Online education where you can listen to the most exciting lectures about history and culture. All lectures on the history of Russia

Photo: personal Facebook page

Representing this person in the circles of literary critics does not make sense. For everyone else, an explanation: perhaps the most famous modern researcher in Russia of American literature of the 20th century, aestheticism, European modernism and the author of several fiction books. On his website or official YouTube channel, there is a whole selection of free lectures on Salinger, Kafka, Eliot and Oscar Wilde. Anyone interested in foreign literature is simply contraindicated to pass by.

"Smoking Room Gutenberg"

Relatively recent non-profit educational project specializing in live events held in Moscow and other major cities. Recordings of the speeches of the local lecturers are posted in the official VKontakte group in a completely open access. The range of topics is incredibly wide - as the organizers themselves write, "during one evening, a biologist, philologist and cosmologist can speak to you." The format is rather popular science and more than fascinating.

Despite the sufficient popularity of this resource, it is impossible not to say about it. This world-famous site creates sequential courses of lectures and weekly exercises that any registered user can watch and complete for free. At the end of most courses, an online exam is expected. More than 109 different universities, mostly foreign ones, are involved in the development of materials. Of course, the English language dominates here, but if you wish, it is easy to gnaw at the granite of science with the help of the great and mighty. There are, for example, courses from the Higher School of Economics or joint laboratories of ABBYY and Digital October.

Academic Earth

Another academic English-language resource. As in the case of Cursera, many different universities take part in the development of the project, including Harvard, Princeton, Stanford and other high-profile names. Also presented are mainly courses, all materials of which are available for free download. A separate big plus is the local interface: Academic Earth is always happy to tell its visitor what to go and see, there is a convenient division by university, specialty and level of difficulty. Many video lectures are posted separately from the main courses in a special section, and authorization is not even required to view them. True, here you will not find texts and videos in Russian, so you will have to educate yourself in the language of Shakespeare.

Arzamas

In the list, one cannot ignore the project of the former editor-in-chief of the Big City magazine Philip Dzyadko, which shot loudly this year. Arzamas offers its users entire courses consisting of video lectures, articles and documentary photo galleries. Entirely focused on the humanities. Here you can learn how to listen to classical music, what Petersburg was like on the eve of the 1917 revolution, read about the beliefs of South American Indians or about the English Renaissance theater. Fortunately, the project is completely Russian-speaking.

"Skepticism"

An online magazine that also produces occasional printed almanacs. Offers its readers materials of a truly academic level. Therefore, it is not worth starting attempts to understand, for example, capitalism at the beginning of the 20th century with it. But for people involved in history, culture, sociology, religion or philosophy, the resource is absolutely invaluable. A characteristic feature of "Skepsis" is also the fact that the authors of the journal do not hesitate to express themselves in their articles and lectures on topical issues. contemporary themes whether it be education or political manipulation. Chief Editor- candidate of philosophical sciences Sergey Solovyov.

Khan Academy

The project of a native of Bangladesh and a graduate of Harvard Salman Khan is not exchanged for additional materials. All that is here is a whole galaxy of microlectures in all possible scientific specialties. Moreover, despite the serious academic approach, many disciplines are given here starting from the most basic foundations. Of course, it will not work to study these disciplines in depth, but it is easy to get a general idea. The site exists thanks to donations, and a significant part of the financial support comes from Google. They are also involved in translating the Academy's videos into world languages ​​(so far, however, there are only English, Spanish, French, Norwegian, Portuguese and Turkish on the list).

Education

Let's return to the most popular platform in Runet - the social network vk.com. Education - this is an extremely curious community that exists exclusively on VKontakte. The administration of the public publishes video and audio recordings of lectures with enviable regularity, mainly in the humanities and natural areas. It is remarkable that here you can also listen to outdated materials, such as, for example, conversations about culture with Joseph Brodsky - this is also part of the community's content. There are also films, documentaries and more, and audiobooks.

"Orpheus"

The radio station "Orpheus" not only makes it possible to listen classical music but also to learn more about it and the culture in general. Recordings of programs in a huge number are presented on the official website. Franco Zeffirelli, Stanley Kubrick, Johann Sebastian Bach and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Lloyd Webber and rock operas - all this in the format of twenty- and thirty-minute radio recordings. You can hardly find such a large number of really interesting and professionally made podcasts in Russian anywhere else.

Lectures by Alexander Piatigorsky

Photo: from the archive of Alexander Pyatigorsky

Andrei Bely Prize winner, Soviet-British philosopher and orientalist, translator from dead languages ​​Alexander Pyatigorsky is an almost legendary person. On the website of Radio Liberty you can listen to the full cycle of his lectures on various philosophical ideas from Buddha and Zarathustra to Sartre and Chomsky. Lectures of a very small volume - eight minutes each - but extremely informative. Each in the form of a text is accompanied by a small professional commentary that facilitates the perception of the material.

Lectures by Natalia Basovskaya

Photo: Natalia Krasilnikova / PhotoXPress

The project of the radio "Echo of Moscow" program "Everything is so" is a series of conversations on the topic of foreign history. The author is Natalya Basovskaya, a medievalist, Doctor of Historical Sciences, the largest Russian specialist on the Hundred Years War. All materials exist both in the form of text and in the form of podcasts. You will not find here a chewing of historical facts and successive events. Emphasis is placed on logic analysis historical process, the meaning of various cultural myths, periods and events.

TED

Since 1984, the annual TED conference dedicated to "technology, design and entertainment" has been held in the United States. It was the first to present a CD, a Macintosh computer, the first experiments in creating artificial intelligence. Participants include scientists from all over the world, public figures and Nobel laureates. The official TED website is a treasure trove for those who want to learn about new developments in any field of science. Here are the speeches from the main conference, local TED events and just individual lectures. Knowledge of English is necessary, but this is perhaps the only negative. The resource is extremely conveniently organized, synchronized with all major social networks, there is an excellent system for finding materials and news.

