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Stylistic synonyms. Types of synonyms in Russian and English languages

§8. SYNONYMS

Synonymy (from the Greek synōnymia - “same name”) is one of the most common types of systemic relations in vocabulary. Synonyms are words that have the same or similar meaning, but differ in form.

There are types of synonyms:

1. Full (absolute) synonyms– words that completely coincide in meaning: linguistics - linguistics, boundless - boundless. These cases are extremely rare in the language. Largest quantity full synonyms account for scientific terminology. As a rule, at least one of the terms of a synonymous pair belongs to borrowed ones: universe - space, alphabet - alphabet. In addition, complete synonyms are limited to almost one part of speech - the noun.

2. Incomplete synonyms. These include:

a) words that are close, but not completely identical in meaning – semantic (ideographic) synonyms: artist – painter, equipment – clothes;

b) style synonyms– words that have the same meaning, but relate to different styles of speech: eyes (neutral) – eyes (bookish), run away (neutral) – run away (colloquial);

V) stylistic synonyms– words with different connotations: shack - shack (negl.) Style and stylistic differences are very closely related to each other. According to M.V. Nikitin, the differences in the use of such words are connected “not with what they express, but with the fact that who, when, where, for whom is speaking."

Differences in meaning can be layered with style and stylistic differences: to ornate - to chatter, to persuade - to beg. Such synonyms can be characterized as semantic-stylistic, semantic-stylistic, semantic-stylistic-style.

It is typical for synonyms to form not only pairs, but also entire synonymic series: laugh, guffaw, smile, giggle, guffaw, grunt, burst into tears, grin. Among the words of the synonymous series, one thing always stands out - it seems to embody in its meaning the main thing that is inherent in all members of the synonymous series, and is stylistically neutral. It is commonly called dominant synonymous row. So, in the above synonymous series the dominant word is laugh.

A detailed lexical and semantic analysis of the synonymous series is presented in the table:

Synonyms - we	Lexical national meaning	Integral- new semes	Differential cial semes	Style accessories ness	Styles- stic- sky coloring	Types of synonyms mov
*Dominan-* *that* Ugova- rip	Persuading, persuading to do something	Ask, persuade, persuade	___________	Neutral	________
Uprashi- wat	Please encourage give to something	Ask, convince, incline	___________	Neutral	________	Full
Pray	Ask, beg- wat	Ask, persuade, persuade	___________	Neutral	High	Stylistic
Required wat		Ask, persuade, persuade		Neutral	________	Semantic
Beg	Bored- earnestly begging wat	Ask, persuade, persuade	Annoyed in	Razg.	Neglected	Semantic-co-stylistic- Czech-style

Several laws are associated with the phenomenon of synonymy in language:

1. Objects and phenomena playing important role in the life of a linguistic community are designated big amount synonyms . For example, extensive synonymic series in the Russian language are made up of verbs with a dominant speak : rant, proclaim, babble, chatter, babble, babble, crack, flutter; dominant nouns food : food, provisions, food, provisions, grub.

Over the past decades, the synonymous series has especially expanded money , babki, mani, green, cabbage– mainly due to slang and stylistically reduced vocabulary.

2. Charles Bréal's law, orlaw distributions: words that were once synonymous gradually diverge in meaning, stylistic coloring, or in some other way.

Indeed, language does not tolerate doublets. V.K. Trediakovsky compared this state of language, in which one and the same meaning would be expressed by many words of different forms, with the same thing as if a cook served the same dish for dinner in different plates. Would this be considered wealth?

The action of S. Breal's law explains the fact that complete synonyms do not exist in the language for long. One of the words gradually acquires an additional stylistic connotation ( hail - city, daughter - daughter), can expand or narrow the meaning ( merchant– guest), go into passive vocabulary (consumption – tuberculosis). There may be differences in compatibility between complete synonyms ( ABC Morse - alphabet?), they may have different word-formation potentials ( linguistics – linguistics, linguistics - ?).

3 . Law "attraction of synonyms": if one of the words of a synonymous series begins to be used in a figurative meaning, then other synonyms develop a figurative meaning.

So, adjective red in modern Russian, in addition to direct meaning“blood color” has a figurative “beautiful, bright” (historically this meaning was the first). Among the synonyms of the lexeme red included pink"pale red". Compare with its other meaning in combinations: look through rose-colored glasses"present everything in a pleasant way" pink dreams“pleasant, promising joy, happiness.”

