- He forced his students to study the course of diseases in practice, and not from books. Paracelsus led the students to the beds of the sick.
- He brought chemistry closer to medicine. He is the first iatrochemist (from the Greek “iatro” - doctor), that is, a doctor who uses chemistry in his medical practice.
- He suggested that alchemists concentrate their efforts on developing new drugs, and surgeons think no more about increasing the speed of painful operations, but about painkillers and wound disinfection.
- He based his healing on the alchemical doctrine of three basic substances that are part of all natural bodies: mercury, sulfur and salt. IN healthy body these substances are in balance. If one of them predominates over the others or is in insufficient quantity, then diseases occur.
- He introduced the use of copper, mercury, antimony and arsenic into practice.
- He isolated medicines from plants and used them in the form of extracts, extracts and elixirs.
- Developed an understanding of drug dosage.
- Used mineral springs for medicinal purposes.
Philosophy and astronomy
Treatises written by Paracelsus:
- 1531 - “Great Astronomy”;
- 1533 - “Hidden Philosophy”;
- 1534 - “Philosophy”;
- 1536 - “Book of nymphs, sylphs, pygmies, salamanders, giants and other spirits.”
Video
In this video there is an interesting and Additional Information on the topic “Paracelsus: biography”
Paracelsus and his contribution to the development of pharmacy are briefly summarized in this article.
Paracelsus' contribution to medicine
Paracelsus's full name is Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim Paracelsus. There were legends about him that the healer knew how to grow pearls and precious stones, make the elixir of youth and gold, and travel through the air on a flying horse. He called himself “the holy doctor.” But it’s difficult to judge this, so let’s focus on his achievements in medicine.
Paracelsus was the first physician who used minerals in medicine and chemical substances . He was a fan of alchemy and believed that illness and health in the body depended on the harmony of nature and man. He was also of the opinion that there are fossil remains in the human body, so some ailments can be cured by chemicals.
Paracelsus developed a hermetic idea in which the macrocosm of the universe exists in every person and is called the microcosm. The healer created the microcosm-macrocosm theory, based on the interaction of space and man. He believed that all diseases were caused by poisons that came to Earth from the stars. But they are not necessarily negative, it all depends on the dose of its effect on the human body. Such ailments can be cured by taking the same stellar poison contained in minerals, herbs and chemical combinations. Such views of Paracelsus were contrary to the church.
His main job"Die große Wundarzney" laid the foundation for the future development of antiseptics. Although it is not historically proven that Paracelsus was the first to use opium as an anesthetic, it is assumed that he was one of the first. The doctor used opium to treat the wounds of soldiers.
His most underrated achievement in medicine is his systematic studying healing properties mineral alpine springs and minerals. Paracelsus believed that alchemy was needed not only to make silver and gold, but also to study the power of medicines. The doctors of that time were confident of the following: all illnesses are caused by an imbalance of the 4 humors - phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile. To achieve a balance of humors, it is necessary to perform bloodletting and adhere to a specific diet that cleanses the body’s stomach of decomposed juices. And Paracelsus argued the following - diseases are caused by external agents that attack the body. He opposed bloodletting, since this process destroys the harmony in the system, and besides, the blood cannot be purified if its quantity is reduced. With these views, he turned leading healers against himself with hostility.
Paracelsus also refuted the prevailing theory that infection was a natural part of wound healing. The doctor advocated the protection and cleanliness of wounds and the regulation of diet. He is credited with explaining the hereditary nature of syphilis. In his brochure, he described the clinic of syphilis and the method of treating it with doses of mercury.
Besides, Paracelsus is called the father of toxicology. In his work “The Dose Makes the Poison,” the healer considered such substances, although toxic, to be harmless in small doses. Conversely, harmless toxic substances can become fatal if consumed in excessive doses.
Also Paracelsus contributed to psychotherapy– he was the first to scientifically describe unconscious processes as a source of diseases in adults and children. The same alchemy served as a tool for psychotherapy. Another important discovery doctor - hydrogen gas, a by-product from the action of acids on metals.
We hope that from this article you learned what contribution Paracelsus made to medicine.
