Trails. Figures of speech. Proverbs. Sayings. phraseological expressions.
The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among the listeners, maintains attention to the subject of the conversation, affects not only the mind, but other feelings, the imagination of the listeners.
Help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional special artistic techniques, visual and means of expression languages, traditionally called paths and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words.
Before analyzing various figurative means language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, the main tool of the speaker, the main construction material What possibilities does it contain?
Words serve as the names of objects, phenomena, actions, i.e., everything that surrounds a person. However, the word performs an aesthetic function, it is able not only to name an object, action, quality, but also to create a figurative representation of them.
The concept of figurativeness of a word is connected with the phenomenon of polysemy. It is known that words that name only one object are considered unambiguous. (pavement, sidewalk, trolleybus, tram), and words denoting several objects, phenomena of reality, are polysemantic. Polysemy to some extent reflects the complex relationships that exist in reality. So, if an external resemblance is found between objects or some hidden common feature is inherent in them, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become the name of another. For example: needle- sewing, at the spruce, at the hedgehog; fox - animal and mushroom; flexible reed - flexible human - flexible mind.
The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative.
Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are.
Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.
For example, the word lacquer has two meanings: direct - “varnish” and figurative - “embellish, represent something in at its best than it really is." The figurative use of a word is most often associated with the concept of a figurative meaning. For example, in the word splinter stands out direct meaning- “a thin, sharp, small piece of wood that has stuck into the body”, and figuratively - “a harmful, corrosive person”. The figurative nature of the figurative meaning of the word is obvious.
The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as tropes, which are widely used in oratory, oral communication.
trails- figures of speech and words in a figurative sense, preserving expressiveness and figurativeness. The main types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, comparison, epithet, hyperbole, litote, personification of periphrase.
A trope is a transfer of a name, which consists in the fact that a word that traditionally names one object (phenomenon, process, property) is used in this speech situation to refer to another object (phenomenon, etc.). Russian language. Encyclopedia. M., 1997.
Metaphor based on the transfer of the name from one object to another according to the similarity of these objects. The source of the new metaphorical meaning is comparison. For example, the stars of the eyes lit up(eyes are compared with the stars); lit up the eyes of the night(stars are compared with eyes). Metaphors are formed by transferring properties animate objects to inanimate (water runs, storm of planets) and vice versa (windy weather and windy man). Features of an object can be transformed into features of abstract concepts (superficial judgment, empty promises) etc.
Different parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. We often hear and say: it is raining, the clock has become, iron character, warm relations, acute vision. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.
Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, in this case they decorate speech, for example: The silhouettes of crimson hearts are showered from maples all day long(N. Zabolotsky).
However, the use of metaphors, direct and figurative meanings of words do not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors. “Too brilliant style,” wrote Aristotle, “makes both characters and thoughts invisible.”
The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content.
Metonymy unlike metaphor is based on contiguity. If in metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. Word related in this case, it should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other.
K.M. Simonov in one of the poems we read: “And the hall rises, and the hall sings, and the hall breathes easily.” In the first and second cases, the word hall means "people", in the third - "room". Therefore, here the name of the room is used to name those who are in it. An example of metonymy is the use of words auditorium, classroom, school, apartment, house, factory to refer to people.
A word can be called a material and products made from this material. (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). Yes, one of sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: "Gold and silver received by our athletes, bronze went to the French."
Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense. For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of "government of the country", "ruling circles": "negotiations between London and Washington, Warsaw made a decision”, etc. place names also designate people living in a remote area. So, Belarus synonymous with combination Belarusian people, Ukraine - Ukrainian people.
Synecdoche- a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that a part is called instead of a whole, is used singular instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole - instead of the part, the plural - instead of the singular. For example: “All flags will visit us” (A.S. Pushkin). Word flags(part) denotes here "states" (whole).
An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M.A. Sholokhov about the character of the Russian people. Using the word human and own name Ivan the writer means the whole people:
The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who, without hesitation, gave the last piece of bread and thirty grams of front-line sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, spa -saying him from imminent death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland.
Good name Ivan!
Comparison. This is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: firstly, what is compared (“object”), secondly, what is compared with (“image”), thirdly, on the basis of which one is compared with another (“feature” ). For example: Facts are the scientist's air(I.P. Pavlov). Facts (subject) are compared with air (image) on the basis of "essential, necessary for existence."
Since comparison implies the presence of not one, but two images, the listener receives two information that are interconnected, that is, one image is complemented by another.
Comparison is effective only when it is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the thought, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in its originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing objects, phenomena or actions closer together, which, it would seem, have nothing in common with each other.
Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetic quality. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness and turned into speech clichés. It is unlikely that such common expressions will cause positive emotions in anyone: brave as a lea; cowardly as a hare; reflected as in a mirror etc. It is bad when incorrect comparisons are used in speech. Such comparisons make it difficult to understand the main idea of the speaker, divert the attention of listeners from the content of the speech.
epithets - artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. Pay attention to what expressive epithets A.E. Fersman, to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones: A brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling demantoid stone, which was so valued abroad, and traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana in Persia. A whole range of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with the deep green dark aquamarines of the Ilmensky mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is almost unparalleled.
In the scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language(constantly used in literary language, have stable connections with a certain word, have lost figurativeness: biting frost, quiet evening, fast run);folk-poetic(used in oral folk art, the so-called poetic epithets: red girl, open field, violent little head);individually-author's(created by the authors, distinguished by originality, figurativeness, unexpectedness of compared semantic plans: marmalade mood(A. Chekhov), chumpy indifference(D. Pisarev), curiously thoughtful tenderness(N. Gumilyov).
Hyperbola - a technique of expressiveness of speech used by the speaker in order to create an exaggerated idea of the subject of speech among listeners. For example: They have strawberries - with a fist, You are always late, I told you this a hundred times. Hyperbole is characteristic mainly of live colloquial and artistic speech as well as journalism. In colloquial speech, hyperbolas are created by using ready-made means and models available in the language, while the author of a literary or journalistic work strives to create an individualized hyperbole. For example: He snores like a tractor(in colloquial speech). In a dream, the janitor became heavy, like a chest of drawers.(I. Ilf, E. Petrov).
Litotes - reception of expressiveness of speech, deliberate understatement of the small size of the subject of speech: a little man with a fingernail, two inches from the pot, one second, two steps away from here.
personification - a stylistic device consisting in the fact that properties, actions, actions inherent in a person are attributed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, a living being not endowed with consciousness: Some fire lightning bolts, igniting in succession, ... They are talking among themselves(Tyutchev); The waltz calls for hope, it sounds ... And it speaks loudly to the heart(Polonsky). Personifications are divided into generally recognized, "linguistic": longing takes, time runs and creative, individually-author's: Nevka swayed by the railing, Suddenly the drum began to speak(Zabolotsky).
paraphrase- replacement of the usual one-word name of an object, phenomenon, person, etc. with a descriptive phrase, for example: white stone capital(Moscow), king of beasts(a lion), singer of "birch chintz"(Yesenin). Paraphrases usually contain an assessment of the signified, for example: flowers of life(children), stationery rat(official). Some of the paraphrases can become clichés: field workers, seafood. They have lost their figurativeness, and they can hardly be considered as a means of speech expressiveness.
So, tropes perform the following functions: they give speech emotionality (reflect a person’s personal view of the world, express assessments, feelings when comprehending the world); visibility (contribute to the visual reflection of the picture of the outside world, the inner world of a person); contribute to the original reflection of reality (show objects and phenomena with a new, unexpected side); allow you to better understand the internal state of the speaker (writer); make speech attractive.
Figures of speech- special forms of syntactic constructions that enhance the impact of speech on the addressee.____________ I
To enliven speech, give it emotional expressiveness, imagery, stylistic syntax techniques, the so-called figures, are used. There are figures in which the structure of the phrase is determined by the ratio of the meanings of the words-concepts in it: antithesis, gradation; syntactic figures that have the property of facilitating listening, understanding and memorizing speech: repetition, parallelism, period; rhetorical forms, which are used as methods of dialogization of monologue speech, attract the attention of the listener: an appeal, a rhetorical question, a question-answer move, etc.
Antithesis - a technique based on the matching of opposite phenomena and signs. Aphoristic judgments, proverbs, sayings are often clothed in the form of antithesis: Teaching is light, and ignorant darkness, There would be no happiness, but misfortune helped, As it comes around, it will respond, It is thick on the head, but empty in the head. To compare two phenomena, antonyms can be used - words with opposite meanings: light - darkness, happiness - misfortune, backfire - respond, thick - empty. Many lines from artistic, journalistic works are built on this principle.