Interesting history of the word raspberry -"dense red with an admixture violet shade" Adjective combined raspberry ringing“pleasant, soft in timbre” is its homonym, derived from the name of the Belgian city of Malines, where the best bells were cast. However, for most Russian speakers these two meanings are associated with each other. This connection is supported by the general direction of development of the meanings of all words of the synonymous series with a dominant red.

The effect of the law of “attraction” often turns out to be broader, going beyond the synonymous series. Thus, many adjectives with the meaning of color are actively developing figurative meanings ( white, brown, green– as names political parties, currents).

Modern linguist M.V. Nikitin called synonymy “one of eternal problems linguistics who do not receive a generally accepted solution, despite ongoing efforts both to theoretically understand the phenomenon and to practically compile dictionaries of synonyms.” Thus, most researchers agree that each individual meaning of a polysemantic word has its own synonyms. Others, by “closeness” of synonymous words, mean the coincidence of a certain number of their meanings. One thing is certain: synonymy, like many other phenomena in language, is gradual, or relative, in nature, i.e. two words can be synonymous in more or less to a lesser extent. When common components predominate in the meanings of two words, we consider them synonyms. But words with very little similarity in meaning become synonyms in certain contexts: the differences between them are, as it were, “extinguished.” Therefore it is necessary to distinguish language synonyms and speech (author's, individual).

1. The concept of lexical synonyms. Synonymous series.

3. Types of lexical synonyms: semantic, stylistic, semantic-stylistic. Lexical doublets. Contextual synonyms

4. Use of lexical synonyms in speech.

5. Dictionaries of synonyms

Polysemy and homonymy in language are opposed by the phenomenon of lexical synonymy. If polysemantic and homonymous words are characterized by different contents with the same form, then with synonymy different shape expresses the same (or similar) content.

Lexical synonyms(Greek synonymos“of the same name”) are words that belong to the same part of speech, are close or identical in meaning and sound differently: homeland - fatherland - fatherland; difficult – difficult – not easy – difficult – complex; walk – walk – trudge.

IN synonymous relations Not all words come in. Proper names are not synonymized in the literary language ( Ivan, Natalia, Caucasus, Minsk), names of residents ( Muscovite, Kiev resident, Omsk resident), many names of specific items ( table, chair, spoon, cabinet, book). As a rule, terms should not be synonymous, although in practice synonymous terms are often found: prefix=prefix, ending=inflection, linguistics=linguistics.

Two or more lexical synonyms form a certain group in a language, or a paradigm, which is otherwise called synonymous row. So, the synonymous series order– order – command – directive – order – command united by a common meaning for all members of the synonymous series: ‘an instruction to do something’. The main word of the synonymous series, conveying the most general concept and which is neutral in use is called dominant of the synonymous series(from lat. dominants"dominant") In the above series the dominant word is order. The remaining words of the synonymous series express additional shades: order‘an official order of one in authority’; command‘the same as an order, but with a touch of obsolescence’; team‘short verbal order’; directive‘guidance from a superior body to subordinate bodies’.

Since the dominant expresses a concept common to all words included in a given synonymous series, it is usually located at the beginning of the synonymous series. Along with the term dominant, the synonymous term is used in the scientific literature key word.

From the point of view of the constancy of the composition of words, synonymous series are characterized by openness. Changes and additions are possible in them due to the ongoing process of development of the entire lexical system. For example, path – road – route – route – orbit.

Synonymous series are usually formed from words of different roots. But there can be synonyms single-rooted, i.e. arising from the same root, but decorated with different prefixes and suffixes: fatherland - fatherland, potatoes - potatoes, radishes - radishes, expel - expel, swim - swim, overtake - overtake.

2. Reasons for the appearance of synonyms

Synonyms appear in the language all the time. This is due to a number of reasons. 1. One of the main ones is a person’s desire to find some new features and shades in already known objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. A new additional feature of a concept is called a new word, similar or identical in meaning to existing names. For example, for a long time there have been synonyms in the language world, universe With general meaning‘the totality of everything that exists, all forms of matter’. Then the word entered the literary language universe, the semantics of which reflects the ‘systematicity, harmony of everything that exists’. In the 19th century, another synonym appeared - space, semantically similar to words that already existed in the language. In the specialized literature of recent decades the word is used with the same meaning macrocosm(as opposed to the word microcosm).

2. Synonymous series are also formed as a result of penetration into the Russian language and its mastery of foreign language vocabulary: opposition - contrast, equilibrium - balance, spasm - convulsion.