PARACELSUS (Paracelsus) (real name Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, von Hohenheim) (1493-1541), physician and naturalist, one of the founders of iatrochemistry. Subjected to a critical revision of the ideas of ancient medicine. Contributed to the implementation chemicals into medicine. He wrote and taught not in Latin, but in German.
PARACELSUS (Paracelsus) (real name Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, von Hohenheim) (December 17, 1493, Einsiedeln, canton of Schwyz - September 24, 1541, Salzburg), famous physician, natural philosopher and alchemist of the Renaissance.
Education
He was born into the family of a doctor who came from an old but impoverished noble family. Paracelsus's first teacher was his father, who introduced him to the basics of the art of medicine. One of Paracelsus' mentors was Johannes Trithemius, known for his advocacy of "natural magic." Paracelsus received his university education in the Italian city of Ferrara, where he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine.
Traveling and teaching
Since 1517, Paracelsus undertook numerous trips, visited various universities in Europe, participated as a physician in military campaigns, visited imperial lands, France, England, Scotland, Spain, Portugal, Scandinavian countries, Poland, Lithuania, Prussia, Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, the states of the Apennine Peninsula (there were rumors that he visited North Africa, Palestine, Constantinople, Muscovy and in Tatar captivity). In 1526 he acquired the rights of a burgher in Strasbourg, and in 1527, under the patronage of the famous book publisher Johann Froben, he became the city doctor of Basel. At the University of Basel, he taught a course in medicine in German, which was a challenge to the entire university tradition, which obliged him to teach only in Latin. In 1528, as a result of a conflict with the city authorities, Paracelsus moved to Colmar.
Travels and scientific works
In subsequent years, Paracelsus traveled a lot through the cities and lands of the Holy Roman Empire and Switzerland, wrote, preached, treated, researched, conducted alchemical experiments, and conducted astrological observations. In 1530, at Beratzhausen Castle, he completed work on the Paragranum (1565). After a short stay in Augsburg and Regensburg, he moved to St. Gallen and at the beginning of 1531 he completed here a long-term work on the origin and course of diseases - the treatise “Paramirum” (1562). In 1533 he stopped in the city of his childhood, Villach, where he wrote “The Labyrinth of Misguided Physicians” (1553) and “The Chronicle of Carinthia” (1575).
Last years
In the last years of his life, the treatises “Philosophy” (1564), “Hidden Philosophy” (the first edition was translated into Flemish, 1553), “Great Astronomy” (1571) and a number of small natural philosophical works, including “The Book about nymphs, sylphs, pygmies, salamanders, giants and other spirits" (1566). In 1541 Paracelsus settled in Salzburg, finding a patron in the person of the archbishop; here he soon died.
Natural philosophy
Bringing chemistry and medicine closer together, Paracelsus considered the functioning of a living organism as chemical process, and found the calling of an alchemist not in the extraction of gold and silver, but in the manufacture of medicines that give people healing. He taught that living organisms consist of the same substances - mercury, sulfur, salt - that form all other bodies of nature; when a person is healthy, these substances are in balance with each other; disease means the predominance or, conversely, deficiency of one of them.
Paracelsus proceeded from the idea of the unity of the universe, the close connection and kinship of man and the world, man and God. He called man not only a “microcosm,” a small world that contains the properties and nature of all things, but also the “quintessence,” or the fifth, true essence of the world. According to Paracelsus, man is produced by God from an “extract” of the whole world, as if in a grandiose alchemical laboratory, and carries within himself the image of the Creator. There is no knowledge forbidden for a person; he is capable and, according to Paracelsus, even obliged to explore all the entities that exist not only in nature, but also beyond its borders. He should not be stopped or embarrassed by their unusualness, for nothing is impossible for God, and these entities are evidence of his omnipotence, like nymphs, sylphs, gnomes, salamanders, sirens, giants, dwarfs and other creatures inhabiting the four elements.
The physician, philosopher, naturalist, alchemist and magician Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, best known as Paracelsus, criticized previous principles and made a significant impetus in the development of medicine. He took the name Paracelsus from the great ancient Roman physician Celsus (1st century BC), adding the Greek prefix "pair", What means - "like". Although Paracelsus was called during his lifetime "Luther of Medicine", however, this did not save him from persecution and persecution." powerful of the world this”, preventing the publication of his work.