Here is an excerpt from A. Solzhenitsyn's Nobel lecture. The use of antithesis, the comparison of opposite concepts allowed the writer to express main idea more vividly and emotionally, more precisely express your attitude to the described phenomena:
What, according to one scale, seems from afar an enviable prosperous freedom, then on another scale, close up, it feels like an annoying compulsion calling for overturning buses. What in one region would be dreamed of as implausible well-being, in another region revolts as wild exploitation, requiring an immediate strike. Different scales for natural disasters: a flood of two hundred thousand victims seems smaller than our urban case. There are different scales for insulting a person: where even an ironic smile and a move away are humiliating, where severe beatings are excusable as a bad joke. Different scales for punishments, for atrocities. According to one scale, a month's arrest, or exile to the village, or a "punishment cell" where they are fed with white buns and milk - staggers the imagination, fills the newspaper pages with anger. And on a different scale, they are familiar and forgiven - and prison terms of twenty-five years, and punishment cells, where there is ice on the walls, but they strip to underwear, and madhouses for the healthy, and border executions of countless unreasonable people, all for some reason running somewhere .
A valuable means of expressiveness in a speech is inversion, that is, a change in the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose. So, if the adjective is placed not before the noun to which it refers, but after it, then this enhances the meaning of the definition, the characteristic of the subject. Here is an example of such an arrangement: He was passionately in love not just with reality, but with constantly developing reality, with reality eternally new and unusual.
To draw the attention of listeners to one or another member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to declarative sentence the predicate at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The hero of the day was honored by the whole team; As difficult as it is, we must do it.
Thanks to all sorts of permutations in a sentence, even consisting of a small number of words, it is often possible to create several versions of one sentence, and each of them will have different semantic shades. Naturally, when permuting, it is necessary to monitor the accuracy of the statement.
gradation - a figure of speech, the essence of which is the arrangement of several elements listed in speech (words, phrases, phrases) in ascending order of their meaning (“ascending gradation”) or in descending order of values (“descending gradation”). Under the "increase", "decrease" of meanings understand the degree of expressiveness (expressiveness), emotional strength, "tension" of the expression (word, turnover, phrase). For example: I beg you, I beg you, I beg you(ascending gradation). Beastly, alien, unsightly world...(descending gradation). Gradation, like antithesis, is often found in folklore, which indicates the universality of these rhetorical figures. They make speech easy to understand, expressive, memorable. Gradation is actively used in modern oratory practice.
Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repeats . There are many different forms of repetition. Anaphora(translated from Greek - “unity”) - a technique in which several sentences begin with the same word or group of words. For example: Such are the times! These are our manners! Repetitive words are service units, for example, unions and particles. So, repeat, interrogative particle unless in a fragment of a lecture by A.E. Fersman enhances the intonation color of speech, creates a special emotional mood: Is does it (artificial diamond) not correspond more than anything else to precisely these qualities? Is it yourself gems are not the emblem of firmness, constancy and eternity? Is there anything harder than diamond that can compare with the strength and indestructibility of this form of carbon?
epiphora figure- repetition of the final elements of successive phrases - less frequent and less noticeable in speech products. For example: I would like to know why I am a titular councillor? Why a titular adviser? (A. Chekhov).
Parallelism- the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences, the location of similar sentence members in them, for example: In what year - count, In what land - guess ...(N. Nekrasov). Parallelism is often used in the titles of books, articles: Poetry Grammar and Grammar of Poetry(R. Jacobson). Most often, parallelism occurs in the period ah.
Period- a special rhythmic construction, the thought and intonation in which gradually increase, reach the top, after which the theme gets its resolution, and, accordingly, the intonational tension decreases: No matter how hard the people, who gathered several hundred thousand in one kebolshoy place, mutilated the land on which they were stingy, no matter how they stoned the earth so that nothing would grow on it, no matter how they cleaned off any breaking grass, no matter how they smoked with coal and oil , no matter how they cut the trees and drove out all the animals and birds, - spring was spring in the city(L. Tolstoy).
In the practice of oratory, techniques have been developed that not only enliven the narrative, give it expressiveness, but also dialogize monologue speech.
One of these techniques is the question-and-answer move. It lies in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. The question-answer move turns a monologue speech into a dialogue, makes listeners the speaker's interlocutors, activates their attention, and engages them in a scientific search for truth.
Skillfully and interestingly posed questions attract the attention of the audience, make them follow the logic of reasoning. Question-answer move - one of the most accessible oratory techniques. The proof of this is the lecture "Cold Light", read by the largest master of popularization scientific knowledge SI. Vavilov:
The question arises, why does an alcohol flame, into which table salt is introduced, glow with a bright yellow light, despite the fact that its temperature is almost the same as the temperature of a match? The reason is that the flame is not absolute
Black for all colors. Only the yellow color is absorbed by it in more, therefore, only in this yellow part of the spectrum, the alcohol flame behaves like a warm radiator with the properties of a black body.
How does the new physics explain the amazing properties of "cold light"? The enormous advances made by science in understanding the structure of atoms and molecules, as well as the nature of light, made it possible, at least in general terms, to understand and explain luminescence.
How, finally, is the quenching of the "cold light" that we see in experience explained? The reasons are different in different cases...
The effectiveness of this technique is especially noticeable if the corresponding part of the speech is pronounced without interrogative sentences.
In addition to the question-answer technique, the so-called rhetorical question. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves to emotionally affirm or deny something. Asking an audience a question is an effective technique.
The rhetorical question uttered by the speaker is perceived by the listeners not as a question that needs to be answered, but as a positive statement. This is precisely the meaning of the rhetorical question in the final part of A.E. Fersman "Green stones of Russia":
What could be more interesting and beautiful than this close connection between the deep laws of distribution chemical elements in earth's crust and the spread in it of its inanimate flowers - a precious stone?! The glory of the Russian green stone is rooted in the deep laws of Russian geochemistry, and it is no accident that our country has become a country of green gems.
The rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on the listeners, awakens in them the corresponding feelings, carries a great semantic and emotional load.
Rich material for performances contains oral folk art. A real treasure for the speaker - proverbs and sayings. These are well-aimed figurative folk expressions with instructive meaning, summarizing various phenomena of life. In short sayings, the people expressed their knowledge of reality, their attitude to its various manifestations.
The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of listeners. It should be borne in mind that in science there is no single definition of the concept of "expressiveness of speech". There are different approaches to describing this quality of speech. Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. Therefore, in the literature, expressiveness is distinguished pronunciation, accentological, lexical, derivational, morphological, syntactic, intonation, stylistic *
A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of oral speech largely depends on the situation of communication. So, A. N. Vasilyeva writes:
Obviously, the expressiveness of the proof of the theorem and the expressiveness advertisement significantly different both in content and form. Therefore, one should first of all distinguish between informational expressiveness (object-logical, logical-conceptual) and expressiveness of sensory expression and influence. Moreover, both of these types can have subspecies: open (expressive) and hidden (impressive) forms of expression. The ratio of these species AND SUB-TYPES according to the main styles is different.
B. N. Golovin names a number of conditions on which the expressiveness of speech depends individual person. He refers to them:
independence of thinking, activity of consciousness of the author of speech;
indifference, the interest of the author of the speech to what he speaks or writes about, and to those for whom he speaks or writes;
good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities;
good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles. lei;
systematic and conscious training of speech skills;
the ability to control one's speech, to notice what is expressive in it, and what is stereotyped and gray;
the conscious intention of the author of the speech to speak and write expressively, the psychological target setting for expressiveness.
Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional.
Before analyzing various visual means of language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, the main tool of the speaker, the main building material, what possibilities does yo include?
Words serve as names of objects, phenomena, actions
that is, everything that surrounds a person * However, the word also has an aesthetic function * it is able not only to name an object, action, quality * but also to create a figurative representation of them.
The concept of figurativeness of a word is associated with the phenomenon of ambiguity * It is known that Words that name only one object are considered unambiguous (pavement, sidewalk, trolley bus, tram), and words denoting several objects, phenomena of reality * - ambiguous * Polysemy in some then the degree reflects those complex relationships that exist in reality * So * if an external resemblance is found between objects or some hidden common feature is inherent in them, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become a name and another. For example: needle - sewing, spruce, hedgehog; fox - an animal and a mushroom; flexible cane - flexible person - flexible mind*
The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative.
Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are *
Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.
For example, the word lacquer has two meanings: direct - “cover with varnish” and figurative - “embellish, represent something in a better way than it actually is” * The figurative use of the word is most often associated with the concept of the figurative meaning of the word. For example, in the word splinter, a direct meaning is distinguished - “a thin, sharp, small piece of wood stuck into the body”, and figuratively - “a harmful, corrosive person” * The figurative nature of the figurative meaning of the word is obvious. Speaking of a large amount of something, you can use the word a lot in its literal sense, or you can use other words in a figurative sense - a forest of pipes, a hail of blows, an abyss of books, a cloud of mosquitoes, an abyss of affairs and g * d *
The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, which are widely used in oratory and oral communication. The metaphor is based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (water runs), reification (nerves of steel), distraction (field of activity), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. Often we hear and say ourselves: it is raining, the clock has become steel, iron character, warm relations, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.
Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon. Here, for example, what metaphors were used in the farewell speech to freshmen by the outstanding physiologist Academician A. A. Ukhtomsky:
Every year, new waves of young people come from different condos to the university to replace their predecessors. What a powerful wind drives these waves here, we begin to understand, remembering the sorrows and hardships that we had to experience, breaking through barriers to these cherished walls. With the power of instinct, young people rush here. This instinct is the desire to know, to know more and more deeply.