3. In synonymous relations certain conditions not only common words can enter literary language, but also limited in use lexical units: dialect professional and so on: lead (drive) = turn the steering wheel; anxiety, restlessness, excitement in literary language are synonymous with colloquial commotion idialect words flashes, flashes and so on.

4. Synonyms arise in the Russian language as a result of the fact that the well-developed morphological structure of the language allows the use of different word-forming morphemes for two or more words with similar meanings, for example: innocent - innocent; harmless - harmless.

5. A synonym may arise as a result of the fact that once close words have diverged in meaning: bench = bench And shop a (‘small trading enterprise’) = shop = stall = tent.

6. Polysemy of words, especially metaphor and metonymy, has great resources for replenishing synonyms in the Russian language. Appearance figurative meanings for a word often leads to the fact that it enters into new synonymous relationships: hedgehog(prickly, small, big...) and hedgehog hair, hedgehog hairstyles; ocean(calm, stormy, cold, affectionate...) and ocean thoughts, an ocean of feelings, an ocean of blood, an ocean of tears); forest(dark, mixed, pine...) and forest hands, forest banner

Types of synonyms

In the modern Russian language there are several types of synonyms, distinguished depending on the nature of the differences between words with their overall semantic similarity.

Words that have the same meaning are called full synonyms, absolute synonyms, or lexical doublets:linguistics=linguistics, throw = throw, look = look, stop = stop, strike = strike, original = original, everywhere = everywhere, spelling = spelling, cavalry = cavalry. These are words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. From this point of view, all other types of synonyms are incomplete and relative. There are few complete synonyms in Russian, since the language tries to avoid duplication.

Incomplete synonyms ( quasi-synonyms) .

Semantic (ideographic, conceptual), denoting the same phenomenon of reality, they distinguish in it different sides And differ so apart from each other shades of its meaning I.

If the meaning of one of the quasi-synonyms is completely “embedded” in the meaning of the second and at the same time in the meaning of the second there are still some semantic components, then there is a relationship of “inclusion” between them. Words carry = drag, attack = aggression are related in this way: drag- This carry, but with difficulty (you can carry and drag a bag, but you cannot drag a cup of coffee, for example); any aggression is attack, but not every attack can be considered aggression (in combination robbery attack on a passerby word attack cannot be replaced by aggression).

The meanings of two quasi-synonyms can have common part, and the meaning of each of them differs in some way, in this case their meanings “intersect”. So, greedy means ‘possessed with a passion to seize someone else’s’, stingy‑ ‘possessed by a passion not to give what is his’. Consider the following group of synonymous nouns: calm, quiet, calm. They all mean ‘absence of wind’, but differ from each other in the shades of their lexical meanings: the word calm meaning ‘total absence of wind, calm weather’; word silence– ‘calmness, absence of noise’; word calm– ‘weakening, temporary cessation of wind, noise’.

Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, differ from each other stylistic affiliation. They also have differences in semantic expressiveness and emotional coloring. Examples of stylistic synonyms include the words sleep - rest - take a nap. Verb sleep is stylistically neutral and does not contain emotional overtones. Verb rest is outdated by stylistic affiliation– bookish; word sleep is colloquial with emotional assessment disapproval.

Stylistic or multi-style synonyms also include the following words: face - face - muzzle(neutral – bookish – colloquial), die - pass away - die(neutral – bookish – colloquial), satisfactory - three, get tired - get tired(neutral - colloquial), argument - argument, look - look(neutral – bookish).

Within the framework of stylistic synonyms, the following are also distinguished:

a) Synonyms that differ from each other in the degree of modernity. In such a synonymous series, one word refers to modern vocabulary, the other to obsolete: plane - airplane, minister - people's commissar, this - this, cinema - cinema;

b) Synonyms that differ in the scope of use. This includes, for example, series consisting of a popular word and a term or professionalism : kitchen - galley, cook - cook(marine) jaundice – hepatitis(honey.), page - strip(polygraph.); literary slang rows : parents - ancestors, dining room - feeding trough, knife - pen, search - search;

Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ both in shades of lexical meanings and stylistic coloring. An example of such synonyms are verbs go And trudge, which have a close but not identical meaning: go- “move by stepping on your feet”, and trudge- “move slowly, sluggishly.” Therefore the verb trudge has an additional semantic connotation - “to move with difficulty, barely stepping on one’s feet.” Besides, synonymous verbs go And trudge differ also in stylistic affiliation: verb go is neutral and the verb trudge used in colloquial speech with an emotional assessment of disapproval. So the words go And trudge are semantic-stylistic synonyms. Comp. Also: stock - reserve: stock– a commonly used word meaning “everything that is prepared for future use”; reserve– bookish, special, meaning “what is left for a special, exceptional occasion.” Semantic-stylistic differences are also characteristic of synonyms to be angry - to be angry(colloquial), hasty - hasty(colloquial), eat - eat(simple);