Historical events and figures, political and cultural processes in Russia from antiquity to the twentieth century.
Events from the first Slavic tribes to the formation of Moscow Rus. Russian history from the 17th to the 20th century. Chronological tables with Kyiv princes, the Romanov dynasty and the main milestones in the development of Russian history from ancient times to the twentieth century. historical persons IX-XX centuries, party compositions and their leaders - in the form of tables. The formation of the Russian state from the primitive communal system to the Middle Ages. Laying the foundations of culture in Kievan Rus, cultural revival after the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, achievements medieval culture, the process of cultural secularization in the 17th century and the progress in education and printing from the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century.

• - In 1918, in Minsk, under the conditions of German occupation, the creation of the BNR was announced. Later, the BNR existed under the rule of the Polish interventionists. S. Bulak-Balakhovich tried to create a national state by military means.
• - The implementation by the party apparatus of the dictatorship of the proletariat, as a complete democracy of the working people, led to the estrangement of the party from the class. Rigid centralization and the cult of the party leader led to the formation of the leader's dictatorship.
• - The list of rulers of Russia opens up a curious personal perspective on the history of the Fatherland. Each historical character decided the fate of the state in his own period of time, achieving results that influenced the history of the country.
• - About the history of the Stroganov clan. The origins of their enormous wealth, support to the rulers and significant assistance in the development of Russia.
• - Russian explorers and explorers of Siberia, the Far East, the polar North and Russian America. The chronology of their deeds, which influenced the great expansion of the territory and the strengthening of the power of the Russian state.
• - A long way of innovations and reforms of the military organization of the Russian state has transformed the princely squad into a powerful armed force. The Russian army provided security and solved the foreign policy problems of their country.
• - The reasons for the emergence of right-wing radicalism in Russia. The influence of the revolutionary events of 1905 on the emergence of radical monarchist organizations. The parties of the Black Hundreds, their development and crisis. General ideological attitudes of right-wing radicals.
• - The disarmament process is not only the destruction of weapons, broad sense this is a global problem. Aspects of disarmament affect the most important spheres of interaction between states, creating difficulties and denoting prospects.
• - A feature of the era of the reign of Mikhail and Alexei Romanov was the constant search for compromises and points of support for royal power. In the struggle for approval on the Russian throne, the Romanovs led the country along the path of serfdom.
• - The formation of a single Russian state took place through the strengthening of the Moscow principality and the suppression of feudal atavisms. Politic system Russia, in the process of development led to the formation estate monarchy.
• - Unique experience thousand years of Russian statehood is embodied in the history of organs government controlled. Formation and epochal evolution of the apparatus of power essential condition functioning of the state.
• - Rulers largest countries who were in power in the 20th century - dictators and peacemakers who firmly took their place in world history. Heads of the leading countries of Europe, Asia, North America. Their activities, successes and failures, ups and downs.
• - All the rulers of the Romanov dynasty, from Mikhail Fedorovich to Nicholas II. All major events that occurred in Russia during their reign (from the Time of Troubles and the election of a new tsar to the First World War of 1914-1918 and February Revolution 1917).
• - In the XIII century, Rus' was attacked by Swedish and German knights from the west and the Tatar-Mongol from the east. Thanks to the actions of Alexander Nevsky, the Western threat was eliminated. However, the lack of political and military unity among the Russian principalities, despite stubborn resistance, led to a series of defeats and the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
• - Years of activity of all current members of the Politburo of the RCP (b) - VKP (b) - CPSU, from Lenin and Trotsky to Gorbachev. Detailed information indicating all positions, located in chronological order(representatives of all Soviet republics).
• - The development of the economy after the Battle of Kulikovo predetermined the general rise of Russian culture. The main idea of ​​oral folk art was the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the glorification of heroes. Stone construction is resumed in the cities, world-famous architectural monuments are being created. In painting, there is a process of merging local schools into an all-Russian one.
• - The development of Russian culture from the XVIII to the beginning of the XX century. The appearance of the first educational institutions, the creation of a system of primary, secondary and higher education. Creation of a system of zemstvo schools. An increase in the percentage of literate people, Russia takes 3rd place in the world in terms of the number of books published.
• - The territory of Russia acquired modern look recently. The current territory of the Russian Federation extends beyond the boundaries of the European continent, while before the start of the unification process it was limited to the Moscow principality.
• - The ratio in Russia of ranks by seniority (in accordance with the law adopted in 1722 by Peter I - the so-called "Table of Ranks"). Subsequent changes made to this law. Necessary conditions for obtaining noble dignity in accordance with the "Table of Ranks".
• - The most striking achievements of Russian medieval culture were: the creation by Cyril and Methodius Slavic alphabet, the emergence of Book Centers - the Trinity-Sergius, Kirilpo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries, the replacement of parchment with paper, the appearance of cursive writing, the emergence and spread of book printing.
• - Leaders of the RCP(b) - VKP(b) - CPSU from 1922 to 1991 (from Stalin to Gorbachev). Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars and Council of Ministers of the USSR from 1923 to 1991 (from Lenin to Pavlov). Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from 1922 to 1991 (from Kalinin to Lukyanov).
• - Years of reign of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes in chronological order (from the end of the 11th century to the middle of the 13th century). The most important significant events that occurred during the reign of the princes and thanks to their activities (starting from the reign of Prince Vladimir Monomakh).
• - In the form of a table are presented important dates from the history of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. The compact volume is convenient because the main information on national history is in one document. And the arrangement in chronological order makes it easier to find and remember.
• - The activities of many commanders of Russia in the 19th century, such as Kutuzov and Barclay - de - Tolly. The activities of famous revolutionaries (Plekhanov, Pestel, etc.), statesmen(Witte, Kiseleva, and others), writers and publicists (Karamzin, Herzen, and others).
• - Domestic policy was aimed at strengthening serfdom, strengthening royal power, bureaucratization. The territory of Russia was expanded as a result of the annexation of Ukraine and new lands in Siberia. The main directions of foreign policy were the return of lands lost during the Time of Troubles and the elimination of the threat of nomadic attacks from the south.
• - Grand Dukes of Rus' from Alexander Nevsky to Basil III(13th - early 16th century), Russian monks of the 14th century. Russian tsars and emperors from Ivan IV to Paul I (16-18 centuries). Famous nobles and church figures of the 16th century. The most important historical documents of the 15th-18th centuries.
• - The most significant, outstanding historical figures of Russia and neighboring countries 9th-18th centuries. The greatest achievements of generals, rulers, statesmen, diplomats and even artists, who influenced the course of history with their outstanding activities.
• - In the XVII century there is a "secularization" of culture. The first educational establishments, the mass publication of books and newspapers begins, new genres of literature appear. In architecture, the Baroque style is formed. Painting acquires more realistic features, portraits become widespread.
• - The basis of the culture of Kievan Rus was oral folk art. In the 11th century, Russian literature was born, Russian chronicle writing appeared. Architecture has reached a high level of development, but very few monuments have survived to our time. Painting was represented by frescoes - painting on wet plaster.
• - Wealth of fertile soils and a favorable geographical position contributed to the economic development of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the growth of cities, the emergence of a strong local boyars. However, in the first quarter of the 13th century it split into several city-states and volosts.
• - Galicia-Volyn Rus was located in the south-west of the lands of the Eastern Slavs. The presence of fertile lands, forests, deposits of rock salt, and the absence of external threats contributed to the economic recovery. In the X-XI centuries, the struggle for independence from Kyiv begins. In 1199, the Galicia-Volyn lands were united, but in the 13th century they disintegrated into independent city-states.
• - Yaroslav the Wise secured Rus' from Pecheneg raids. The international prestige of Rus' has grown. The name of Yaroslav the Wise is associated with the compilation of Russkaya Pravda, an ancient Russian legal monument. After the death of Yaroslav, his sons began an internecine struggle, which was complicated by the incursions of nomads. This leads to the collapse of a single state.
• - Under the influence of external danger, an alliance of Slavic tribes was formed, headed by the glades in the Middle Dnieper. Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod, united Novgorod and Kyiv, Svyatoslav fought against Byzantium, the Khazars, North Caucasus, under Vladimir, all the lands of the Eastern Slavs united as part of Kievan Rus.

