Linking words as part of phrases and sentences, prepositions can express a variety of relationships:
· spatial(put under sofa);
· temporary (during hours);
· causal(close from happiness face);
· targeted(to buy a present for children);
· object(take behind hand);
· defining(speech from highlight);
· mode of action relations(cut under Hedgehog).
Like other words, prepositions can be single-valued and multi-valued. Usually, unambiguous prepositions are derived prepositions of the type due to, about, including, but polysemantic- non-derivative (fly above city - spatial value; ponder above question - object value; thanks to- causal only).
Prepositions can be used:
with any one specific case (with the genitive - without, to, from, from, at, for, for the sake of(live for the sake of love); (with dative - (decline to earth); (with accusative about, through, through(pass the through wall); with creative ( over, before, before(soar above earth); with a prepositional at(stable at estate);
with two cases (with accusative and prepositional - in, on, about, about(to come in in forest to be in forest, put on the table - lie down on the table); (with parental and creative - between ( to read between lines - spacing between lines); (with accusative and instrumental - for, under(put under table - lies under table);
with three cases (with accusative, dative and prepositional - on(water on knee - hit on knee - on who the bell tolls); (with genitive, accusative and instrumental (ask from daughters are tall from daughter - mother from daughter).
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CREDIT-MODULAR COURSE
Introduction: goals and objectives of studying the course "Morphology of the modern Russian language" at the faculties (departments) of journalism of universities This training aid
MODULE I. NOMINAL PARTS OF SPEECH
The complex goal of module I: · to give a theoretical understanding of the morphology of the modern Russian language, which is studied on a semantic-structural basis; Preds
grammatical meaning
Lexicology and morphology study the word. But lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language. In this section, it is important to study the meanings of the words. For example, the word earth has several meanings: 1. Third
grammatical meanings
Synthetic - grammatical meaning in one word Analytical - grammatical meaning in two words a) endings: kn
The question of the nature of the morphological categories of significant parts of speech is one of the most controversial in modern grammatical theory. There are generally 2 types grammatical categories. 1) Cl
The system of grammatical (morphological) categories in modern Russian
Types of grammatical categories Classification Inflectional Mixed type
Significant and auxiliary parts of speech.
Parts of speech are a class, a group of words united by a common categorical meaning, morphological features and syntactic functions. From this definition it follows that
The main differences between significant parts of speech and service parts
Significant parts of speech Service parts of speech 1. Express concepts 1. Do not express concepts 2. Perform nominal
Questions for self-examination
1. What is grammar? What parts does it consist of? 2. What does morphology study? What are its main tasks? 3. What is the grammatical meaning in the word? How is it different about
Morphological features
So, the basis of the grammatical meaning of a noun is determined by the concept of objectivity, which combines into one group words denoting a specific object (table), an abstract concept
II. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns
According to their lexical and grammatical features nouns are divided into the following lexical and grammatical categories: proper and common nouns; animate and inanimate
Means of expressing the generic meaning of nouns
Indicators of generic meaning Means of expression Examples Morphological indicator Ending of a noun
Gender of indeclinable nouns
a) Indeclinable names of people are determined by the real biological sex ( masculine- Monsieur, kamikaze; feminine gender- Miss, madam, lady). b) The names of animals are, basically
IV. Number of nouns
Nouns have two grammatical meanings of number: singular and plural. Nouns in the singular denote one object (table), nouns in the plural
Case system. declination
The case of nouns expresses the relationship of the noun to other words in the phrase and sentence. There are six cases in Russian. The nominative case is
Declension types of nouns
Nouns in relation to inflection Declinable Indeclinable 1st declension 2nd declension
Questions for self-examination
1. Define a noun as a part of speech, indicate its semantic, morphological features, syntactic functions. 2. Name the lexical and grammatical categories of entity names
Spelling training
Task 1. Add the endings of nouns to times __ about inflation __ in the Arctic __ about genius __ about sums __ in
"A noun as a part of speech" 1. Define the noun as a part of speech 2. What are the nouns
Morphological features
The adjective combines into one group words denoting a sign as a quality or property of an object (beautiful, kind, good), through relation to another object: inanimate (du
II. Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives
According to the nature of the lexical meaning and grammatical features, adjectives are divided into three lexical and grammatical categories: 1. Qualitative adjectives designate
Transition of adjectives from one category to another
In modern Russian, the process of transition of adjectives from one category to another is alive and active, which is reflected in the tables below.