All the synonyms given earlier are general linguistic ones, i.e. they are characteristic of the lexical system of the Russian language and are understandable to all or the vast majority of its speakers. It should be distinguished from common languages contextual, or individual-author synonyms. These include words that enter into synonymous relationships temporarily, only in a given context. For example, between words showered And pasted over There are no synonymous relations in the lexical system of the Russian language. However, in the story “Chelkash” by A.M. Gorky uses the word pasted over as a synonym for showered: He fell asleep with a vague smile on his face, covered with flour dust. Let's compare more examples of the use of contextual synonyms : Ostap was about to take the pound for the starched collar and show him the way(collar– contextual synonym for the word collar); The entire plain is covered with loose and soft lime (lime – snow).

Polysemantic words can be included in several synonymous series, participating in each of them with only one meaning. So, short meaning ‘small in height’ is synonymous with the word low; quasi-synonymous with words squat, short, undersized(about a human); in the meaning ‘relating to the lower sound register’ is a synonymous series with bassy, bassy(for example, about voice); in the meaning ‘unsatisfactory in quality’ is synonymous with the word bad; when denoting a certain quality of a person short enters into synonymous relationships with words vile, dishonest.

Synonyms may also differ in their compatibility with other words. So, brown has free compatibility with many words: pencil, shoes, coat. Meaning brown is phraseologically related to the word eyes; chestnut can only be hair.

In everyday speech, synonyms serve two purposes: latest features for everyone who speaks Russian. Firstly, this substitution function some words by others. It is caused by the desire to avoid unwanted repetitions of the same words in speech: The whole hall applauded. They clapped with their hands up. Secondly, refinement function. A person with a lot of weight can be called complete, And fat, And overweight. Moreover, each of the synonyms has its own peculiarity of meaning, emphasizing the volume (full), form ( thick), weight ( heavy). Such a person can sit down or about let's go I'm on a chair, maybe plop down; he's not always at the door included- he’s in a narrow one squeezes in or squeezes through; his voice can sound, thunder, rumble(if it's bass) hum, hiss etc.

Associated with the clarification function is the technique of stringing together synonyms to emphasize the identity or semantic similarity of words: Intellectually and rationally, she agreed with Sergei in everything.« We’ll close the file cabinet and bury it,” Volodya said. In this case, in one synonymous row there may be words that differ in stylistic affiliation and emotional coloring: They shouted that this was sinful, even vile, that the old man was out of his mind, that the old man had been deceived, cheated, swindled(Adv.). Comp. Also: And soon a crowd gathers near the wood warehouse... Ochumelov makes a half turn to the left and walks towards the gathering(A. Chekhov.) – here in a synonymous pair crowd - gathering the second word in the meaning of “large crowd of people” has the stylistic marks “disapproved.” and “colloquial”, which “reduces” its meaning in the text and serves as an expression of a negative assessment.

The use of synonyms can create a comic effect and be a means of characterizing a character:

-- Died“Klavdia Ivanovna,” said the customer.

“Well, the kingdom of heaven,” agreed Bezenchuk. -- She passed away So, old lady...

Old ladies, they always pretend... Or give your soul to God, - it depends on what kind of old lady. Yours, for example, is small and in the body, which means she has passed away. And, for example, the one who is larger and thinner is considered to give his soul to God...

- So how is it calculated? Who counts?

- That's what we count on. From the masters. Here you are, for example, a prominent man, tall, although thin. You are considered if, God forbid, you'll die, what in box played. And whoever is a merchant, a former merchant guild, means ordered to live long. And if someone is of lesser rank, a janitor, for example, or one of the peasants, they say about him: spread or stretched out his legs. But the most powerful, when they die, are railway conductors or someone from the authorities, it is believed that give oak. So they say about them: “And ours, they heard, gave oak.”

Shocked by this strange classification human deaths, Ippolit Matveevich asked:

- Well, when you die, what will the masters say about you?