Lecture 1. History as a science. Plan:

1. History as a science, its conceptual apparatus and place in the humanities

2. Stage (formational) and civilizational approaches.

3. Historical sources for studying the history of Russia.

4. Domestic historiography in the past and present.

Literature:

Blok M. Apology of History, or the Craft of the Historian. M.: "Science", 1973. Methodology of history / ed. A.N. Alpeeva and others. Minsk: “Tetra

Systems", 1996.

Ionov I.N. Theory of civilizations at the turn of the 21st century // ONS, 1999,

About A. Twelve lessons in history (textbook). Moscow: Aspect Press, 2002.

Eidelman N. The Last Chronicler. M.: VAGRIUS, 2004.

1. In society, there are and have been different opinions on the question of whether history should be studied, and what is the value of this science. From statements that history is the science of sciences, to the famous aphorism of G. Ford: “History is nonsense”, or the opinion expressed by the philosopher F. Nietzsche that knowledge of history interferes with historical action. However, there is a curious fact: all people, one way or another, have certain ideas about history, a person who would not have them at all would be completely helpless in the face of social problems.

The word “history”, familiar to all of us, as an element of everyday speech, can have various meanings. Let us recall what the well-known literary hero of M. Bulgakov's novel "The Master and Margarita" answers to the question about his occupation: is he not a historian? “Yes, I am a historian, today there will be an interesting story at the Patriarchs” (and we remember the story – Berlioz was cut off by a tram). Woland resorts to a play on words: in his mouth, "history" already means simply an incident. In this sense, the word "history" will not interest us.

We are interested in those meanings that are associated with the scientific use of the word. The word "history" is Greek, more precisely, ancient Greek and literally means "research", a story, a story about what has been studied, researched. And in science, this term has two meanings. It can denote, firstly, any process of development in nature and society. In this case, we can talk about the history of the Universe (the so-called " big story”), the history of the Earth, the history individual sciences– physics, law, etc. Already in antiquity, the term "natural history" arose - a description of nature. In relation to society, history is the process of development of society, both as a whole and in individual countries. Secondly, history is a science that studies the development human society in all its specificity,

diversity in order to understand the present. The history of mankind, although an integral part of Nature, has an independent significance. We will be interested in history in this second sense. Amazing precise definition The famous French historian of the century Mark Blok gave historical knowledge: history is “the science of people in time”. Every word matters here. If history is the science of man, then it belongs to the complex humanities, if about “people” (remember that Aristotle said about a person - “social animal”), then it is a social science. So it is, history belongs both to the humanities and to the social sciences. If historical knowledge is a science, then it can establish some patterns, trends. As for M. Blok's remark that the science of history concerns people "in time", then the conversation about this is still ahead.

The subject of history is a person, the creator of history and its product itself. There is a well-known phrase by K. Marx in the work “The Holy Family” that history is nothing but the process by which a person achieves his goals.

Various researchers trace the course of processes in various aspects: material production, changes in the social structure, the development of science and culture. And, indeed, many factors affect the development of society: the development of production, social relations, the geographical environment, population density and growth, a certain system of values ​​that prevail in society. In the first half of the 20th century, a group of French scientists emerged who worked on the editorial board of the Annales magazine; they paid special attention to the study of social problems, which were considered through the evolution of mentality, sustainable forms of culture. different eras. This approach remains relevant and most common today.