The comparative degree or comparative is an adjective form denoting that the quality feature named by it is presented in more than the same feature called p
Formation of a simple and complex comparative degree
Superlatives indicates the superiority (greatest measure) of a feature in one object (person) in comparison with a group of homogeneous objects (persons). Simple prevot
Syntactic functions of short adjectives
· The nominal part of the compound nominal predicate: Everything is good under the moonlight. · Separate definition: In the open field above me walks, free and dissolute, the January wind
Short form education.
Short forms of adjectives are formed using: 1) truncation of the ending, if the stem of the word ends in p, l, d, t: (round - round, peppy - peppy
V. Declension of adjectives
Adjectives are represented by the following types of declensions: 1. I declension. The first declension includes all qualitative and relative adjectives with hard, soft
Declension of qualitative-relative adjectives with a hard, soft and mixed stem
Unit number Mn. number Im. n. beautiful blue formal suit beautiful blue formal suit
Signs of substantiated adjectives
· They acquire gender, number, case, like nouns (tailor - m.r.; dowry - cf.; pavement - f.r.); May carry definitions (stone bridge
VII. Transition of other parts of speech into adjectives
The transition of other parts of speech into adjectives is called adjective (from Latin adjectivum - adjective). Most often, participles pass into adjectives. 1) Complete hell
Questions for self-examination
1. Define the name of an adjective as a part of speech, indicate its semantic and grammatical features. 2. List the lexical and grammatical categories of adjectives; bring
Spelling training
Task 1 Indicate how the suffixes are written in the given adjectives e / and e / and s / sk glossy __ edge __ how merciful __ thing __ in
"Adjective as a part of speech" 1. Define the adjective as a part of speech 2. Describe
Morphological features
The most significant sign of this part of speech is the ability to participate in the account, which can manifest itself in different ways: - indicate the amount of the account (three tables); - designate for
II. Lexico-grammatical categories of numerals. Their characteristic.
When highlighting the categories of numerals, first of all, the originality of the lexical semantics of this group of words is taken into account, which differently name the quantitative characteristics of counted objects (tr
III. Digits of numerals by structure
According to the structure, numerals can be: simple complex compound This classification takes into account the morphemic composition of numerals: Pro
IV. Declension of numerals
1) Declension of the numeral one. Declined as a pronoun this (one - this, one - this, etc.). 2) Declension of numerals two (male and neuter gender), two
Questions for self-examination
1. Define the name of the numeral as a part of speech; Show why this part of speech is highlighted. 2. Is it possible to classify numerals by structure? For what ranks? P
Spelling training
Task 1 Indicate in what compound words there is an element - two, and in which - two
"The numeral as a part of speech" 1. Describe the numeral as a part of speech 2. Indicate the initial form
Morphological features
IN semantic relation, the pronoun, taken by itself, is characterized by a high degree of abstraction, a generalized indication of an object, attribute, quantity. And only in the text is it realized specifically.
II. Lexico-grammatical categories of pronouns. Their general characteristic
Most widespread received a classification based on the semantic principle. By meaning, all pronouns are divided into 9 categories. 1) Personal (I - we; you - you;
Declension of pronouns
· Declension of personal and reflexive pronouns Indirect cases of personal pronouns are formed using suppletive stems. The reflexive pronoun self does not have a nominative p
Declension of pronouns-adjectives
Declension of pronouns my, yours, yours, whose, yours, ours. The pronoun whose vowel e is fluent: it is absent in all cases, except for the nominative and similar blame
IV. Transition of pronouns to other parts of speech
The function of a pronoun can be numeral one, when in the context it acquires a demonstrative or undefined value: And she thought only of one thing: resist, resist
Questions for self-examination
1. Describe the pronoun as parts of speech; give examples. 2. Indicate the differences in understanding the boundaries of the pronoun as a part of speech. Whose position represents you the most correct?