- It’s impossible to give me an oak or play the game: I have a small build...(I. Ilf and E. Petrov. Twelve chairs)

Sometimes we observe the use of synonyms in the so-called antonymous situation. For example : this city is ancient, but not old. Let's compare the following statement by K.S. Stanislavsky: The actors do not have hands, but hands, not fingers, but fingers... They do not walk, but march, do not sit, but sit, do not lie, but recline...

In synonym dictionaries, synonymous series are grouped. First dictionary of synonyms D.I. Fonvizina appeared at the end of the 18th century. Then, throughout the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries, dictionaries by P. Kalaidovich, A.I. Grecha, I.I. Davydov and other authors. From modern synonymous dictionaries it is known “ Brief dictionary synonyms of the Russian language" V.N. Klyuevoy(1956, 2nd edition - 1961). The dictionary includes about 3000 words. The author gives the lexical meanings of each word included in the synonymous series and uses quotes from the works of writers.

In 1968, the “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” was published. Z.E. Alexandrova. This dictionary includes about 9000 synonymous series. However, the semantic differences between synonyms are minimized or completely absent. The stylistic characteristics of synonyms are given using marks bookish, colloquial, simple. and others. Phraseological units are widely introduced into synonymous series. There are no examples of words used.

The first is enough complete dictionary synonyms should be considered published in 1970-1971. two-volume "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" edited by A.E. Evgenieva. It clearly explains the meaning of each of the words - members of the synonymous series, shows their semantic and stylistic shades, and provides examples and illustrations.

In 1976, a one-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms” was published. It, like the two-volume one, was prepared by the dictionary sector of the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, edited by A.P. Evgenieva. Despite its small size, the dictionary contains larger number synonymous series. Clarifications have been made to the composition of these series and the interpretation of synonyms. The dictionary adopts a general alphabet order, and this makes it easier to find the desired synonym word. The emphasis is consistently reflected, the shades of the meaning of the word are revealed, the boundaries are indicated lexical compatibility synonyms of the Russian language.

Currently, dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms have appeared (see below).

Self-test questions

1. Can all words in the Russian language enter into synonymous relationships?

2. What is the dominant of a synonymous series?

3. What are the reasons for the appearance of synonyms?

4. Name the types of synonyms.

5. How do contextual synonyms differ from general linguistic ones?

6. Are lexical doublets useful for language?

7. What functions do synonyms perform in speech?

Literature:

2. Bragina A.A. On the non-closedness of synonymous series // Philological sciences, 1974, № 1.

3. Lexical synonymy(Digest of articles). – M., 1967.

4. Essays on the synonymy of the modern Russian literary language. – M. – L., 1956.

5. Palevskaya M.F. Synonymy in Russian. – M., 1964.

6. Synonyms of the Russian language and their features. – L., 1972.

7. Shmelev D.N. Problems semantic analysis vocabulary. – M., 1973.

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In the modern Russian language there are several types of synonyms, distinguished depending on the nature of the differences between words with their overall semantic similarity.

Words that have the same meaning are called full synonyms, absolute synonyms, or lexical doublets:linguistics=linguistics , throw = throw, look = look, stop = stop, strike = strike, original = original, everywhere = everywhere, spelling = spelling, cavalry = cavalry. These are words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. From this point of view, all other types of synonyms are incomplete and relative. There are few complete synonyms in Russian, since the language tries to avoid duplication.

Incomplete synonyms ( quasi-synonyms) .

Semantic (ideographic, conceptual), denoting one and the same phenomenon of reality, they distinguish different sides in it and differ so apart from each other shades of its meaning I.

The meanings of two quasi-synonyms may have a common part, and the meaning of each of them differs in some way, in which case their meanings “intersect”. So, greedy Means ‘obsessed with a passion to seize someone else’s’, stingy‑ ‘possessed by a passion not to give what is his’. Consider the following group of synonymous nouns: calm, quiet, calm. They all mean ‘absence of wind’, but differ from each other in the shades of their lexical meanings: the word calm meaning ‘total absence of wind, calm weather’; word silence– ‘calmness, absence of noise’; word calm– ‘weakening, temporary cessation of wind, noise’.

Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, differ from each other stylistic affiliation. They also have differences in semantic expressiveness and emotional coloring. Examples of stylistic synonyms include the words sleep - rest - take a nap. Verb sleep is stylistically neutral and does not contain emotional overtones. Verb rest is outdated, stylistically bookish; word sleep is colloquial with an emotional assessment of disapproval.