History as a social science performs the most important social functions:

- allows you to trace the prevailing trends in social development and, within reasonable limits, give some forecasts regarding the future (prognostic function);

- in unity with other social sciences, history helps to develop principles, the foundations for guiding social life and its regulation(scientific-cognitive, heuristic function).

The role of historical knowledge in the development of national cultures, the formation of ideologies, the education of truly patriotic feelings. This manifests three closely related functions at once: social memory, educational and political-ideological.

As a science, history has its own specific methods, norms and rules of activity. They are called methods. Special historical methods are comparative-historical, historical-genetic (tracing the stages of the emergence of a phenomenon), historical-typological (method of classifying changing systems), and a number of specific quantitative methods. The peculiarity of the historian's work is that in

As a result of the research, the historian creates narratives (“narratives”) that are somewhat similar to literary plot narratives.

Historical science also proceeds from certain principles; in fact, methods are the application of principles. The most important principle of historical science is the principle of "historicism", i.e. considering phenomena in interrelated development, this principle implies the uniqueness (some aspects are repeated, but not the whole integrity) of historical phenomena.

2. Historical science in its not very modern forms arose in ancient times, in Ancient Greece, and the "father of history" is called the Greek historian Herodotus (V century BC). Great historians lived in Greece and Rome: Thucydides, Plutarch, Titus Livy, Tacitus. In antiquity, the idea of ​​the cyclical nature of historical change prevailed. Such were, for example, the views of the Roman historian, a Greek by birth, Polybius. The ancient religions, which were not particularly interested in the problems of morality, did not consider the problems of the meaning of history, and, therefore, the direction historical development. Philosophy of history at that time, in fact, was not. She was born in the context of the Christian worldview, when history took on meaning and direction. Augustine the Blessed, the author of the book "On the City of God", is considered the first Christian philosopher of history. The reason for writing the book was the capture of " eternal city» Germans. For Augustine, history objectively made sense - it was the development of humanity, which had fallen away from God, along the path to redemption. History had a beginning - the Fall and an end - the Second Coming and the Last Judgment. The content of the historical process for Augustine was the coexistence of two "city" (community) - earthly and divine. The first can be understood as a state, and the second as a community of true believers, predestined for salvation, its visible image is the church. The central event of history, which determined the very possibility of Salvation, was the life and preaching of Jesus. By virtue of this alone, history could be divided into stages, moreover, Augustine accepted the idea of ​​changing earthly empires, due to which history develops, as it were, from East to West. The Roman Empire turned out to be the last earthly "city" in the bosom of which the Church could exist and develop.

The new time was little interested in theology, but, in fact, reproduced and repeated Augustine's idea of ​​a progressive, and, therefore, stepwise development of history. Variants of the stage theory were created by A. Turgot, A. Condorcet, I. Kant, G. W. F. Hegel, K. Marx and other thinkers who proposed different criteria for social progress. Many have seen the development of freedom in history. Hegel gave this complete schematism: all slaves are primitive, one is free - the East, some are free - Antiquity, all are free - the Prussian monarchy. Marx created another form of stadiality, arguing that there are 5 socio-historical entities - formations that regularly replace each other (primitive communal, slaveholding,

feudal, capitalist, communist). The functioning and existence of formations were subordinated to the development of material production - productive forces and production relations according to the law of their correspondence (correspondence, discrepancy, conflict; new correspondence, new discrepancy, new conflict ...). Marx himself did not claim to have explored all formations, nor to the fact that his theory has a global character. About the attempts of the Russian sociologist N.K. Mikhailovsky, critical of him, to present the views of Marx as a universal philosophical and historical construction, Marx responded as follows: “It would be both too flattering and too shameful for me.” However, the followers of Marx turned his idea into a scheme, and the real historical process hardly fit into it. This gave rise to a number of theories that were designed to improve the Marxist "five-member": the idea of ​​three echelons of development of world capitalism, the idea of ​​"catch-up development" for non-Western countries, even the idea of ​​other formations. A significant shortcoming of the formation theory is the idea of ​​a single-line process (development only along the vertical, within the formation corridor). Yes, and modern capitalism does not fit the characteristics of Marx.

Nevertheless, there is something valuable in the formational approach: until now, a certain progress in history has been noticeable, i.e. progress. The patterns of functioning of certain types of societies in history are also found, but it was not possible to prove the existence of historical laws of development, apparently they do not exist. It is clearly seen, however, that there are trends in historical development, some of which are of a stable nature. Other historians believe that we can talk about patterns

- a complex combination of actions of a number of simple laws. Marx's idea of ​​the existence of society as a certain historically conditioned system (formation) is also justified.

Another approach is civilizational. In our time, the specificity of the life of human communities (civilization) is very pronounced. So, according to the civilizational approach, the face of each of these civilizations and their history are unique. Naturally, in this case, one cannot see a single history of mankind, permeated with some kind of stadiality. Strictly speaking, for this approach there is not a history at all, but the history of various cultural worlds- civilizations. Civilizations experience birth, development, breakdown and death, although this path is not fatal.

There are about 100 definitions of civilizations. Sometimes these definitions are not constructive: “a mess of potsherds and rags” (archaeologist R. Loewy from the USA). Sometimes such definitions are more restrained, but still negative.

Those who share the idea of ​​a civilizational approach usually define civilization in terms of cultural characteristics. So did O. Spengler, N. Berdyaev and others. Spengler believed that civilization is a late stage in the development of culture, when technology prevails.

economic element leading civilization to decline. But among historians, the opinion of N.Ya. Danilevsky and A. Toynbee, who define culture as the spiritual core of civilization, enjoys the greatest influence.