Spelling training
Task 1 Insert the missing letters and open the brackets. nothing to do n __ what is inexplicable n __ (under) in what way
"Pronoun as a part of speech" 1. Define the pronoun as a part of speech 2. Specify initial form pronouns
TERMINAL CONTROL TEST TO MODULE I
1. What is meant by s / s "nominal parts of speech" 2. What nouns are called proper?
Overarching objective of module II
The Russian verb has a rather complex system of form formation, however, in the practical courses of the Russian language, it is given insufficient attention. In particular, in school course not at all from
Morphological features
The meaning of the action as a process in the verb is expressed in categories: type - the ratio of the action to its internal limit (decide - decide); inclinations - relation
II. The system of verb forms. Verb bases.
Verb
III. The indefinite form of the verb (infinitive).
1. Infinitive - "dictionary", initial, initial form of the verb. He names the process abstractly, that is, does not associate it with the time during which it lasts, with those who carry out
Verb type
The aspect category is one of the most important characteristics of the verb. Any Russian verb is a verb of perfect or not perfect look, many verbs make aspectual pairs: ignite -
Transitivity and intransitivity of verbs
transitive verbs- these are verbs that denote an action directed at some object (object), and this object must be expressed by a noun in the accusative pas
Voice of the verb
A significant part of the verbs of the Russian language can act in opposing constructions such as Workers build houses - Houses are built by workers. The secretary signs the protocol - Protocol signed
Conjugation of verbs
Changing verbs in persons and numbers is called conjugation (in the higher sense of the word). Verbs are conjugated only in the indicative mood in the present and future tense. In Russian
verb mood
Inclination is the relation of action to reality established by the speaker. The Russian verb has three moods: indicative (I write), p
face category. Impersonal verbs.
The person is one of the most important characteristics of the verb. The person is inherent in the verbs of the present and future tense indicative mood, as well as verbs imperative mood. Category
Category of number and gender of the verb
The category of number and gender of verbs is not the most important characteristics verb, since they characterize not so much the action itself as the subjects of the action. Number of verbs
Spelling training
Task number 1. Insert the missing letter, select the suffix. 1 start _ lead 1 talk _ talk 2 advice _ talk 2 develop _ think (thought) 3 ridicule _ make fun of 3 mourn _ talk
"Verb as a part of speech" 1. Define the verb as a part of speech 2. Describe in detail the indefinite form
Adjective signs
Variability by birth (singing child, singing girl, student reading a book, book read by a student). mutability by numbers ( blooming garden- blooming gardens).
Verb Features
View - perfect / imperfect (did (do) - did (do).). Pledge - real / passive (the engineer who designed the machine
Meaning and formation of real participles
Valid participles name the sign of the object by the action that the object itself produces (the doctor who cured the patient; the leader who makes the decision). act
Meaning and formation of passive participles
Passive participles call such an action-sign that is experienced by actor or subject. · Passive Communion present time
III. Transition of participles to other parts of speech
Participles that combine the features of a verb and an adjective turn into adjectives. The process of turning participles into adjectives is called adjectivation.
Signs of adjectival participles
Loss of dependent words (fried potatoes (adv.) - fried potatoes(adj.)). ・use in figurative meaning(apologizing girl (adv.) - sorry
Spelling workshop
Task number 1. Insert the missing letters in the participle suffixes. 1 pumped oil out of the tank 1 hiding 2 seeking 2 adhesive 3 targeted (
“The participle as a special form of the verb” 1. Describe the participle as a special form of the verb 2. Which of the following
I. General characteristics of the gerund II. Meaning and formation of gerunds 1. Meaning and formation of imperfect gerunds 2.