There are several metaphors in this passage: waves of youth, what a powerful wind drives these waves here, breaking through barriers, to these treasured walls. They create a certain emotional mood of the listeners, make them feel the significance of what is happening.
A special effect is achieved when the direct and metaphorical meanings of the word collide in speech. For example, the following phrase sounds intriguing: “We have a sad anniversary today. Exactly one year ago, our city was shocked by a tragic event: a train wreck occurred at the railway station.” In this sentence, the verb shocked has a direct meaning (“make tremble, shake, hesitate”) and figurative (“strongly excite, make a great impression”).
However, the use of metaphors, direct and figurative meanings of words do not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors, "Too shiny
syllable, - wrote Aristotle, - makes imperceptible both characters and thoughts.
The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content.
Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If in metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other.
In K. M. Simonov, in one of the poems we read: “And the hall rises, and the hall sings, and it is easy to breathe in the hall.” In the first and second cases, the word hall means people, in the third - "room". Therefore, here the name of the room is used to name those who are in it. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words audience, class, school, apartment, house, factory, collective farm to refer to people.
The word can be called the material and products from this material (Sgold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: “Our athletes got gold and silver, the French got bronze.”
Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense / For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of “government of the country”, “ruling circles”: “negotiations between London and Washington”, “Paris is worried”, “Warsaw has made a decision”, etc. The names refer to the people who live in the area. So, Belarus is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, Ukraine - the Ukrainian people.
Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which is that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.
An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M. A. Sholokhov about the character of a Russian person. Using the word man and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people:
The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who without hesitation gave the last piece of bread and thirty grams of front-line sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland.
Good name Ivan!
Comparison. This is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: firstly, what is compared (“object”), secondly, what is compared with (“image”), thirdly, on the basis of which one is compared with another (“feature” ).
So, A. V. Lunacharsky, speaking at the First All-Union Congress of Teachers, spoke about the organic connection of all levels of education, about the role of science in the life of the country. Explaining his idea, he resorted to a simple and convincing comparison for that time:
Just as a building cannot be built without cement, so it is now impossible to direct state or economic affairs without science.
In this example, science (“object”) is compared with cement (“image”), without which a building cannot be built (“sign”).
Since comparison implies the presence of not one, but two images, the listener receives two information that are interconnected, that is, one image is complemented by another. With the help of comparison, the speaker highlights, emphasizes an object or phenomenon, draws attention to it Special attention. All this leads to better assimilation and memorization of what was said, which is very important for the listener. When a book or an article is read, then an incomprehensible place can be re-read, returned to it again. When a speech is listened to, then, as a rule, only after its completion can one be asked to explain something that turned out to be incomprehensible.
Comparison will be effective only when it is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the idea, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in
originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing together objects, phenomena or actions that, it would seem, have nothing in common with each other, P * Sergeyich in the book "The Art of Speech in Court" writes:
The greater the differences in the objects of comparison, the more unexpected the similarities, the better the comparison.
Originally, for example, I. P. Pavlov showed the role of facts in science, referring to young scientists:
Accustom yourself to restraint and patience * Learn to do the dirty work in science * Study, compare, accumulate facts.
No matter how perfect the wing of a bird, it could never lift it into the air without leaning on the air.
Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to take off* Without them, your "theories" are empty attempts*
But in studying, experimenting, observing, try not to remain at the surface of the facts. Don't become archivists of facts. Try to penetrate the mystery of their origin* Persistently seek the laws that govern them.
In oral presentations, comparisons are often used to draw the attention of listeners to the subject of conversation * To do this, they resort to a complex, detailed comparison that allows the listener to better understand the problem being covered, to better understand the topic of conversation *
Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetic quality. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness and turned into speech clichés. It is unlikely that such common expressions will evoke positive emotions in anyone: “brave as a lion”; "cowardly as a hare"; “reflected as in a mirror”; "go through the red thread", etc. It is bad when false comparisons are used in speech * Such comparisons make it difficult to understand the main idea of the speaker, divert the attention of listeners from the content of the speech *
Epithets - artistic definitions * They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement * Pay attention to what expressive epithets he finds
A.E. Fersman to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones:
A brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling demantoid stone, which was so valued abroad, and traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana in Persia. A whole gamut of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines of the Ilmensky mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is almost unparalleled (emphasized by us. - Auth.).
As with other means of speech expressiveness, epithets are not recommended to be abused, as this can lead to beautiful speech at the expense of its clarity and intelligibility. The advice of A.P. Chekhov may be useful in this respect. In one of his letters he noted:
... when reading proofs, cross out, where possible, definitions of nouns and verbs. You have so many definitions that it's hard for the reader's attention to sort out and gets tired. It is understandable when I write: “A man sat down on the grass”, this is understandable, because it is clear and ps delays attention. On the contrary, it is incomprehensible and hard for the brain if I write: “A tall, narrow-chested, medium-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass, already crushed by pedestrians, sat silently, looking around timidly and timidly.” It does not immediately fit into the brain.
A complete and generally accepted theory of the epithet does not yet exist. There is no common understanding of the content of the term epithet. In the scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language (constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined: biting frost, quiet evening, fast running); folk-poetic (used in oral folk art: red maiden, open field, wolf earrings); individually-author's (created by the authors: marmalade mood (A. Chekhov), chumpy indifference (D. Pisarev).
Great help in the selection of fresh epithets and their successful use can be provided by the Dictionary of Epithets of the Russian Literary Language by K. S. Gorbachevich, E. P. Khablo (L., 1979).
For clarity, we will cite materials from the dictionary entry for the word authority, omitting the examples of the use of epithets in works of art given there.
Authority, With a positive assessment. Boundless, big, important (outdated *), universal, high, enormous, - deserved, healthy, exceptional, unshakable, unshakable, unlimited, irrefutable, indisputable, infallible, adamant, indisputable, universally recognized, huge, justified, recognized, lasting, holy (obsolete), solid, stable, good*
With a negative rating. Penny (colloquial), cheap (colloquial *), exaggerated (colloquial), fake (spacious), low, unjustified, soaked (colloquial), undermined, staggering, doubtful, shaky.
Rare epithets - Gothy, doctoral, fiery.
To enliven speech, give it emotionality, expressiveness, figurativeness, they also use the techniques of stylistic syntax, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc. *
Since ancient times, orators have introduced these figures into their speech. * For example, Marcus Tullius Cicero delivered several speeches against Lucius Sergius Catiline, a patrician by birth, who led a conspiracy to seize power by force. Addressing the quirites (as full-fledged Roman citizens were officially called in ancient Rome), Cicero said:
... A sense of honor is fighting on our side, on that - impudence; here - modesty, there - depravity; here - fidelity, there - deceit; here is valor, there is crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, justice, moderation, courage, prudence, all virtues fight against injustice, depravity, laziness, recklessness, all kinds of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.
In speech, sharply opposite concepts are compared: honor - impudence, shame - depravity, loyalty - deceit, valor - crime, steadfastness - furious
quality, good name - shame, restraint - licentiousness, etc. This has a special effect on the imagination of the listeners, evoking in them vivid ideas about the named objects and events. Such a technique, based on a comparison of opposite phenomena and signs, is called antithesis. As P. Sergeyevich said:
... the main advantages of this figure are that both parts of the antithesis mutually illuminate one another; thought wins in strength; at the same time, the thought is expressed in a concise form, and this also increases its expressiveness.
The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings: “The courageous one blames himself, the cowardly blames his comrade”; “Great in body, but small in deed”, “Labor always gives, but laziness only takes”; "It's thick on the head, but the head is empty." To compare two phenomena, proverbs use antonyms - words with the opposite meaning: courageous - cowardly, great - small, labor - laziness, thick - empty. On this principle, many lines from artistic, journalistic, poetry. Antithesis is an effective means of speech expressiveness in public speech.
Here is an excerpt from A. Solzhenitsyn's Nobel lecture. The use of antithesis, the comparison of opposing concepts allowed the writer to express the main idea more vividly and emotionally, to more accurately express his attitude to the described phenomena:
What, according to one scale, seems from afar an enviable prosperous freedom, then on another scale, close up, it feels like an annoying compulsion calling for overturning buses. What in one region would be dreamed of as implausible prosperity, in another region revolts as wild exploitation, requiring an immediate strike. Different scales for elemental. disasters: a flood of two hundred thousand victims seems smaller than our urban case. There are different scales for insulting a person: where even an ironic smile and a move away are humiliating, where severe beatings are excusable as a bad joke. Different scales for punishments, for atrocities. According to one scale, a month's arrest, or exile to the village, or a "punishment cell" where they are fed with white buns and milk - staggers the imagination, fills the newspaper pages with anger. And on a different scale, they are familiar and easier -
us - and prison terms of twenty-five years * and punishment cells, where
walls of ice, where people are stripped to their underwear, and lunatic asylums for the healthy, and frontier executions of countless unreasonable people, all for some reason running somewhere.