Thus, the specificity of civilizations must be determined not so much through geography, natural environment, systems of economic and social organizations(although this is important), but, above all, through religion, ideology, and spiritual values. The basis of everything is the understanding of the world and the so-called. mentality (according to the "Annals" - stable structures of consciousness, a set of mental attitudes, habits). Here is the usual definition of civilization: this is a community of people who have common fundamental foundations of mentality, common fundamental spiritual foundations, values ​​and ideals, as well as stable special features in socio-political organization, economy, culture.

The creators of the theory of civilization were the Italian J. Vico (in whom only some elements of the civilizational approach are noticeable), the Russians N. Ya. Danilevsky and K. Leontiev, the German O. Spengler and especially the Englishman A. Toynbee. The civilizational approach rightly draws attention to the specifics of the historical path different peoples. Among the shortcomings of civilizational theory is the poor development of the conceptual apparatus and terminology.

Historians-theorists have made attempts to determine the age cycles of civilizations from birth to decline. Danilevsky and Spengler indicated approximately 1000 years, Gumilyov - 1.5 thousand years, the Belgian Kestle (in 1848) - in 1461 with an error of +/- 185 years. Seriously, these attempts, apparently, are not worth it.

Attempts to determine the number of civilizations also had little success: A. Toynbee indicated first 100, then 36, 21 and, finally, 13 (the rest are options), now, in his opinion, there are 5 living civilizations on Earth. On the other hand, there are often as many civilizations as there are national cultures; so many.

Finally, attempts were made to determine the types of civilizations. L.I. Semennikova, based on the totality of features, singled out: (1) natural communities (these, in fact, are not civilizations, in 1965 there were about 650 of them);

(2) Eastern - cyclic in their development, as well as linear, but slow (Muslim, medieval European, with their characteristic charismatic consciousness, belief in the supernatural, in divine ideals, focus on the spiritual, statism, hierarchy, corporatism), (3 ) Western - with progressive development, democracy, civil society, the progress of life support systems.

In domestic science, the opinion was gradually established that the most fruitful for the study of history would, apparently, be a combination of local-civilizational and stage approaches to the study of history, with the predominance of the stage approach, because the history of mankind is essentially one.

3. A scientific study of the past is possible only when relying on historical sources. Historical sources are any remnants of the past, on the basis of which this or that era is studied. The following simple systematization of historical sources is accepted: material, written, oral, linguistic, ethnographic and language data.

Material sources: the remains of cities, villages, tombs, tools, weapons, jewelry, coins, seals and other material objects. They are studied by a special historical science - archeology. Other sciences - numismatics and sphragistics study coins and seals. Archeology as a science is especially important for the era of antiquity, but also for the Middle Ages, in Russia - for the period up to the XIV century, archeology delivers important historical information.

Written sources include documentary and literary. The first are laws, treaties, decrees, economic documents, the second are chronicles, chronicles, letters, writings of scientists, philosophers, works of art. Finally, there are oral sources: myths, legends.

Written sources are the most important Patriotic history Written sources are very diverse and, if for ancient periods they are rather scarce, then as the historical development of Russian society, their circle expands. The Saami early written sources on the history of our country belong to the Antiquity era: the works of the historian Herodotus, the geographers Strabo, Pliny the Elder and the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea. For the history of ancient Rus', the most important sources are the chronicles kept in monasteries and at princely courts. The earliest is "The Tale of Bygone Years" - XII century. Monuments of law are also important - "Russian Truth" (11th century), literary monuments like "Instructions" by Vladimir Monomakh. Also important birch bark letters, originating mainly from Novgorod, but there are also from Smolensk, Staraya Russa and others. Ancient epics have come down to us, graffiti (inscriptions) on the walls of ancient buildings have been preserved. Since the 12th century, a mass of chronicles has appeared, a large act of material in the form of various letters - letters of commendation, merchants, etc. From the 15th-16th centuries publications appear. Since the 17th century, there has been a lot of clerical documentation - various documents of state institutions. Of particular importance is the "Cathedral Code" of 1649. For 18-19 centuries. sources are already very diverse, a lot of journalism, literary works, various memoirs are of particular importance. In the 19th century, there were complete collection Laws of the Russian Empire” and “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire”, other legal monuments. For the Soviet era, "mass sources" are especially important - census data, various statistical materials, and the press. This type of sources such as film, photo, phono materials is gaining importance.

Language can also be a historical source. For example, geographical names (rivers, cities), which are studied by the science of toponymy, can tell us what peoples lived here and, therefore, belonged to the number of our ancestors. So, it turns out that Iranian languages ​​(Scythians, Sarmatians), Finno-Ugric peoples, Balts are widely spread in Eastern Europe - all of them were once mixed with the Slavic ethnic element.

4. Although individual works on the history of Russia appeared already in the 16-17 centuries. (“Chronograph”, “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”), and at the beginning of the 18th century (the works of Golikov and P.P. Shafirov about Peter the Great), real science, i.e. there has not yet been a critical examination of the sources. The emergence of historical science should be conducted from the work of V.N. Tatishchev “Russian History from the Most Ancient Times” in 5 vols. (1768). Prominent historians of the 18th century were the Normanists Bayer and Schlozer and the anti-Normanist M.V. Lomonosov. The 19th century was the heyday of Russian historical science. At the beginning of the century, the great writer and historian N.M. Karamzin lived, called by A.S. Pushkin "our first historian and last chronicler." He wrote an extensive "History of the Russian State", having managed to bring it to the beginning of the Time of Troubles. Major historians were M.P. Pogodin, K.D. Kavelin. An outstanding historian of the middle of the 19th century, who based his historical construction on the history of the development of the state, was S.M. Solovyov, the author of the huge “History of Russia from Ancient Times”. This author processed a huge historical material and brought his history up to the 18th century inclusive. A brilliant lecturer at Moscow University was V.O. Klyuchevsky, who paid great attention to both the legal aspect of the historical process and the geographical factor and the history of culture. Mainly social processes studied by the great historian of the Time of Troubles S.F. Platonov.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a Marxist school developed in Russian historical science. It is believed that M.N. Pokrovsky was its first representative. This direction in historical science, which became dominant after October 1917, and then the only one, dealt mainly with socio-economic issues, as well as manifestations of class struggle in history. Soviet historical science had great achievements, especially valuable works were created by historians S.V. Yushkov, B.D. Grekov, L.V. Cherepnin, S.O. Schmidt, S.I. Smirnov, A.A. Zimin, R. G. Skrynnikov, N. M. Druzhinin, P. A. Zaionchkovsky.