Paracelsus was born in the winter of 1493. His roots come from an old, once rich noble family. His father, a doctor by training, became his first teacher. As Paracelsus himself recalled, his father taught him to read and write, the basics of healing and alchemy.
At the time Paracelsus was a student, chemistry was not taught as a separate discipline. It was a theoretical addition to a course in philosophy, which dealt only with assumptions about the emergence and disappearance of substances. Only pharmacists and alchemists were seriously involved in chemistry, and there were quite a few of them. Alchemists conducted experiments on the “transmutation” of metals, discovered new methods for manufacturing various substances, and also continued the development of natural philosophical teachings of such famous philosophers, like Aristotle, Empedocles, Democritus and others.
At the age of 22, after graduating from university, Paracelsus was awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine. But he did not find satisfaction in the knowledge he received. Seeing how often doctors were unable to help the patient, Paracelsus, criticizing their work, which had changed little since antiquity, decided to improve medicine, introduce into it a new understanding of diseases and methods of treating patients.
The young doctor traveled a lot, collecting his medical knowledge at major universities, medical schools in Paris, Spain, Italy, Hungary, England, Poland, Lithuania and other countries. He carefully searched, learned and memorized all the secrets of the healing craft, not only of practicing physicians, but also of healers who heal the wounded; acquired healing recipes that university scientists did not know from barbers (who practiced minor surgery), gypsies, and even executioners. Only after this did he become a real doctor.
Paracelsus was taught by the great magician and alchemist Solomon Trismosin, who was initiated into the Teachings of Hermes and knew the technology of transmutation of metals. Paracelsus was also taught by one of his most famous contemporaries - an adept of magic, alchemy and astrology, the abbot of the monastery of St. James, Johann Trithemius of Spangheim, who advocated “natural magic.”
Beginning in 1517, Paracelsus traveled a lot and worked as a doctor in military campaigns. In 1527, with the help of the then famous book publisher Johann Froben, he got a job as a doctor in the Swiss city of Basel. At the city university, he began to teach a course in medicine in German, which became a challenge to the established university tradition, according to which the teacher was obliged to give lectures only in Latin. As a result, a conflict arose with the city authorities, and Paracelsus had to move to France.
And finally, in the city of Colmar they began to talk about Paracelsus as a talented doctor. He cured patients who were rejected by other doctors who considered them hopelessly ill. Then he could already cure diseases such as leprosy, cholera, cancer, etc. His fame grew due to his deeds. But, despite all his achievements, his independence, impudent statements about other doctors of the old system, and reluctance to blindly bow to authorities aroused dissatisfaction from the outside; In addition, he also practiced alchemy and learned the fruits of the work of magicians and mystics of the East. This activity did not please local Catholics, who made sure that no one came forward with ideas that went against established ideas. Paracelsus found himself in a position in which he could be dealt with by accusing him of heresy. And he had to change his job again and leave the country.
In 1529, Paracelsus moved to Germany, where he earned fame as a doctor who treated hopelessly sick people for free who did not receive help from other doctors. At that time, the skilled doctor wrote many books. He was a man of extraordinary efficiency. There is a mention of how he more than once sat at his desk, working for several days on end, without knowing rest or sleep. In Nuremberg, Paracelsus published 4 of his books at once. But, after this, the city magistrate suddenly placed a ban on the publication of any of his works. The latter happened not without the diligent help of doctors and professors Faculty of Medicine, outraged by his innovation.
Paracelsus used his new ideas to create chemical theory functioning of a living organism. According to it, body functions are a chemical process. When this process goes well, i.e. is in balance - a person is healthy, otherwise a disturbed chemical process becomes the cause of any disease. Therefore, the most useful in treatment will be only those drugs that are manufactured chemically. He thus sought to bring chemistry closer to medicine.
Paracelsus sought the philosopher's stone not to turn base metals into gold, but to prepare healing potions. In addition, he introduced a new understanding about the dose of medicine: “Everything is poison, and nothing takes away the poison. The dose alone makes the poison invisible.”
In other words, the question of whether a substance is harmful depends not on its consumption as such, but on the amount taken in excess of permissible norm. Paracelsus also said that there is not a single universal cure for all diseases, i.e. Each disease must be treated with specific remedies.