A valuable means of expression in a speech is inversion, i.e., changing the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose * So, if the adjective is placed not before the noun to which it refers, but after it, then this enhances the meaning of the definition, the characteristic of the subject . Here is an example of such an arrangement: He was passionately in love not just with reality, but with reality that is constantly evolving, with reality forever new and unusual.
To draw the attention of listeners to one or another member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to placing the predicate in the declarative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The hero of the day was honored by the whole team; As difficult as it is, we must do it.
Thanks to all sorts of permutations in a sentence, even if it consists of a small number of words, it is often possible to create several versions of one sentence, and each of them will have different semantic shades * Naturally, when permuting, it is necessary to monitor the accuracy of the statement.
Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. There are many different forms of repetition. Start several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called an anaphora, which in Greek means monogamy. Here is how this technique was used by L. I * Leonov in a report dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the birth of A. S. Griboyedov:
There are books that are read; there are books that are studied by patient people; there are books that are kept in the heart of the nation. My liberated people highly appreciated the noble wrath of "Woe from Wit" and, setting off on a long and difficult journey, took this book with them ***
The writer repeated the combination three times there are books in the same syntactic constructions and thus prepared the listeners for the idea that the work of A, S, Griboyedov “Woe from Wit” occupies a special place in the hearts of Russian people.
Repetitive words are service units, for example, unions and particles. Repeating, they perform an expressive function* Here is an excerpt from A* E* Fersman's lecture "Stone in the Culture of the Future". Repeatedly repeating the interrogative particle is it, the scientist enhances the intonational coloring of speech, creates a special emotional mood;
And when we try to characterize the future of technology in this way, you involuntarily guess the role that our precious stone will play in whom.
Does it not, more than anything else, meet precisely these qualities? Are not the precious stones themselves the emblem of firmness, constancy and eternity? Is there anything harder than diamond that can match the strength and indestructibility of this form of carbon?
*..Is corundum in its numerous modifications, topaz and garnet not the main grinding materials, and only new ones are comparable with them? artificial products human genius?
Are not quartz, zircon, diamond and corundum one of the most stable chemical groupings of nature, and are not the fire resistance and immutability of many of them under high temperatures ah do not far exceed the fire resistance of the vast majority of other bodies?
Sometimes whole sentences are repeated several times in order to emphasize, highlight, make more visual the core thought contained in them,
In oral speech, repetitions are also found at the end of a phrase. As at the beginning of a sentence, it can be repeated individual words, phrases, speech constructions. Such a stylistic figure is called an epiphora. Here is an example of an epiphora from an article by V. G. Belinsky:
For such poets, it is most unprofitable to appear in transitional epochs in the development of societies; but the true ruin of their talent lies in the false conviction that feeling is enough for a poet.*. This is especially harmful for the poets of our time: now all poets, even the great ones, must also be thinkers together, otherwise even talent will not help.*. Science, living, modern science, has now become the tutor of art, and without it inspiration is weak, talent is powerless!*.
If you ask the question: “What form of speech does a lecture, report, speech at a meeting refer to? Is it a dialogue or a monologue?”, no one will think for a long time. Everyone will say: “Of course, a monologue * Only one person speaks, his speech is not designed for the verbal reaction of the interlocutor. The performance, moreover, can be long. But is it good? After all, listeners also want to say something: to object to the speaker or agree with him, ask to clarify some thought, explain something, explain an incomprehensible word. How to proceed in such a case? There is an exit*
In the practice of oratory, techniques have been developed that not only enliven the narrative, give it expressiveness, but also dialogize monologue speech.
One of these techniques is the question-and-answer move. It lies in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. The question-answer move turns a monologue speech into a dialogue, makes listeners the speaker's interlocutors, activates their attention, and engages them in a scientific search for truth.
Skillfully and interestingly posed questions attract the attention of the audience, make them follow the logic of reasoning. The question-answer move is one of the most accessible oratorical techniques. The proof of this is the lecture “Cold Light”, read by the largest master of popularization of scientific knowledge S. I. Vavilov:
The question arises, why does an alcohol flame, into which table salt is introduced, glow with a bright yellow light, despite the fact that its temperature is almost the same as the temperature of a match? The reason is that the flame is not absolutely black for any colors * Only the yellow color is absorbed to a greater extent, therefore, only in this yellow part of the spectrum does the alcohol flame behave as a warm emitter with the properties of a black body.
How does the new physics explain the amazing properties of "cold light"? The enormous advances made by science in understanding the structure of atoms and molecules, as well as the nature of light, made it possible, at least in general terms, to understand and explain luminescence.
How, finally, is the quenching of the "cold light" that we see in experience explained? The reasons in different cases are significantly different.
The effectiveness of this technique is especially noticeable if the corresponding part of the speech is pronounced without interrogative sentences.
The question-answer move is used not only to make speech expressive and emotional, but also used as an effective tool in hidden polemics. If the speech sets out a controversial issue that may cause doubt among the audience, then the speaker, foreseeing this, resorts to a question-answer technique.
The lecture is also enlivened by the replicas of the audience supposed by the speaker, with whom he either agrees or argues. These lines also introduce elements of dialogue into the monologue. Thus, the well-known Russian historian V.O. Let us quote the passages from his lecture:
Except for the rare eccentrics, we usually try to surround and present ourselves in the best possible way, to seem to ourselves and others even better than we really are. You will say: this is vanity, vanity, pretense* So, absolutely so. Let me just draw your attention to two very nice impulses.<..>
And look how she (the noblewoman Fedosya Prokofievna Morozova * - Auth.), Left a young widow, in a "pacified manner", in our mourning, left the house: she was put into an expensive carriage, decorated with silver and mosaics, at six or twelve horses with rattling chains; She was followed by servants, slaves and slaves of a hundred people, and with a particularly solemn train from two hundred and three hundred, protecting the honor and health of their empress mother. The queen of Assyria, and only, you will say, is a slave of a superstitious and conceited magnificent age. Good*
In excerpts, V. O. Klyuchevsky highlights the opinion of the audience with the words you will say and then formulates his attitude to this: So, absolutely so. Good.
Techniques of dialogization of a monologue, characteristic of oratory, have become widespread in journalism and fiction.
In addition to the question-answer method, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves to emotionally affirm or deny something. Addressing the audience with a question is an effective technique.
The rhetorical question uttered by the speaker is perceived by the audience not as a question that needs to be answered, but as a positive statement. This is precisely the meaning of the rhetorical question in the final part of A.E. Fersman's lecture "Green Stones of Russia":
What could be more interesting and beautiful than this close connection between the deep laws of the distribution of chemical elements in the earth's crust and the distribution in it of its inanimate flowers - a precious stone?!
The glory of the Russian green stone is rooted in the deep laws of Russian geochemistry, and it is no accident that our country has become a country of green gems.
The rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on the listeners, awakens in them the corresponding feelings, carries a great semantic and emotional load.
The means of expression include direct speech, which is introduced into the speech. This speech can be accurate or approximate, and sometimes even fictional. Literally transmitted someone else's speech is called a quotation. Sometimes it seems that quoting does not require special skill. However, this also has its own characteristics, its positive and negative sides, which must be taken into account. For example, some people build their speech on some quotes. Such speeches cause bewilderment, that is, listeners want to know the opinion of the speaker himself, the results of his observations. In addition, the abundance of quotations tires the audience, since it is difficult to hear by ear what is said belongs to the author, and what to those whom he quotes . Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to select the most interesting, informative, original or least known from the quotations chosen for the presentation.
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Speakers do not always skillfully introduce a quote, do not take into account how it is perceived by ear.
It is necessary to present the quotation in such a way that it is easy to catch where it begins and ends.
It is very important not to distort the thought of the cited author. After all, a single sentence or several sentences may have a different meaning than in the context.
It is impossible to arbitrarily change the text, i.e., rearrange words, enter another instead of one word, change the grammatical form of words.
The quotation must be accurate.
It is necessary to know who the quoted words belong to, what source they are taken from, what the output of the source is. Sometimes this information is given after the quotation, when the literature used is called, or when questions from the audience are answered if anyone present asks about it.
In conversations on various topics in which one has to discuss other people's thoughts, actions, actions, talk about people's feelings, approximate (or fictional) direct speech is mainly used. It enlivens the statement, makes it emotional, attracts the attention of listeners. The introduction of direct speech helps to dialogize the statement. Successfully, for example, used direct speech in the lecture "Scientific and technological progress and mathematics" Academician B. V. Gnedenko;
After we demonstrated the machine and our guests worked with it themselves, Professor Ivanov, whom I told you about, said: “Come work with us, we can diagnose well, with us you will be able to create a machine that will diagnose no worse world's best diagnostician.
The general practitioner, a specialist in the diagnosis of diseases of the digestive tract, said differently: “Why did you take on such a difficult task as diagnosing heart diseases. Let's work together and we will create a machine that will diagnose with virtually no errors.