Our time is a period of serious changes in historical science, its methodology is seriously changing, enriched.

Lecture 2. The problem of the ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs.

1. Review of written and archaeological sources of the Slavs in 1 thousand AD. e.

2. Ancient heritage in the era of the Great Migration of Nations

3. Territory. Neighbors: Volga Bulgaria, Khazaria.

4. Ancient Rus' and nomads

5. Features of the social structure of Ancient Rus'. Tribal unions Eastern Slavs, resettlement, occupation, religious cults.

Literature:

Alekseev V.P. The origin of the peoples of Eastern Europe, M .: Nauka, 1969

Alekseeva T. I. Anthropological composition of the Eastern Slavic peoples and the problem of their origin. //Ethnogenesis of the Finno-Ugric peoples according to anthropology. - M.: Nauka, 1974

Artamonov M.I. History of the Khazars. - L., 1962; SPb., 2001. Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. - M., 1949

Grigoriev A.V. Slavic population of the Oka and Don watershed at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd millennium AD – Tula, 2005

Litavrin G.G. Slavinia VII-IX centuries. - socio-political organizations of the Slavs // Ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Balkans and North. Black Sea region. – M.,

Lyapushkin I.I. Slavs of Eastern Europe on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state (VIII - first half of the IX century): Historical and archaeological essays. - L., 1968

Pletneva S.A. Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsians // Steppes of Eurasia in the Middle Ages. - M., 1981.

Origin and ethnic history Russian people according to anthropological data, edited by V.V. Bunaka, M.: Science,

Petrukhin V.Ya. The beginning of the ethnocultural history of Rus' in the 9th-11th centuries. - Smolensk; M., 1995

Rybakov B.A. The paganism of the ancient Slavs. - M., 1981 Skrzhinskaya E.Ch. Polovtsy. The experience of the historical interpretation of the term

// Byzantine time book. - T.46. - M., 1986. - S.255-276

Sedov V.V. Eastern Slavs in the VI-XIII centuries. - M., 1982 // Archeology

USSR in 20 volumes.

Sedov V.V. Slavs in antiquity. - M., 1994.

Sedov V.V. Slavs in early middle ages. - M., 1995. Khrisanfova E.N., Perevozchikov I.V. Anthropology, M.: MGU, 1999.

1. Huge territory modern Russia began to settle and settle down from the East European (Russian) Plain, where the first Russian state in the ninth century. In ancient times, tribes and peoples of various origins lived on this plain.

Ethnogenesis is the moment of origin and the subsequent process of development of any people, which led to a certain state, type, phenomenon. It includes both the initial stages of the emergence of any people, and the further formation of its ethnographic, linguistic and anthropological features.

The East Slavic peoples include Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, as well as sub-ethnic groups of small numbers: Pomors, Don Cossacks, Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, Nekrasov Cossacks, Russo-Ustyintsy, Markovites and some others. The territory of residence of these peoples is compact, limited from the west by Poland, the Baltic countries, the countries of Scandinavia, from the north by the Arctic Ocean, further from the east by the Dvina and Volga rivers and from the south by the Black Sea. The main part is in the East European plain, which dictates the main landscape of the territory (plains, deciduous forest zone). The climate is moderate.

Anthropological literature on the Eastern Slavs is very large. A.P. Bogdanov (1865) was the first to show the role of Finnish ethnic elements in the anthropological composition of the Eastern Slavs. N.Yu. Zograf collected extensive anthropological data on the Volga-Kama-Ural region. EAT. Chepurkovsky (1913) for the first time collected very complete anthropological data characterizing the main typological variants, and proposed a hypothesis of the formation of the Russian people on the Finnish substrate with the participation of alien elements. V.V. Bunak (1932) developed the first anthropological classification of the East Slavic peoples and showed the great importance of migrations from the West, on the one hand, and the autochthonous substratum, on the other. T.A. Trofimova (1946) created a more detailed classification of the Eastern Slavs and the concept of autochthonous origin, with elements present among the Finns. G.F. Debets (1948) also defended the hypothesis of the autochthonous origin of the Eastern Slavs and the impossibility of isolating anthropological features specific only to the Slavs.

The Eastern Slavs are characterized by two anthropological types: Atlanto-Baltic and Central European.

The Atlanto-Baltic minor race is characterized by light skin pigmentation, light shades eyes and hair. The hair is broadly wavy and soft, the beard growth is medium to above average, the tertiary hairline is medium to weak. The face and head are quite large. head pointer

- on the borders of dolicho- and mesokephaly, the height of the face somewhat predominates over the width. The height of the lower part of the face is significant. The nose is usually straight and narrow, with a high nose bridge. Characteristic for the populations of Russians and Belarusians.

The Central European small race is close to the Atlanto-Baltic, but differs in stronger hair pigmentation (“brown-haired belt”). The cephalic index is usually brachycephalic. Most facial proportions are average. The growth of the beard is average and above average, the tertiary hairline is moderate. Nose with a straight back and a high nose bridge,

its length varies. Eastern variants of this race are lighter. Typical for Russians and Ukrainians.