When Paracelsus learned that a plague epidemic had broken out in an Italian town, he went there to work. Working with patients, he researched the causes of the plague, looked for recipes and prepared medicines. As a result, he found a method similar to vaccination, thanks to which he helped stop the spread of the plague.
However, even after the victory over the epidemic, Paracelsus had to wander again, changing one refuge for another: even where the authorities did not interfere with him, he protested Catholic clergy. But he did not despair, and his work was published in Ulm and then in Augsburg "Big Surgery"(2 volumes, 1536). After this, Paracelsus was lucky. He was finally recognized as an outstanding physician and began to be accepted into best houses, rich nobles began to use his services. And after that he already treated the Royal Marshal of Bohemia - Johann von Leipnik. And in Vienna, King Ferdinand himself honored him with attention.
The city of Salzburg became his last place of residence. Here he lived peacefully, without fear of attacks or persecution, and began practicing medicine and writing books. According to one version, Paracelsus died from the attack that overtook him. fatal disease in the autumn of 1541. Another version indicates that he was killed by order of his enemies - envious pharmacists and doctors.
They say that in 1830, when the threat of plague loomed over Salzburg, people went to the tomb of Paracelsus to beg him to avert the disaster. And he helped - the epidemic did not enter the city.
Paracelsus was convinced that there is nothing beyond the control of human reason. He said:
In the universe everything is one, everything is in close connection: man and the world, man and God. Man is not only a part of a great whole, but he himself is a “microcosm”, a small world that contains the properties and nature of all things; moreover, man is the “quintessence”, i.e. - the fifth, true essence of the world. God created man, as if in a grandiose alchemical laboratory, like a homunculus from the “extract” of the whole world. Man is like his Creator, therefore there is no forbidden knowledge; man not only can, but he is obliged to explore and cognize all the entities that exist not only in nature, but also beyond its borders.
Many years before the advent of genetic engineering, artificial insemination and cloning, Paracelsus declared that it was possible to make a “test tube man” or homunculus. It was he who first described the creation of the “alchemical man.” He wrote about this in detail in his treatise “On the Nature of Things”:
He can be raised and trained like any other child until he is old enough to take care of himself.
He added innovation to the description medicines; also began to use chemical medicines, isolated and used herbal medicines in the form of elixirs, tinctures and extracts. For several centuries, tincture of opium, which was invented by Paracelsus, was used as an anesthetic drug. He also created the doctrine of “signature” - the doctrine of the signs of nature, according to which, the similarity appearance plants and human organs can cure, for example, heart diseases (plants with heart-shaped leaves heal the heart). Nature, in the understanding of Paracelsus, shows man how to use her gifts.
Paracelsus, in the vision of homeopaths of today, is one of the founders of homeopathy. Paracelsus was the first to understand and apply the principle of similarity, which underlies homeopathy. His developments in psychiatry proved that madness is not demonic possession, but a disease.
Undoubtedly, Paracelsus was both a great magician and physician of his time. He had a great influence on European philosophy and medicine, shaping the worldviews of many scientists.
Philip Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, nicknamed Paracelsus, was born on November 10, 1493 near the village of Einsiedeln (canton of Schwyz, Switzerland). Following the example of his father, Paracelsus began to study medicine quite early in Germany, France and Italy.
“The real purpose of chemistry is not to make gold, but to make medicine!” - these words determined the life credo of Paracelsus
The scientist spent 1526 in Strasbourg, and in next year he was invited to the position of city doctor in the large Swiss trading city of Basel. Paracelsus managed to cure one rich man, whom the best doctors in the city could not help. He was invited to take the chair of medicine at the University of Basel. At the very first lecture, he burned the works of Galen and Avicenna in front of the eyes of astonished students and declared that even the ties of his shoes knew more than these ancient sputums.
Like the alchemists, Paracelsus proceeded from the idea that all substances consist of elements capable of combining with each other. When substances decompose, the elements are separated. But unlike the alchemists, Paracelsus emphasized the material nature of the three principles of “sulfur” - the beginning of flammability, “mercury” - the beginning of volatility, “salt” - the beginning of fire constancy. Considering that each of Aristotle's four elements must consist of these principles, Paracelsus wrote, “Each element consists of the three principles of mercury, sulfur and salt.”