Finally, psychiatrists reacted like this: “Well, why did you take up the diagnosis of heart disease,” they said. - Every engineer will tell you that the heart is a simple pump that drives fluid through the pipes. But no one knows the human psyche. Let's work with us. Things cannot go on here without mathematicians. And any step in the field of studying higher nervous activity will be the greatest boon for mankind. Not only human diseases are associated with the psyche. All daily life depends on it. human activity. We do not know the possibilities of the human psyche, we do not know how much we can contaminate it. We do not know whether we are teaching people correctly, whether we are treating them correctly.”
Experienced speakers not only introduce direct speech into the text, but also comment on someone else's statement, determine their attitude to it, and sometimes enter into a debate with a specific (or fictional) person whose speech is quoted. Let us give an example of the use of this technique in the lecture "On the most important subjects of education", read by the professor of Moscow University P * S, Alexandrov:
Yesterday, the statement of one of the greatest modern physicists, the old Goettingen professor Max Born, burst into my hands: “The future of science depends on whether this need, impulse and striving for creativity can be harmonized and brought into harmony with the conditions of social life and ethics” *
To these words one can only add that not only the fate of science, but, perhaps, the fate of mankind depends on this.
As a form of transferring someone else's statements into speeches, indirect speech is also used, which conveys someone's words from a third person. An example of the introduction of indirect speech is found in the above-mentioned lecture by P. S. Aleksandrov;
Tchaikovsky spoke of music as a special means of communication between people, which cannot be replaced by any other means of communication. I remember one concert at the conservatory: they gave Beethoven's First Symphony* I noticed the expression on the faces of our students.
Indirect speech, compared to direct speech, is less expressive and expressive * As rightly noted by P * Sergeicht
... to convey in a completely understandable way someone else's feeling, someone else's thought is incomparably more difficult in descriptive expressions than in those words in which this feeling or thought is expressed directly. * * The last way of expression is both more precise and understandable, and, most importantly, more convincing for listeners.
A good effect is given by a skillful combination of direct and indirect speech in the speech * On the one hand, this avoids abundant quoting, and on the other hand, it makes the statement more diverse and vivid. As an example, we use an excerpt from a lecture on the work of N, A * Nekrasov:
We are convinced that truly innovative creations always cause conflicting opinions, ambiguous assessments of contemporaries. Remember the critics' rejection of The Thunderstorm, the struggle and controversy surrounding the novel Fathers to Sons*, * The same fate befell Nekrasov's lyrics. The opinions and assessments of readers and critics are sharply divided *
So, a connoisseur of elegance, a well-known esthete critic Vasily Botkin, argued that Nekrasov’s poems cannot “truly excite - what a rude syllable, clumsy phrases.*, as if it were not a sculptor who sculpted from noble marble, but a peasant chopped a log with an ax”,
At the same time, Belinsky "gave his head to cut off that Nekrasov has talent", that he is "a poet - and a true poet." Turgenev "in a moment of irritation assured that "poetry did not spend the night in Nekrasov's verses," but he also admitted that the poem "I'm going at night ..." he "completely lost my mind": "I repeat this amazing work and have already learned by heart.
Nekrasov himself exclaimed contritely: “You have no poetry of your own. but my stern, clumsy verse"* And Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov called him "the only fine hope of our literature*," the most beloved Russian poet*.
Which of them is right? How to reconcile the seemingly irreconcilable? Where is the truth?
The work that we will do today will allow us to approach the solution of this issue.
Rich material for speeches contains oral folk art * Proverbs and sayings are a real treasure for a speaker. These are well-aimed figurative folk expressions with an edifying meaning, summarizing various phenomena of life * In short sayings, the people expressed knowledge of reality, attitude to its various manifestations * They help to understand the history of our people, teach to love the Motherland, to be honest and fair. Proverbs magnify labor, condemn laziness, ridicule greed, strengthen faith in goodness and justice, call to respect knowledge and books. “And what a luxury, what a meaning, what is the use of every saying of ours! What a gold!” - this is how A. S. Pushkin spoke about Russian proverbs *
Proverbs and sayings are clots of folk wisdom, they express the truth, proven by the centuries-old history of the creator people, the experience of many generations. “The proverb is not said in vain,” says folk wisdom. They express joy and sorrow, anger and sadness, love and hate, irony and humor. Therefore, in speech, proverbs and sayings acquire special meaning* They not only enhance the expressiveness of speech, give sharpness, deepen the content of speeches, but also help to find a way to the hearts of listeners, win their respect and favor.
What attracts proverbs and sayings? Why are they recommended for use in oral presentations?
The generalizing nature of proverbs and sayings allows in a figurative and extremely short form express the essence of the statement. Folk sayings are also given to formulate individual provisions of the statement.
Often proverbs and sayings serve as a starting point for starting a speech, developing a topic, revealing a position, or they are the final chord, a conclusion, they are used to summarize what has been said * Here, for example, how A. Solzhenitsyn ended the Nobel lecture:
In Russian, proverbs about truth are favorite * They persistently express a considerable difficult folk experience, and sometimes amazingly:
ONE WORD OF TRUTH WILL DRAW THE WHOLE WORLD*
It is on such an imaginary violation of the law of conservation of mass and energy that my own activity and my appeal to writers all over the world are based*
Proverbs and sayings are also given as illustrations, figurative parallels to what is being said. This use of proverbs and sayings allows you to express the idea more vividly and convincingly. Figurative illustrations are remembered for a long time by listeners. Interestingly, M. A. Sholokhov beat a folk saying in one of his speeches:
An old folk saying, born long ago where swift mountain streams seethe, says: "Only small rivers are noisy."
The meetings of regional and regional writers' organizations, meetings filled with sharp polemics and fervent speeches, died down. Republican conventions were held at a more restrained level.
An example of the use of proverbs as figurative parallels that reinforce an idea is contained in the speech of G. E. Nikolaeva:
“A fisherman brings a fisherman from afar,” there is such a proverb. Talent from afar will see talent. The mind from afar recognizes the mind and reaches out to it. Principledness recognizes principles from afar and is drawn to it. Limitedness and unscrupulousness also from afar recognize limitedness and unscrupulousness and are also drawn to each other. Therefore, it is dangerous when people who are in charge of a creative organization are mediocre and unprincipled, who do not know the value of genuine ascetic writing work, are limited in their convictions and are not capable of a masterly, objective view of literature.
In this speech, the proverb is not only an illustration. The subsequent sentences have the same syntactic structure, close to that of the proverb. A slightly different word order creates a greater contrast and is explained by the fact that nouns have talent, intelligence, adherence to principles, limitedness, unscrupulousness coincide in spelling and sounding of the form of the nominative and accusative cases. Compare: "A fisherman sees a fisherman from afar", but "Talent from afar will see talent." The closeness of the structure of the folk proverb and the author's sentences makes the latter aphoristic, authentic. The meaning of the proverb extends to other phenomena of life, at the same time expanding and concretizing.
Proverbs and sayings enliven the statement, attract the attention of listeners, creating a certain psychological mood.
Sometimes proverbs and sayings are attracted to give the statement a playful-ironic connotation. In this sense
In addition, the proverb is found in the speech of S. V * Mikhalkov at the congress of writers, in which he speaks of satirical and comedic genres:
Too often we have to listen to such arguments: “Where have you seen such fools in our reality? Such official balls are not typical for our state apparatus*. But after all, we know that there are such fools, and that they spoil our whole life in order, and if the viewer laughs heartily at them, then this is exactly what is required. After all, it is rightly said in folk proverb: "Fear the cow in front, the horse in the back, and the fool - from all sides" *
The above proverb gives the words an ironic connotation, enlivens the performance and arouses the approval of people.
The success of using proverbs and sayings in speech depends on how well the necessary proverbs and sayings are chosen * No wonder it says: "A proverb is good in harmony and in color."
The phraseology of the Russian language is used to create imagery and emotionality of speech. It is unusually rich and diverse in its composition, has great stylistic possibilities, due to its internal properties, which make up the specifics of phraseological units * This is semantic capacity, emotionally expressive coloring, a variety of associative links * Expression of an emotional, subjective beginning in speech * appraisal, semantic saturation of phraseological units act constantly, regardless of the will of the speaker *
Phraseological units help to say a lot with a few words, since they define not only the subject, but also its attribute, not only the action, but also its circumstances * The complexity of the semantics of phraseological units distinguishes them from single-word synonyms * So, a stable combination in a big way means not just “rich” , but "richly, luxuriously, not embarrassed by means." Phraseologism to cover up traces means not just “destroy, eliminate something”, but “eliminate, destroy what can serve as evidence in something” *
Phraseology attracts speakers with its expressiveness, the potential ability to positively or negatively evaluate the phenomenon, express approval or condemnation, ironic, mocking or other attitude towards it. This is especially evident in the so-called phraseological units-characteristics, for example: White crow, a decoy duck, a prodigal son, an intimidating dozen, a berry in one field, a dog in the hay.