The most important result of anthropological research on the territory of Eastern Europe in relation to the problem of the ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavic peoples is the identification of the Eastern European type as a special independent branch within the Caucasoid race. This type is characteristic of the population of the central regions of the range of the Russian people.

Modern science divides all nations, depending on what languages ​​they speak, into language families, and families into groups. East Slavic peoples speak the Slavic languages ​​of the Indo-European language family. These languages ​​are close to the Baltic ones spoken by Lithuanians and Latvians. The Romance, Germanic and Iranian groups also belong to the Indo-European language family. Branch Slavic languages stood out in the 5th - 6th centuries AD. e. And at that time, and in subsequent centuries, there was no distinct connection and delimitation of tribes according to linguistic feature; the tribes were at enmity or maintained good neighborly relations, not attaching paramount importance to ethnic differences or similarities.

More or less definitely, one can speak of a significant anthropological similarity between the East Slavic tribes that took part in the formation of the Russian population. A common complex for all Slavic groups can be considered a low, strongly profiled face, a rather wide, medium and strongly protruding nose. The values ​​of the angles of horizontal profiling and protrusion of the nose make it possible to attribute the East Slavic population to the circle of Caucasoid forms, with the exception of the Krivichi of the northeastern regions (Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vladimir-Ryazan groups), in which Caucasoid features are somewhat weakened.

Despite the noticeable homogeneity of the physical appearance of the Eastern Slavs, there are differences between their individual groups. These are the differences in cranial index and zygomatic diameter. The combination of these sizes allows us to distinguish several anthropological complexes in the territory of interest to us: dolichocranic narrow-faced among the Vyatichi, dolichocranic with an average width of the face - among the Smolensk and Tver Krivichi and Severians.

Comparison of the medieval and modern East Slavic population according to the nature of epochal changes reveals the continuity of the population in some territories and the change in others. Continuity is found for the following ethnic and territorial groups: Belarusians

- Dregovichi, Radimichi, Western Krivichi; Ukrainians - Tivertsy, Uchi, Drevlyans, Volhynians, Polans; Russians of the Desno-Seima triangle - northerners, Russians of the upper reaches of the Dnieper and Volga, the Oka basin and the Pskov-Ilmensky lake area - western Krivichi and Slovenes of Novgorod.

In relation to the Volga-Oka basin, a change in the anthropological composition is found in comparison with the Middle Ages due to the influx of the Slavic population from the northwestern regions, apparently in

Section I. Ancient and Medieval Rus'

Subject: Ancient Rus'. The era of Kievan Rus.

Question 1. Rus' is original.

Question 2. Formation of the East Slavic state. Kievan Rus.

Question 3. Kievan Rus in the X-XI centuries.

Topic: Russian lands in the XII-XIV centuries.

Question 4. feudal division. Rus' specific.

Question 5. Culture of Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation (X-XIII centuries).

Topic: Rus''s struggle against external invasions in the 13th century.

Question 6. Opposition of Rus' to the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Question 7. The struggle of Rus' against invasions from the West in the 13th century.

Topic: Formation of a unified Russian state .

Question 8. Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands.

into a single state.

Question 9. The nomination of Moscow as a center of unification and struggle for national independence.

Question 10. Fight against the Horde for national independence. Kulikovo battle.

Question 11. Muscovite Rus at the end of the XIV-XV centuries. Formation of a unified state of Russia.

Subject: The era of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. Russia in the 16th - early 17th centuries.

Question 12. Russian state at the beginning of the 16th century.

Question 13. Domestic and foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible.

Question 14. Oprichnina.

Question 15. Cultural and spiritual life of Russia in the 14th-16th centuries.

Question 16. Russia at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. Time of Troubles.

Section II. Russia in modern times (XVII century - until the end of the XIX century).

Topic: Historical destinies of Russia in the 17th century.

Question 17. Russia at the beginning of the New Age. Socio-economic development of Russia in the middle and in the second half of the XVII century.

Question 18. Political development of Russia in the 17th century.

Question 19. Church split.

Question 20."Rebellious" age. Popular movements in the second half of the 17th century.

Question 21. The main directions of foreign policy and the expansion of the territory of Russia in the XVII century.

Question 22. Culture and spiritual development of Russian society in the 17th century.

Theme: The Age of Peter I . Birth of an empire .

Question 23. Peter I and political struggle 80s of the XVII century.

Question 24. The beginning of the reign of Peter I. Reasons and origins of reforms.

Question 25. Socio-economic transformations of Peter I.

Question 26. State and administrative reforms of Peter I.

Question 27. Reforms and Russian society in the era of Peter I.

Question 28. North War 1700-1721

Question 29. Transformations in the field of culture and life under Peter I.

Topic: Russian Empire in the 18th century .

Question 30. The era of palace coups.

Question 31."Enlightened absolutism" in Russia.

Question 32. Features of the socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century.

Question 33. Peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev.

Question 34. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

Question 35. Russia at the end of the 18th century Pavel I.

Question 36. The development of culture and social thought in Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

Topic: Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century.

Question 37. Economic, social and political development Russia at the beginning of the 19th century.

Question 38. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in 1801-1812. Reforms of M. Speransky.

Question 39. Patriotic War 1812. Foreign campaign of the Russian army.

Question 40. Domestic policy of Russia in 1812-1825. Decembrist movement.

Question 41. Socio-economic development of Russia and domestic policy of Nicholas I (1825-1855).

Question 42. Social movement in Russia under Nicholas I (1825 - 50s).

Question 43. Foreign policy of Nicholas I.

Question 44. Culture of Russia in the first half of the XIX century.

Topic: Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

Question 45. The abolition of serfdom in Russia. Liberal reforms 60-70s of the XIX century.

Question 46. Economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. (in post-reform times.