Within the framework of stylistic synonyms, the following are also distinguished:

Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ both in shades of lexical meanings and stylistic coloring. An example of such synonyms are verbs go And trudge, which have a close but not identical meaning: go- “move by stepping on your feet”, and trudge- “move slowly, sluggishly.” Therefore the verb trudge has an additional semantic connotation - “to move with difficulty, barely stepping on one’s feet.” In addition, synonymous verbs go And trudge differ also in stylistic affiliation: verb go is neutral and the verb trudge used in colloquial speech with an emotional assessment of disapproval. So the words go And trudge are semantic-stylistic synonyms. Comp. Also: stock - reserve: stock– a commonly used word meaning “everything that is prepared for future use”; reserve– bookish, special, meaning “what is left for a special, exceptional occasion.” Semantic-stylistic differences are also characteristic of synonyms to be angry - to be angry(colloquial), hasty - hasty(colloquial), eat - eat(simple);

Polysemantic words can be included in several synonymous series, participating in each of them with only one meaning. So, short in meaning ‘small in height’ is synonymous with the word low; quasi-synonymous with words squat, short, undersized(about a human); in the meaning ‘relating to the lower sound register’ is a synonymous series with bassy, bassy(for example, about voice); in the meaning ‘unsatisfactory in quality’ is synonymous with the word bad; when denoting a certain quality of a person short enters into synonymous relationships with words vile, dishonest.

12. Synonym functions

In everyday speech, synonyms perform two new functions for everyone who speaks Russian. Firstly, this substitution function some words by others. It is caused by the desire to avoid unwanted repetitions of the same words in speech: The whole hall applauded. They clapped with their hands up. Secondly, refinement function. A person with a lot of weight can be called complete, And fat, And overweight. Moreover, each of the synonyms has its own peculiarity of meaning, emphasizing the volume (full), form ( thick), weight ( heavy). Such a person can sit down or about let's go I'm on a chair, maybe plop down; he's not always at the door included- he’s in a narrow one squeezes in or squeezes through; his voice can sound, thunder, rumble(if it's bass) hum, hiss etc.

Associated with the clarification function is the technique of stringing together synonyms to emphasize the identity or semantic similarity of words: Intellectually and rationally, she agreed with Sergei in everything.« We’ll close the file cabinet and bury it,” Volodya said. In this case, in one synonymous row there may be words that differ in stylistic affiliation and emotional connotation: They shouted that this was sinful, even vile, that the old man was out of his mind, that the old man had been deceived, cheated, swindled(Adv.). Comp. Also: And soon a crowd gathers near the wood warehouse... Ochumelov makes a half turn to the left and walks towards the gathering(A. Chekhov.) – here in a synonymous pair crowd - gathering the second word in the meaning of “large crowd of people” has the stylistic marks “disapproved.” and “colloquial”, which “reduces” its meaning in the text and serves as an expression of a negative assessment.

The use of synonyms can create a comic effect and be a means of characterizing a character:

-- Died“Klavdia Ivanovna,” said the customer.

“Well, the kingdom of heaven,” agreed Bezenchuk. -- She passed away So, old lady...

- So how is it calculated? Who counts?

Shocked by this strange classification of human deaths, Ippolit Matveevich asked:

- Well, when you die, what will the masters say about you?

- It’s impossible to give me an oak or play the game: I have a small build...(I. Ilf and E. Petrov. Twelve chairs)

Antonyms(gr. anti - against + onyma - name) words with opposite meanings are called.

Antonymic relations are entered into by words that are correlated with each other by logical connection, common semantics and grammatical meanings(refer to the same part of speech). For example, ruddy - pale, cheerful - sad, polite - rude, health - illness, joy - sadness. The above pairs contain opposite meanings in the field of quality, state, as well as properties of objects and phenomena. Antonyms can also express contrasting concepts of time (early - late, morning - evening), space (close - distant, south - north), size, volume (small - large, shallow - deep), feelings (love - hate, happiness - grief ), age (old - young), natural phenomena (cold - hot, windy - quiet), contrasting concepts in the field of objects and phenomena associated with social activities person (work - idleness, victory - defeat, peace - war), etc.

IN antonymic relations enter far not all words Russian language. Thus, nouns with a specific meaning (house, table, wall) do not have antonyms; numerals and most pronouns and proper names do not have antonyms. As a rule, there are no antonyms among qualitative adjectives, denoting the names of colors and their shades (with the exception of a few: black - white, dark - light), although in general antonymic pairs among quality adjectives are formed especially actively, and this is precisely what serves as one of the distinctive features of quality adjectives.