Phraseologisms deserve special attention, the evaluation of which is due to their origin. Indeed, in order to understand the accusatory nature of phraseological units, for example, the gifts of the Danes, the scapegoat, one must know the history of the emergence of a stable phrase. Why are the gifts of the Danaans "insidious gifts that bring death to those who receive them", what is the history of the appearance of this phraseological unit? The expression is taken from the Greek legends about the Trojan War. “The Danes, after a long and unsuccessful siege of Troy, resorted to a trick: they built a huge wooden horse, left it near the walls of Troy, and pretended to swim away from the shore of the Troad. The priest Laocoon, seeing this horse and knowing the tricks of the Danaans, exclaimed: “Whatever it is, I am afraid of the Danaans, even those who bring gifts!” But the Trojans, not listening to the warnings of Laocoön and the prophetess Cassandra, dragged the city out. At night, the Danaans, who hid inside the horse, went out, killed the guards, opened the city gates, let in their comrades who returned on ships, and thus captured Troy.
The origin of the expression scapegoat is also noteworthy. It is found in the Bible and is associated with a special rite among the ancient Jews to lay the sins of the whole people on a living goat, which is why they call a person who is blamed for someone else's fault, responsible for others.
Phraseologisms, originating from ancient mythology, are quite diverse. Each such phraseologism evokes certain associative links, it relates to the images of the heroes of antiquity, which determines their semantic richness and expressiveness. So, the stable phrase Damocles sword in the meaning of “imminent, threatening danger” is associated with the ancient Greek legend about Damocles, who was one of the associates of the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder and enviously spoke of him as the happiest of people. Dionysius decided to teach the envious man a lesson and seated him in his place during the feast. And here Damocles saw a sharp sword hanging over his head, hanging on a horsehair. Dionysius explained * that this is a symbol of the dangers to which he, as a ruler, is constantly exposed, despite the seeming happy life *
Phraseologism Procrustean bed comes from the nickname of the robber Polypemon. AT Greek mythology it is said that Procrustes laid all those he caught on his bed and cut off the legs of those * who did not fit, and for those for whom the bed was long, he extended his legs * Procrustean bed means “that which is a measure for something, to which adjust or adapt something.
Ancient phraseological units serve as an excellent means for conveying the author's irony, ridicule. Such a function is performed by the revolutions of the exploits of Hercules, the Trojan horse, Sisyphean labor, Pandora's box, between Scylya and Charybdis, Pyrrhic victory, Aesopian language, Babylonian pandemonium.
The stylistic use of many emotionally expressive phraseological units is determined by the peculiarity of the relationship between the general meaning of a phraseological unit and the meaning of its components. Phraseological units are of particular interest, the figurativeness of which acts as a reflection of the visibility, “pictureness” contained in the freest phrase * on the basis of which a phraseological unit is formed. For example, when preparing for work, we roll up our sleeves to make it easier to do the job; meeting dear guests, we spread our arms wide, showing that we are ready to wrap them in our arms; when counting, if it is small, for convenience, we bend our fingers. Free phrases naming such actions of people have visibility, “picturesqueness”, which “by inheritance” is transmitted to homonymous phraseological units: roll up your sleeves - “diligently, diligently * vigorously do something”; with open arms - "friendly, cordial (to receive, meet someone)"; count on fingers - "very little, little."
The picturesqueness of a phraseological unit, due to the visibility of a free phrase homonymous to it * becomes especially visible when the direct and figurative meaning is played out at the same time. This is one of the stylistic devices. Let us give an example of such use of a phraseological unit in one of the journalistic articles; "Emergency Exit" - advice to company owners facing takeovers, mergers and other digestive functions competition. True, an emergency exit does not guarantee against disappearance in the element of competition. You pull yourself together, and they take you by the throat. Breathing stops, hands drop.
You pull yourself together - a phraseological unit with the meaning “to achieve complete self-control”, and take it by the throat means “oppress, force you to act in a certain way”. In the cited text, a phraseological unit is used, but the direct meaning of the free phrase “take by the throat” shines through it. The phrase “hands down” has a direct meaning, but the meaning of a phraseological unit pulsates in it - “to lose the ability or desire to act, to do something”.
This chapter contains only some of the tropes, figures, techniques that help make speech figurative and emotional. However, they do not exhaust the whole variety of expressive means. mother tongue. When resorting to them, one should not forget that all these “flowers of eloquence”, as the prominent master of Russian judicial eloquence P.S. Porohovshchikov (P.Sergeich) called them, are good only when they seem unexpected to the listener. They cannot, and do not need to be memorized, they can only be absorbed into oneself along with folk speech, developing and improving speech culture, speech taste and flair.
The culture of speech is not only a sign of a person's high culture, but also due to the latter, so it is important to systematically engage in self-education. Great value to enhance speech culture has work with reference literature, familiarity with various linguistic dictionaries. An invaluable service will be provided by contacting domestic literature especially to poetry.
For great writers, every single word is chosen consciously, with a specific goal - P. S. Porokhovshikov taught young speakers, - every single turn is deliberately created for a given thought.<..>We<...>must know Pushkin by heart; whether we like poetry or not, it doesn't matter; obliged to know native language in all its abundance. Try to get rich daily.
It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording - the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of figurative and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary increase the effectiveness of communication, increase the effectiveness spoken word*
Southern Administrative District
GOU Kindergarten № 000
combined type
Advice for parents on:
"How to make children's speech figurative and expressive"
Moscow G.
A remarkable example of the figurativeness of language is the language of Russian folk tales. A fairy tale has a huge impact on the development and enrichment of children's speech, and the more often they hear them, the more they absorb the harmony of the word. Children, repeating figurative words and expressions from a fairy tale, begin to think about their direct and figurative meaning. The language of the fairy tale is rhythmic, the words are rhymed, the characters are given definitions - this allows the child to enrich the dictionary and better remember and understand the content of the fairy tale. The fairy tale contributes to the development of imagination, fantasy, and creative abilities of children.
The child enters the world of fairy tales at a very early age. Children become interested in fairy tales by the age of two. From a children's fairy tale begins his acquaintance with the world of literature, with the world of human relationships and with the whole world around him as a whole.
A children's fairy tale offers the child images that are very interesting to him, but vitally important information absorbed by itself, imperceptibly.
Fairy tales for children are simple in content and are cyclical in nature, that is, the same episode is repeated many times with minor changes. This feature of folk tales allows the child to better remember the plot and develop memory.
Telling fairy tales by parents is of great educational value. Listening to a fairy tale, children again and again experience the events that take place in it. The impression made on them by a fairy tale is strong with its fabulous images: the fox is cunning, quick-witted, resourceful; wolf - scary, stupid and evil; and the hare is cowardly.
In order for the fairy tale to help form the images of heroes, for children preschool age it should be visible, visible.
Exactly visual image serves as the main support for tracing the events that occur in a fairy tale. Such supports can be good illustrations in books, or actions played out by the educator using elements of a table theater. Therefore, when telling a fairy tale to children, the mother can consistently put on the table figures of the corresponding characters and decorations for fairy tales or show illustrations. Children learn knowledge through repeated repetition. At the same time, they do not like monotonous activities, from which they quickly get tired. Therefore, it is necessary to use various techniques that, on the one hand, would help children form a certain image of the heroes of a fairy tale, and, on the other hand, would not tire them.
Acquaintance of children begins with fairy tales about animals. In these fairy tales, animals walk on two legs, speak human language, and perform actions that are not characteristic of them in ordinary life. Given this feature of fairy tales, a variety of speech classes, exercises and games, which, among other things, imitate the voice, gait, movements of the heroes of a fairy tale. The use of various riddles about animals serves the same purpose.
It is very important that the game according to the fairy tale takes place against an increased emotional background. Let the mouse squeak and the bear speak in bass. You need to tell a fairy tale expressively, without rushing. Speech during storytelling should be a role model.
fairy tales "Ryaba the Hen", you can invite the child to look at the figures and name who came to visit him (grandfather, woman, Ryaba chicken, mouse). Then invite him to choose and show the character of the fairy tale that he liked the most and name him.
Given the too little life experience of the children, the mother herself first shows how the chicken sings, how the mouse squeaks. And then she asks re to sing a chicken song with her, to squeak like a mouse. You can invite the children to walk, imitating the walking of a chicken - waving its wings and saying “ko-ko-ko”.
Children are ready to listen to fairy tales again and again, therefore, when re-telling a fairy tale, the mother can ask the child to finish the started phrase. For example, there lived a grandfather yes ... (woman), and they had a chicken ... (Ryaba);
You can ask the baby to accompany the phrases from the fairy tale with their actions: for example, “beat-beat” - tap with the fist of one hand on the fingers clenched into the fist of the other hand, “did not break” - spread your arms to the sides, “the testicle fell - (bang!) and crashed.
After telling, for example, Fairy tales "Wolf and goats" you can offer to play the game "Guessing-knowing". Having hidden the figurines of a goat and kids behind a screen, the mother pronounces onomatopoeia, first in a low voice, and then in a high voice, or vice versa, and the child must listen and guess who is speaking, a goat or a goat.