Question 47. Social movement in the 60s - early 80s of the XIX century. Populism.

Question 48. Foreign policy of Russia in the 60-70s of the XIX century. Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878

Question 49. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Counter-reforms Alexander III. Russian society at the end of the XIX century.

Question 50. Social movement in Russia at the end of the 19th century. Labor movement. Spread of Marxism in Russia.

Question 51. Culture of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. Section III. Russia, USSR in modern times(XX century).

Section I. Ancient and Medieval Rus'

Subject: Ancient Rus'. The era of Kievan Rus

Question 1. Rus' original

ANSWER PLAN:

A. Early history Slavic peoples; separation of Eastern Slavs.

B. Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs in the VIII-IX centuries, their occupations and social relations.

B. Religion of the Eastern Slavs.

A. Early history of the Slavic peoples; separation of Eastern Slavs.

1. Slavs - the largest group of kindred peoples in Europe, united by the proximity of languages ​​​​and common origin. Their number is almost 300 million people.

The ancestors of the Slavs, the so-called Proto-Slavs, belonged to the ancient Indo-European family peoples who in the IV-III millennium BC. e. settled on the vast territory of the European continent - from Europe to India. The closest relatives of the Slavs in terms of language were the Balts - the ancestors of the Lithuanians, Latvians and Prussians. Neighbors in the south and west are the Germans, whom the Slavs called by the common name "Germans". Eastern neighbors - Western Iranian tribes - Scythians and Sarmatians. The same family included Indians, Iranians, ancient Hittites, Armenians, Greeks and Romans, Celts and other peoples.

2. The oldest historical information about the Slavs, then known under the name of "Venedi", refers to the 1-11 centuries. n. e. and are found in the writings of the Greco-Roman historians Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Ptolemy, and others. Extensive information about the Slavs is contained in the works of the Byzantine historian of the 6th century. Procopius of Caesarea and the Gothic historian Jordanes. They were the first to tell about the appearance of the Slavs at the borders of Byzantium and in the Northern Black Sea region - the borders of the Gothic Empire, about their way of life, customs, campaigns, relations with neighbors. Procopius provides quite detailed information about the Slavic development of the Balkan Peninsula. Even more important is the information of the historian Jordanes. He subdivides the Slavs into three major groups - Wends, Antes and Sclavins. IN last years archaeologists have established that this information can be trusted. The richest information about the life of the ancient Slavs is contained in the Russian chronicles, and above all in the Tale of Bygone Years.

3. The ancient Slavs inhabited the Central and Eastern Europe between the rivers Vistula and Dnieper, the foothills of the Carpathians and advanced to the Danube, to the Balkans. In the second half of the 1st millennium, they occupied the territory from the Elbe and Oder in the west, in the Vistula basin, in the Upper Dnieper and to the Middle Dnieper in the east. While the Slavs lived together between the Vistula and the Dnieper, they spoke one language that was understandable to all the ancient Slavs - Proto-Slavic. However, as they settled, the ancient Slavs became more and more distant from each other in terms of language and culture. Later, the Slavic massif was divided into three branches, on the basis of which modern nations were formed:

> Western Slavs-Poles, Czechs, Slovaks;

> southern Slavs-Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Bosnians;

> and the largest, third branch is the Eastern Slavs - they are Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians.

B. Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs in the VIII-IX centuries, their occupations and social relations

1. In the middle of the 1st millennium, the tribes of the Eastern Slavs occupied a vast territory from the Onega and Ladoga lakes in the north to northern Black Sea region in the south, from the foothills of the Carpathians in the west to the interfluve of the Oka and Volga in the east.

2. In the VIII-IX centuries. the Eastern Slavs formed about 15 of the largest unions of tribes or, as the chronicler Nestor calls them, "tribal principalities." According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the picture of their settlement looked like this:

> clearing-along the middle reaches of the Dnieper;

> Drevlyane-in the north-west, in the Pripyat river basin and in the Middle Dnieper;

> Slavs (Ilmen Slavs) - along the banks of the Volkhov River and Lake Ilmen;

> Dregovichi-between the rivers Pripyat and Berezina;

> Vyatichi - in the upper reaches of the Oka, along the banks of the Klyazma and the Moscow River;

> Krivichi - in the upper reaches of the Western Dvina, Dnieper and Volga;

> Polotsk-on the Western Dvina and its tributary Polota;

> northerners-in the basins of the Desna, the Seimas, the Courts and the Northern Donets;

> radimichi - on the Sozh and Desna;

> Volhynians, Buzhans and Duleby-in Volhynia, along the banks of the Bug;

> convict, Tivertsy-in the very south, between the Bug and the Dniester, the Dniester and the Prut;

> white Croats-in the foothills of the Carpathians.

3. Finno-Ugric tribes lived next to the Eastern Slavs: the whole, Karel, Chud, Muroma, Mordva, Mer, Cheremis. Their relations with the Slavs were built mostly peacefully.

4. The basis of the economic life of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. The Slavs, who lived in the forest-steppe and steppe zones, were engaged in arable farming with two-field and three-field crop rotation. The main tools were a plow with an iron tip, a sickle, a hoe, but a plow with a plowshare was already used. The Slavs of the forest zone had slash-and-burn agriculture, in which forests were cut down and burned, ash mixed with the top layer of soil served as good fertilizer. For 4-5 years, a good harvest was taken, then this area was abandoned. They grew barley, rye, wheat, millet, oats, peas, buckwheat. Flax and hemp were important industrial crops.

The economic activity of the Slavs was not limited to agriculture: they were also engaged in cattle breeding, raising cattle and pigs, as well as horses, sheep and poultry. Hunting and fishing were developed. Valuable furs paid tribute, they were the equivalent of money. The Slavs were also engaged in beekeeping - collecting honey from wild bees. Drinks were made from honey.