By structure antonyms are divided into different root ones ( day Night) and single-rooted ( come - go, revolution - counter-revolution).

Antonyms, as already mentioned, usually form pairs in a language. However, this does not mean that a particular word can have one antonym. Antonymic relations make it possible to express the opposition of concepts in an “unclosed” polynomial series, cf.: specific – abstract, abstract; funny- sad, sorrowful, dull, dull.

Such a correlation of synonymous and antonymic relations reflects the systemic connections of words in the lexicon. Systematicity is also indicated by the relationship between polysemy and antonymy of lexical units. When choosing antonyms, it is taken into account possibility of word ambiguity. Thus, the word low can be an antonym not only for the word high (low house - tall house), but also to the words noble (low deed - noble deed), sublime (low goal - sublime goal).

14. Semantic types of antonyms.

Antonymous pairs (unlike synonyms) differ not in stylistic and emotional-evaluative features, but almost exclusively in conceptual ones. Their logical basis are incompatible concepts, that is, concepts whose scopes do not coincide. Incompatible concepts There are three types - opposite (contrary) and contradictory (contradictory), multidirectional (vector).

1) Contradictorial antonyms presented in pairs whose members are mutually exclusive. In counter-opposition inclusion of a neutral member is unacceptable. Contradictory antonyms are mainly represented by pairs of cognate words, one of which contains a negative word-forming prefix, meaning the absence or deprivation of any attribute, for example, loading - unloading, good faith - dishonesty. This type of opposition shows gradualism in the expression of a generic characteristic.

2) Vector antonyms. They represent the opposite directions: there - here, up - down, sunrise - sunset, rise - fall, enter - exit, descend - rise, light - put out, revolution - counter-revolution.

Stylistic synonyms

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus in literary criticism. From allegory to iambic. - M.: Flinta, Science. N.Yu. Rusova. 2004.

See what “stylistic synonyms” are in other dictionaries:

stylistic synonyms- see stylistic synonyms (synonyms in the article) ...

stylistic synonyms- 1. Synonyms that differ only stylistically. 2. Synonyms that have the same meaning, but differ in their belonging to different styles speech, degree of usage, expressive coloring and so on … Explanatory translation dictionary

Stylistic resources of vocabulary, or lexical stylistics- – 1) a section of linguistic stylistics, focused on describing the stylistic resources of modern times. rus. lit. language at the lexical level of the language structure (see the works of L.V. Shcherba, G.O. Vinokur, A.N. Gvozdev, A.M. Efimov, D.I. Rozental, D.N.... ...

- (Greek synonymos eponymous) words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or stylistic coloring, or both. Can also be synonymous... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

Synonyms- (from the Greek συνώνυμος of the same name) words of the same part of speech (as well as, in a broader sense, phraseological units, morphemes, syntactic constructions), having completely or partially coinciding meanings. As a unit of semantic... ... Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary

synonyms- (Greek synonymos of the same name). Words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or stylistic coloring, or both. Synonyms usually belong to... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

Stylistic resources of syntax, or syntactic stylistics- – stylistic possibilities of syntax means, their role in the generation of stylistically marked statements; ability syntactic units act as expressively stylistic means, i.e. associated with the achievement... ... Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language

Synonyms- This term has other meanings, see Synonym (meanings). Synonyms are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling (cf. homonyms), but having the same or very close lexical meaning(cf. antonyms). Examples... ...Wikipedia

Synonyms- (from the Greek synônymia - same name) - identical or similar in meaning (but different in sound) language units of the same level (morphemes, words and phrases, syntactic constructions). S. are most often called close or identical in ... ... Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language

Synonyms- (from the Greek synonymos of the same name) words related to one part of speech, the meanings of which contain identical elements; the differing elements of these meanings are consistently neutralized in certain positions. Thus, S. can be recognized... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

School explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Active vocabulary of literary language. Interpretation. Pronunciation. Examples of use. Synonyms. Antonyms. Grammatical and stylistic characteristics, E. Skorlupovskaya. The dictionary contains more than 8,000 words and phrases, which represent the active vocabulary of the modern Russian language. . Each dictionary entry contains grammatical and stylistic...

The central links of the lexical-semantic paradigmatics of a language are synonymous series.