What was essentially new in the teachings of Paracelsus was that he considered the composition of all bodies in the same way, including human body. Man, Paracelsus believed, is formed by spirit, soul and body. Violation of the mutual balance of the main elements leads to illness. If there is an excess of sulfur in the body, then the person gets sick with fever or plague. Excess mercury causes paralysis. And too much salt causes indigestion and dropsy. The doctor's task is to find out the relationship between the main elements in the patient's body and restore their balance.
Therefore, this disturbed balance can be restored with the help of certain chemicals. Therefore, Paracelsus considered the primary task of chemistry to be the search for substances that could be used as medicines. For this purpose, he tested the effect on people of various compounds of copper, lead, mercury, antimony, and arsenic. Paracelsus gained particular fame by very successfully using mercury preparations to treat syphilis, which was widespread at that time.
Galen. His contributions to medicine
Outstanding doctor ancient world Galen of Pergamon (Galenos, 129-199), Greek by origin, was born in Pergamon (now Bergama in Turkey) in the family of the mathematician and architect Nikon.
Galen is recognized as the author of more than 125 works on medicine, of which about 80 have survived to this day. The most important among them are: “On the purpose of parts human body» “About anatomy...” “Therapeutic methods”, “About diseased parts of the body”, “About the composition of drugs...”. Several of Galen's works are devoted to commentaries on the works of the Hippocratic Collection, thanks to which many of them have survived to our time;
Galen studied in detail the anatomy of all body systems. He described bones, muscles, ligaments, internal organs, but his achievements in research were especially great nervous system. Galen described all parts of the brain and spinal cord, seven (out of twelve) pairs of cranial nerves, 58 spinal nerves and nerves of internal organs. He made extensive use of transverse and longitudinal sections of the spinal cord to study sensory and motor disorders below the section.
He described in detail anatomical structure heart, coronary vessels to the ductus arteriosus. Moreover, Galen mistakenly considered the septum of the heart to be permeable to blood (as is the case in the fetus). In his opinion, blood could easily pass from the right heart to the left, bypassing peripheral vessels and the circles of blood circulation known to us (Galen did not know the circular movement of blood)
His doctrine of disease was humoral in nature and was based on ideas about the four main juices of the body: blood, mucus, yellow and black bile
Galen made a great contribution to the development of pharmacology. A number of medicines obtained by mechanical and physico-chemical processing of natural raw materials (as proposed by Galen) are still called “galenic preparations”
Galen believed that in the body "pneuma" lives in various types: in the brain - “spiritual pneuma”, in the heart - “vital pneuma”, - in the liver -S- “natural pneuma”. He explained all life processes by the action of immaterial “forces” that are formed during the decomposition of pneuma: nerves carry “spiritual force “, the liver gives the blood “natural strength”), the pulse occurs under the influence of “pulsating force”. Such interpretations gave idealistic content to Galen's painstakingly collected experimental material. He correctly described what he saw, but interpreted the results obtained idealistically. This is the dualism of Galen's teachings.
In the Middle Ages Catholic Church and scholasticism used the idealistic aspects of Galen's teachings and connected them with theology. This is how Galenism arose - a distorted, one-sided understanding of the teachings of Galen
Galen was and remains the founder of experimental anatomy and physiology, a brilliant therapist, pharmacist and surgeon, physician-philosopher and researcher who knew nature. He belongs to the galaxy of outstanding scientists in the world.
Medicine of the Hellenistic period.
The Hellenistic period spans three centuries: it begins with the accession of Alexander the Great to the throne (336 BC) and ends in the middle of the 1st century AD. e. The largest Hellenistic state There was the Ptolemaic Kingdom (Hellenistic Egypt and Libya) with its capital Alexandria. The Alexandrian Museion (from the Greek museion - temple or sanctuary of the muses) was founded in it, where the mechanic Archimedes, the mathematician Euclid, the physiologist Zenodotus, the doctors Herophilus, Erasistratus and others lived and worked.