Then the mother can offer to finish the phrase she has begun, naming a word with the opposite meaning: the goat is big, and the goat is small; the wolf is evil, and the goat is kind; the skin of the wolf is gray, and that of the goat is white.
You can complete the game by conducting mimic gymnastics, inviting the child to first name the components of facial expressions (frowning eyebrows, narrowed eyes, kind smile), and then depict them in game form. For example, when mom says: “Wolf!”, You need to portray an evil wolf, and when she says: “Goat!” you need to show a good goat.
After telling, for example, Fairy tales "Hare-boast", mother can make riddles to the child in which he must recognize the characters of the fairy tale:
Who has a good nose?
Who rushed at full speed?
She follows in the footsteps
He will find everything, he will find everything.
She's all grey,
baggy gait,
important person,
Her name is ... (Crow)
What a coward: the tail is short,
Ears along the back, eyes with a pigtail,
Clothes in two colors - for winter and summer.
You can play by making chains of words. Say, "The medium hare has whiskers, the small hare has whiskers, and the big hare has whiskers."
Eyes - (eyes, eyes); paws - (paws, paws); tail - (tail, tail).
The tale serves the best material for dramatizations. By participating in the dramatization, the child directly and naturally gets used to the image. He really conveys all the actions and movements of the character, as if it were happening to him.
In the process of getting to know the fairy tale, the child memorizes such stable fairy-tale images and expressions as the cockerel-golden comb, baby goats, mouse-leaf, frog-frog, fox-beauty, spinning top - gray barrel and many others.
The proposed methods of work on the formation of images in the process of getting acquainted with the Russian fairy tale in children of preschool age will help parents diversify the reading of Russian folk tales and make this process both informative and interesting.
reading view
The authors literary works often, consciously or not, they use artistic expressive means that give texts brightness, colorfulness, lexical and emotional expressiveness. This post on the editor's blog will be useful for novice authors, pupils and students.Phonetic means
Alliteration - repetition of consonants. It is a technique for highlighting and fastening words in a line. Increases the harmony of the verse.
Assonance - repetition of vowels.
Lexical means
Antonyms - different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning ( good - evil, powerful - powerless). The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech: Weak body, but strong spirit.
Contextual (or contextual) antonyms - these are words that are not opposed in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - That's the main thing that distinguished this hero.
Antithesis- opposition of polar situations, concepts used in fiction.
Hyperbole - figurative expression exaggerating any action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression: Snow felled from the sky by the pood.
Litotes- artistic understatement : a man with a fingernail. Used to enhance the artistic impression.
Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms) - thanks to their novelty, they allow creating certain artistic effects, expressing the author's view on a topic or problems: ... how can we make sure that our rights do not expanded at the expense of the rights of others?
Use of literary imagery helps the author to better explain any situation, phenomenon, other image: Grigory was, apparently, the brother of Ilyusha Oblomov.
Synonyms - These are words belonging to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning: Love is love, friend is friend.
Contextual (or contextual) synonyms - words that are synonymous only in this text: Lomonosov - a genius - a beloved child of nature.
Stylistic synonyms - different stylistic coloring, scope of use: chuckled - giggled - laughed - neighed.
Syntactic synonyms - parallel syntactic constructions having different structure, but coinciding in their meaning: start preparing lessons - start preparing lessons.
Metaphor - a hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. At the heart of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.
In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands what kind of similarity the semantic relationship between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based on: good people there were, are and, I hope, will always be more than bad and evil, otherwise disharmony would come in the world, it would have skewed...tipped over and sunk. Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a kind of metaphor.
Expanded metaphor - a detailed transfer of the properties of one object, phenomenon or aspect of being to another according to the principle of similarity or contrast. Metaphor is particularly expressive. Possessing unlimited possibilities in bringing together the most different items or phenomena, the metaphor allows you to comprehend the subject in a new way, reveal, expose its inner nature. Sometimes it is an expression of the individual author's vision of the world.
Metonymy - transfer of values (renaming) according to the adjacency of phenomena. The most common cases of transfer:
a) from a person to his any external signs: Is lunch coming soon? - asked the guest, referring to quilted vest;
b) from an institution to its inhabitants: Whole board recognized the superiority of D.I. Pisarev;
Synecdoche- a technique by which the whole is expressed through its part (something less included in something more) "Hey, beard! And how to get from here to Plyushkin?
Oxymoron - a combination of contrasting words that create a new concept or idea. This connection is logical incompatible concepts, which are sharply contradictory in meaning and mutually exclusive. This technique sets the reader to the perception of contradictory, complex phenomena, often - the struggle of opposites. Most often, an oxymoron conveys the author's attitude to an object or phenomenon: The sad fun continues...
personification - one of the types of metaphor, when the transfer of a sign is carried out from a living object to an inanimate one. When impersonating, the described object is externally used by a person: Trees leaning towards me outstretched thin arms. Even more often, actions that are permissible only to people are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain slapped bare feet along the paths of the garden.
Paraphrase(s) - using a description instead of a proper name or title; descriptive expression, turn of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition: City on the Neva hosted Gogol.
Proverbs and sayings, used by the author, make the speech figurative, apt, expressive.
Comparison - one of the means of expressiveness of the language, helping the author to express his point of view, create whole artistic pictures, give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparison is usually joined by conjunctions: like, as if, as if, exactly, etc. but it serves for a figurative description of the most diverse features of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, comparison helps to give an accurate description of a color: Like the night his eyes are black.
Often there is a form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case: Anxiety snake crept into our hearts.
There are comparisons that are included in the sentence using words: similar, similar, reminiscent: ... butterflies are like flowers.
Comparison can also represent several sentences related in meaning and grammatically. There are two types of comparisons:
- A detailed, branched comparison-image, in which the main, original comparison is specified by a number of others: The stars are out in the sky. With thousands of curious eyes they rushed to the ground, thousands of fireflies lit the night.
- Expanded parallelism (the second part of such comparisons usually begins with the word like this): The church trembled. This is how a person taken by surprise shudders, this is how a trembling doe takes off from its place, not even realizing what has happened, but already sensing the danger.
Phraseologisms - these are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, etc.: there are people like my hero divine spark.
Quotes from other works they help the author to prove any thesis, the position of the article, show his passions and interests, make the speech more emotional, expressive: A.S. Pushkin, "like first love" will not forget not only "Russian heart" but also world culture.
Epithet - a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinguishing feature. Anything can be an epithet. meaningful word, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition to another:
- noun: talker forty.
- adjective: fatal hours.
- Adverb and participle: looks eagerly; listens frozen; but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative sense: half-asleep, tender, loving eyes.
Metaphorical epithet- a figurative definition that transfers the properties of another object to one object.
allusion- a stylistic figure, a hint at a real literary, historical, political fact that is supposed to be known.
Reminiscence- features in a work of art that are reminiscent of another work. As an artistic device, it is designed for the memory and associative perception of the reader.
Syntactic means
Author's punctuation - punctuation marks not provided for by punctuation rules. Author's signs convey the additional meaning invested in them by the author. Most often, a dash is used as copyright marks, which emphasizes or contrasts: Born to crawl - can't fly or emphasizes the second part after the sign: Love is the most important thing. Copyright exclamation points serve as a means of expressing joyful or sad feelings, moods.
Anaphora, or unanimity - (gr. anaphora - bringing up). A stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the beginning of each parallel row (verse, stanza, prose passage).
- Anaphora sound. The repetition of the same combinations of sounds. Thunderstorm demolished bridges, Coffins from a blurry cemetery.
- Anaphora morpheme. Repetition of the same morphemes or parts compound words. Black-eyed girl, Black-maned horse!
- Anaphora lexical. Repetition of the same words Not in vain did the winds blow, Not in vain did the storm go.
- Syntactic anaphora. Repetition of the same syntactic constructions. Do I wander along the noisy streets, Do I enter a crowded temple, Do I sit among the foolish youths, I indulge in my dreams.
- Strophic anaphora (repetition of the same elements at the beginning of stanzas). For example, the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov "When the yellowing field is agitated ...".
Antithesis - a stylistic device consisting in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating a contrast effect. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.
exclamation particles - a way of expressing the emotional mood of the author, a method of creating an emotional pathos of the text: O, how beautiful you are, my land!
exclamatory sentences express the emotional attitude of the author to the described (anger, irony, regret, joy, admiration): Disgraceful attitude! How can you save happiness! They also express a call to action: Let's save our soul as a shrine!
Gradation - stylistic figure, which consists in forcing or, conversely, weakening comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech: For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world! Gradation is ascending (strengthening of the feature) and descending.
Inversion -(lat. inversio - permutation) - changing the order of words in a sentence to achieve a certain artistic goal, for example, to enhance emotional perception. An agile stream runs from the mountain. At direct order the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition after the control word, the circumstance of the mode of action is before the verb: The youth of today quickly realized the falsity of this truth. And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than is established by grammatical rules. This is an expressive means used in emotional, excited speech: Beloved homeland, my native land, should we take care of you!