D.E. Rosenthal cites the definition of synonyms given by D.I. Fonvizin: “a synonym in the full sense should be considered a word that is defined in relation to its equivalent (to another word with an identical or extremely close meaning) and can be contrasted with it along any line: by a subtle shade in the meaning, by the expressed expression , by emotional coloring, by stylistic affiliation, by compatibility...” I.B. Golub believes that the most important condition synonymy of words is their semantic proximity and in special cases- identity. Depending on the degree of proximity, the synonymity of words can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent. For example, the synonymy of the words hurry - hurry up is expressed more clearly than, say, the words laugh - laugh - pour out - roll up - roll - giggle - snort - splash, which have significant semantic and stylistic differences. Synonymy is most pronounced when words are semantically identical (cf.: here - here, linguistics - linguistics).

There are different synonyms: semantic, stylistic, semantic-stylistic. Semantic synonyms differ in shades of meaning (youth - youth). Stylistic synonyms for same value differ in stylistic coloring. Among them are: synonyms related to different functional styles(interstitial live - official business residence); synonyms belonging to the same style, but having different emotional and expressive shades (colloquial, intelligent - with a positive connotation, brainy, big-headed - with a touch of rude familiarity). Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ both in meaning and in their stylistic coloring (wander, wander, stagger, hang around).

Often one neutral dominant corresponds to two stylistic series: with an increase and with a decrease in style.

The source of synonyms for “sublime” coloring is book vocabulary, often Old Church Slavonic words, words of foreign origin. The reduced stylistic range is based on jargon, professionalism, colloquial and dialect words.

There are two functions of synonyms: ideographic and stylistic. Ideographic synonyms differ in shades of meaning, stylistic ones - in the sphere of use (belonging to different styles of speech) and expressive coloring (expressive shades against the background of the neutral main word of the synonymous series).

D.E. Rosenthal gives positions in which the stylistic function of synonyms is expressed differently:

1) from the point of view of use in a particular style of language (commonly used (neutral) to squander - bookish. squander - colloquial. squander);
2) from the point of view of belonging to a certain group of vocabulary located outside the literary language (conversate - dial. talk; face - simple face);
3) from the point of view of attitude towards modern language(actor - obsolete performer; together - obsolete together);
4) from an expressive-emotional point of view (a student of the bursa - despises the bursak; punishment - high retribution).

Synonyms perform the function of clarification in speech (It so happened that the uncommunicative, even unsociable artist ended up with the Nevredimovs. - S.-Shch); clarifications (Anarchy has begun, that is, anarchy. - S.-Sch.); comparisons (invite the doctor, and call the paramedic. - I.); oppositions (He, in fact, did not walk, but dragged along, without lifting his feet from the ground. - K.); substitution - in order to avoid repetition of words (lives - dwells; began - spoke - continued - picked up). Researchers also highlight the expressive-stylistic function, which is associated with the implementation of the category of evaluation (The old housewife... tells me: “Wait, bookworm, the eyes will burst” - M.G.).

To enhance the emotionality and expressiveness of speech, the technique of stringing synonyms and gradation is used (He was a kind and sympathetic person, fearless and decisive. - Quiet).

Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings (good - evil, sit - stand, life - death). The structure distinguishes between different-rooted and single-rooted antonyms (good - bad, beautiful - ugly). Antonyms are actively used as a means of expressiveness in artistic speech.

The main stylistic function of antonyms is to be lexical means expressions of antithesis.

The stylistic device of antithesis was widespread even in oral folk art(Learning is light and ignorance is darkness).

Concerning works of art, antithesis is more often found in poetic texts (Long live the sun! Let the darkness hide! - A. Pushkin. Both we hate and we love by chance... - M. Lermontov). Writers use antithesis when constructing the title of a work (“War and Peace,” “The Living and the Dead,” “Thick and Thin”). Publicists also actively use the technique of antithesis in article headlines.

An oxymoron is also based on antonymy. The oxymoron is based on the creation of a new concept as a result of combining words that are opposite (contrasting) in semantics (the beginning of the end, bad good man). More often, contrasting words are combined as a definable and a defining (I love nature’s magnificent withering. - A. Pushkin; The time has come for the all-knowing ignoramuses. - V. Vysotsky).

In artistic speech, the technique of comic antithesis is used (Once upon a time there lived a poor private trader. He was a rather rich man. - I. Ilf, E. Petrov); puns (Where is the beginning of the end with which the beginning ends? - K.P.); antiphrasis - the use of a word in the opposite meaning (Okol, smart one, you are delirious, head. - I. Krylov).

A sharp satirical effect is created by the antonymic replacement of one of the components in stable phrases: “Bureau of malicious services”, “Debt in payment is black” (titles of feuilletons).