HEROPHILUS (IV - III centuries BC) is considered the first Greek to dissect human corpses. In his work “Anatomy”, he described in detail the main elements of the central and peripheral nervous system: the dura and pia maters, parts of the brain and especially its ventricles, traced the course of some nerve trunks and determined their connection with the brain. They described the liver, duodenum(gave its name) and others internal organs. Some anatomical structures still bear the names given by Herophilus: Plexus chorioidei. Sinus Venosi and others. In the work “On the Eyes” he described the vitreous body, membranes and retina, and in the work “On the Pulse” - the pulmonary artery, gave the name to the pulmonary veins, laid the foundation for the doctrine of the arterial pulse (with the help of a water clock he counted the pulse and described its properties: filling, frequency, strength, rhythm). Herophilus also laid the foundation for the doctrine of the specific action of drugs.
ERASISTARTUS (IV - III centuries BC) described the heart and venous valves, cerebral convolutions, branches of some nerves, and divided the nerves into sensory and motor. Consider that all parts of the body are interconnected by a system of nerves, veins and arteries, which in turn are connected by small vessels - “sina-nastomoses” (approached the idea of blood circulation). Invented the gastric tube.
During the Hellenistic period, advances in anatomy had positive influence for the development of surgery. The practice of ligating blood vessels was introduced. Alexandrian doctors penetrated into the body cavities and operated on the kidney, liver and spleen, performed amputations of limbs, opened the chest cavity when fluid accumulated in it, operated on the bladder and removed stones from it, performed laparotomy during intestinal volvulus, etc.
In ancient Rome, healing was usually done by foreigners. First freed slaves, then freedmen and visiting foreigners. In the organization of medical affairs there were elements of state regulation: along with the “aediles” (they were not doctors, but monitored compliance public order and sanitary laws) and the “water department” (supervision over the cleanliness and condition of aqueducts) archiarchal doctors were approved in cities and individual provinces. They worked in associations of artisans, in baths, theaters, circuses, and received greater rights and benefits. Such privileges led to a wide influx of foreign doctors into Ancient Rome, and consequently, their abundance, competition, and narrow specialization. Already by the end of the 2nd century BC. here, along with eye doctors, doctors appeared who treated only fistulas or only diseases Bladder, surgeons who performed only one operation, such as hernia removal or stone cutting.
Ancient Rome made a significant contribution to the development of military medicine: military hospitals (valetudinaria) were created, camp doctors, legion doctors, etc. were allocated.
The earliest evidence of the Romans' attention to sanitary measures is the Laws of the Twelve Tables, which included decrees dedicated to protecting the cleanliness of the city and the health of its inhabitants. Traces of sanitary structures have survived to this day: aqueducts (arched stone bridges and underground pipe systems serving clean water from mountain springs), cloaca (for sewage drainage. "Cloaca maxima" still functions today), baths.
Medicine in Byzantium
The emergence and development of monastic hospitals and hospital business is closely connected with the history of Byzantium. In the 4th century, “xenodochies” (monastic shelters for maimed and sick travelers) appeared - prototypes of monastic hospitals. In the 12th century, the hospital had a permanent staff of specialist doctors (surgeons, midwives and their assistants) working in 2 shifts. In each department there were 2 doctors who received a salary in money and food, enjoyed free housing, lighting, monastery horses, but did not have the right to private practice without special permission emperor. Civil hospitals were built, financed mainly by church authorities. In Byzantine hospitals there was a “Charter”, which was later adopted in ancient Russian monastic hospitals. Another form of development of the hospital business was the organization of isolation wards for infectious patients - a prototype of infirmaries (some of them in Europe were converted into hospitals, some into almshouses). Schools for teaching the art of medicine operated under them. Initially, training was conducted at monasteries and civil hospitals and was in the nature of a discussion: the final decision was made by the patriarch, the patron of the school. Having passed full course training, students passed exams at a specially appointed college of doctors. Continuous epidemics forced the government to reserve doctor positions for the poor. The institute of city archiatrists and the medical and sanitary organization in the army remained from the times of Rome. Washing in the bathhouse was used as remedy at monasteries. Aqueducts (water pipelines) were necessary for the constant replenishment of water from wells, fountains and underground reservoirs - cisterns (for example, the Valens Aqueduct, the Basilica Cistern, etc.). Byzantine doctors collected and copied the works of scientists ancient world and thus passed them on to other peoples. Thus, the life physician of the Byzantine Emperor Julian, Oribasius (326 - 403), collected Greek literature and compiled an extensive medical encyclopedia“Synopsis” in 70 volumes, which I supplemented with my own observations. The same codes were compiled by Byzantine doctors - Aztius from Amida (VI century)
Eastern medicine
Medicine in the Arab Caliphates
To form a unified Arab nation, ideology, government organization arose new religion- Islam (translated from Arabic as “submission”), formed by 622. Its founder was Muhammad (Magomed; 570-632) from Mecca. He created the first Muslim community (umma) in Western Arabia, which became the first theocratic Islamic state. As a result of subsequent Arab conquests outside the Arabian Peninsula, this state turned into a vast feudal Muslim power - the caliphate (from India to Atlantic Ocean and from Central Asia to Central America) with its center in Baghdad.