Composite joint - repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of a word or words from the previous sentence, usually ending it: She did everything for me Motherland. motherland taught me, raised me, gave me a ticket to life. Life, which I am proud of.
Polyunion - a rhetorical figure, consisting in the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and emotional highlighting of the enumerated concepts: And thunder did not strike and the sky did not fall to the ground, and the rivers did not overflow from such grief!
Parceling - the technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even into separate words. Its purpose is to give speech intonational expression by its jerky pronunciation: The poet suddenly stood up. Turned pale.
Repeat - conscious use of one word or combination of words in order to enhance the meaning of an image, concept, etc.: Pushkin was sufferer, sufferer in the full sense of the word.
Connecting structures - construction of the text, in which each subsequent part, continuing the first, main one, is separated from it by a long pause, which is indicated by a dot, sometimes an ellipsis or a dash. This is a means of creating emotional pathos of the text: Belorussky railway station on Victory Day. And a crowd of greeters. And tears. And the bitterness of loss.
Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations - a means of creating the emotionality of speech, expressing the author's position.
Who hasn't cursed the stationmasters, who hasn't scolded them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write in it their useless complaint of oppression, rudeness and malfunction? Who does not consider them monsters of the human race, equal to the deceased clerks or, according to at least, Murom robbers?
Syntax parallelism - the same construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author seeks to highlight, emphasize the expressed idea: Mother is an earthly miracle. Mother is a sacred word.
A combination of short simple and long complex or complicated sentences with a variety of turnovers helps to convey the pathos of the article, the emotional mood of the author. “Binoculars. Binoculars. People want to be closer to Gioconda. Consider the pores of her skin, eyelashes. Glare pupils. They seem to feel the breath of Mona Lisa. They, like Vasari, feel that “the eyes of the Gioconda have that brilliance and that moisture that are usually seen in a living person ... and in the deepening of the neck, with a careful look, you can see the beating of the pulse ... And they see and hear it. And it's not a miracle. Such is the skill of Leonardo."
One-part, incomplete sentences make the author's speech more expressive, emotional, enhance the emotional pathos of the text: Gioconda. A human babble. Whisper. The rustle of dresses. Quiet steps ... Not a single stroke, - I hear the words. - No swabs. How alive.
Epiphora - the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: I've been walking all my life to you. I have believed all my life into you. I have loved all my life you.
January 14, 2017Illustration for: Figurative and expressive means of language
The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners. What makes speech vivid and expressive? In the practice of oratory, special visual and expressive techniques have been developed that help the speaker to make speech figurative and emotional. Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words help the speaker to make speech figurative and emotional.
Words serve as the names of objects, phenomena, actions, i.e., everything that surrounds a person. However, the word also has an aesthetic function, it is able not only to name an object, action, quality, but also to create a figurative representation of them.
The concept of figurativeness of a word is connected with the phenomenon of polysemy. It is known that words that name only one object are considered single-valued (pavement, sidewalk, trolleybus, tram), and words that designate several objects, phenomena of reality, are considered multi-valued. Polysemy to some extent reflects the complex relationships that exist in reality. So, if an external similarity is found between objects or some hidden common feature is inherent in them, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become the name of another. For example: needle - sewing, spruce, hedgehog; fox - an animal and a mushroom; flexible cane - flexible person - flexible mind.
The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and subsequent - figurative. Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are. Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.
The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, which are widely used in oratory and oral communication.
1. The metaphor is based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (water runs), reification (nerves of steel), distraction (field of work) etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: a verb, a noun, an adjective. Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. We often hear and say: it's raining, watch steel, iron character, warm relationship, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.
Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon. A special effect is achieved when in speech direct and metaphorical meanings of the word collide. For example, the following phrase sounds intriguing: “We have a sad anniversary today. Exactly one year ago, our city was shocked by a tragic event: a train wreck occurred at the railway station.” In this sentence, the verb "shocked" has a direct meaning ("make tremble, shake, hesitate") and figuratively ("strongly excite, make a great impression").
However, the use of metaphors, direct and figurative meanings of words do not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors. “Too brilliant style,” wrote Aristotle, “makes both characters and thoughts invisible.”
The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content. Do not decorate the speech and template metaphors. Once bright and original, they have lost their expressiveness and emotionality.
The quality of oratory is also reduced by the monotony of metaphors, which testifies not to the richness, but to the poverty of the language. For example, one lecturer had the word gold in great use. Cotton for him White gold, forest - green gold, coal - black gold, oil - liquid gold, oil shale - brown gold, furs - soft gold, corn - yellow gold. And it obviously doesn’t occur to him that these words are no longer gold, but dull green copper, that they are to the detriment of the accuracy, clarity and simplicity of speech, that this is no longer an ornament, but the “beauty” of speech, which the lecturer should avoid ” , - this is how a speech culture specialist comments.
2. Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If with a metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then with metonymy two objects, phenomena that have received the same name must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words audience, class, school, apartment, house, factory to refer to people.
A word can be called a material and products made from this material (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: "Gold and silver went to our athletes, bronze went to the French."
Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense. For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of “government of the country”, “ruling circles”: “negotiations between London and Washington”, “Paris is worried”, “Warsaw has made a decision”, etc. Geographical names also denote people living in this territory . So, "Belarus" is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, "Ukraine" - the Ukrainian people.
3. Synecdoche - a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that called part instead of whole, use singular instead of plural or, conversely, the whole - instead of a part, the plural - instead of the singular.
An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M.A. Sholokhov about the character of the Russian people. Using the word man and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people:
The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who, without hesitation, gave the last piece of bread and front-line thirty grams of sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death , a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland. Good name Ivan!
4. Allegory - allegorical representation of an abstract concept with the help of a concrete lifestyle . This technique is especially actively used in fables and fairy tales. With the help of images of animals, various human vices(greed, cowardice, cunning, stupidity, ignorance), goodness, courage, justice are glorified. Allegory allows you to better understand this or that idea of the speaker, to delve into the essence of the statement, to more clearly present the subject of the conversation.
5. Comparison. it a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. The comparison assumes the presence of three data:
- first, what is being compared ("subject");
- secondly, with what it is compared ("image");
- thirdly, that on the basis of which one is compared with another (“sign”).
So, A.V. Lunacharsky, speaking at the All-Union Congress of Teachers, spoke about the role of science in the life of the country. Explaining his idea, he resorted to a simple and convincing comparison for that time:
Just as a building cannot be built without cement, so it is now impossible to direct state or economic affairs without science.
In this example, science (“object”) is compared with cement (“image”), without which a building cannot be built (“sign”).
Since comparison implies the presence of not one, but two images, the listener receives two information that are interconnected, that is, one image is complemented by another. With the help of comparison, the speaker highlights, emphasizes an object or phenomenon, pays special attention to it. All this leads to better assimilation and memorization of what was said, which is very important for the listener. When a book or an article is read, then an incomprehensible place can be re-read, returned to it again. When a speech is listened to, then, as a rule, only after its completion can one be asked to explain something that turned out to be incomprehensible.
Comparison will be effective only when it is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the idea, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in its originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing objects, phenomena or actions closer together, which, it would seem, have nothing in common with each other.
For example, he showed the role of facts in science I.P. Pavlov, addressing young scientists:
Accustom yourself to restraint and patience. Study, compare, accumulate facts. No matter how perfect the wing of a bird, it could never lift it into the air without leaning on the air. Facts are the air of a scientist. Without facts, you can never take off. Try to penetrate the mystery of their origin. Persistently seek the laws that govern them.
In oral presentations, comparisons are often used to draw the attention of listeners to the subject of conversation. To do this, they resort to a complex, detailed comparison, which allows the listener to better understand the problem being covered, to comprehend the topic of conversation more deeply.
Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special clarity, figurativeness. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness and turned into speech clichés. It is unlikely that such common expressions will evoke positive emotions in anyone: “brave as a lion”; "cowardly as a hare"; “reflected as in a mirror”; “pass like a red thread”, etc. The use of comparison for the sake of comparison should also be considered a disadvantage. Then the speech becomes ornate, artificially stretched.
6. Epithets - artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement.
Epithets help to more accurately draw a portrait of a person, historical figure, writer, poet. They give the speaker the opportunity to express their emotional attitude to the subject of speech.
As with other means of speech expressiveness, epithets are not recommended to be abused, as this can lead to beautiful speech at the expense of its clarity and intelligibility. The advice of A.P. Chekhov. In one of his letters he noted:
When reading to the corrector, cross out, where possible, the definitions of nouns and verbs. You have so many definitions that it's hard for the reader's attention to sort out and gets tired. It is understandable when I write: “A man sat down on the grass”, this is understandable, because it is clear and does not delay attention. On the contrary, it is incomprehensible and hard for the brain if I write: “A tall, narrow-chested, medium-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass, already crushed by pedestrians; sat down noiselessly, looking around timidly and timidly. It does not immediately fit into the brain.
Lyudmila Alekseevna Vvedenskaya- Doctor of Philology, Honored Professor of Rostov state university(SFedU), expert of the center distance education"Elitarium"