The conquered peoples brought elements of their culture into the culture of the Arab caliphates. Thus, paper from China made it possible to replace ancient parchment scrolls with handwritten books. Time began to be calculated, an arrow appeared, geographic map and etc.
In medicine, a distillation cube was constructed for the first time, water bath, which made it possible to obtain distilled water, use filtration, etc. Nitrogen and hydrochloric acid, aqua regia, silver nitrate, bleach, alcohol, sugar.
As you know, Islam prohibits autopsy of the human body, but some doctors did this. Ioan Ibn Masaveyh from Gundishapur, the court physician of the patron of scientists, Caliph Mamun (813 -833), and his two successors carried out animal vivisection
In 754, the first pharmacy was opened in Baghdad. Information about the founding of hospitals in the Caliphate dates back to 800, when in Baghdad, under Caliph Harun Ar-Rashid (786 - 809), the Armenian physician Jibrail ibn Bakhtishu organized the first hospital. The Caliph appointed this Christian doctor as the head of the medical profession in Baghdad.
Hospitals were financed by private donations. Libraries and medical schools, and special officials supervised their activities. Patients with diseases similar in clinical picture were placed in hospitals, i.e., specialized departments appeared.
Elementary education was reduced to learning to read and write, as well as memorizing the texts of the Koran. Secondary education was received in schools at mosques (madrassas), the volume of training corresponded to the Byzantine “encyclios pedia” (with elements of medicine) Higher education was given in the “Houses of Knowledge” (Daril-finul). Here, in particular, medical and hygienic problems were discussed (in accordance with the ideas of Galen). Medicine was held in special esteem in the Caliphate, because according to the teachings of the Prophet, knowledge consisted of two parts: knowledge of religion and knowledge of the body. The Koran (Kuran - reading) requires periodic ablutions (5 times a day), prohibits the consumption of pork and alcoholic beverages and thereby contributes to the preservation of human health.
Medical scientists of the Arab caliphates (Ibn Sina, Ar-Razi).
ABU ALI AL-HUSSEIN IBN ABDALLAH IBN AL-HASAN IBN ALI IBN SINA (AVICENNA: 980 – 1037) was born in Afshan. in a village near Bukhara, in a progressive and cultural family. His father was one of the enlightened people of his time and served as a tax collector for the Bukhara Emir. Mother - Sitora - belonged to an ancient Zoroastrian family.
Avicenna first gained fame after he warned people that after famine they should not eat a lot of meat and bread, as this could lead to death, and thereby saved them.
Avicenna wrote the “Canon of Medical Science,” which was published 40 times during his lifetime alone. The sections of the “Canon” “On Education”, “Gift to Mothers”, “The Law of Childhood”, etc. are instructive. He developed the “Philosophy of Health”, where he points out the four fundamentals of life: air, water, earth, fire, which correspond to the four properties of the body: dryness, humidity, cold, warmth.
In addition, the great Philosopher, natural scientist and doctor went down in history as a supporter of rational psychology, who declared the mutual influence of the mental and physical in pathology and confirmed this with clinical observations and experience.
ABU BAKR MUHAMMAD IBN ZAKARIYA AR-RAZI (865 - 925) was the first in the East to introduce medical history into practice. His name is associated with the use of cotton wool in medicine and the invention of an instrument for extracting foreign bodies from the larynx, etc. He owned the first encyclopedic works in Arabian literature, “A Comprehensive Book on Medicine” (25 volumes). "Medical book" (10 volumes), "On smallpox and measles." Al-Razi recommended using physical exercise, baths, massage, variolation, developed in detail measures for the care of the eyes, oral cavity and pharynx.