Verb Features
Common lexical meaning. For example, in a gerund, having read and a verb, read the general lexical meaning - to perceive something written or printed. General
Meaning and formation of imperfective gerunds
The imperfect participle usually denotes an action simultaneous with the action of the predicate verb: My sad comrade, waving his wing, pecks bloody food under the window. (
Meaning and formation of perfect gerunds
The perfect participle usually denotes the previous action (Having removed your head, do not cry for your hair). In a postposition, such a gerund may denote by
III. The transition of the participle into other parts of speech
Participles that combine the features of a verb and an adverb can turn into adverbs. This process is called adverbialization. The adverbialization of the gerund participle consists in the loss
The participle as a special form of the verb
1. Describe the gerund as a special form of the verb 2. Which of the verb features are characteristic of the gerund 1.
FRONTIER CONTROL TEST TO MODULE II
1. Find a two-part verb in each of the groups. Make sentences using the found verbs in the meaning of the perfect and imperfect form 1. marry, redeem, yes
STATUS CATEGORY WORDS
The complex goal of module III: to emphasize the special specificity of the two parts of speech - adverbs and words of the state category - which consists in absolute immutability and is
II. Adverb ranks by meaning
According to their general meaning, adverbs are divided into two groups: · adverbial · attributive. Adverbs express different conditions
III. Degrees of comparison of adverbs
Degrees of comparison can form only qualitative adverbs formed from quality adjectives. The simple comparative degree of adverbs is formed with the help of
IV. Degrees of quality of adverbs
Adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives have degrees of quality. The degrees of quality include: suffix formations: for a long time - for a long time, for a long time - a long time ago
V. Formation of adverbs
Adverbs can be formed from: 1) nouns (without restraint, from afar, in the middle of running, upright, below, sullenly); 2) from quality adjectives with suffixes
VI. Transition of adverbs to other parts of speech
Adverbs can move into non-significant parts of speech: 1) adverbs near, instead of, contrary to, except for, in front of, over, through, among, finally turned into prepositions. Adverbs near, vg
Spelling training
Task 1. Determine the final vowel in adverbs 1 oblique_ 1 empty_ 2 dry_ 2 syzmal_ 3 hastily_ 3 verbatim_ 4 blind_ 4 empty_ 5 dry
"The adverb as a part of speech" 1. Describe the adverb as a part of speech 2. Indicate the main ways of forming n
Questions for self-examination
1. Why is the highlighted L.V. Shcherboy new part speech "state category" was quickly recognized by linguists? 2. What fundamental difference words of the category of state from adverbs, brief
Text for analysis
1. Quiet and foggy in the forest. 2. Morning is quiet and loud. 3. Horses stand still. 4. The student listened to the teacher with concentration. 5. A lot of troops are concentrated in this area. 6. The student's face was
Text for analysis
1. This song is better. 2. The boy draws better. 3. The patient got better. 4. Flowers are the last mile of luxurious first-born fields. They are dull dreams, more alive than the test
FRONTIER CONTROL TEST TO MODULE III
1. Determine what part of speech the highlighted words are: 1. adverb; 2. adjective in short form; 2. impersonal predicative word (state category).
MODULE IV. SERVICE PARTS OF SPEECH
The overarching goal of module IV: to give general characteristics service parts of speech, that is, point to those grammatical features, which radically separate them from the banners
I. Service parts of speech
Service parts of speech do not name the phenomena of reality, but indicate the relationship that exists between these phenomena. These are prepositions, conjunctions, particles. They are sometimes referred to as "particles
III. Syntactic functions of prepositions
Expressing the idea of a relationship, prepositions in their own way grammatical meaning comparable to case endings, therefore, they act together in a single functional complex, forming a prepositional case
Ranks of prepositions by origin
By their origin, prepositions are: · non-derivative - those that have lost their connection with the words from which they are formed (in, on, without, before, because of, etc.); · P
VI. Transition to prepositions of other parts of speech
Most of prepositions in Russian belongs to non-derivative, the most ancient prepositions. In addition to them, there are many derivative prepositions in Russian, i.e. those that are descended from adverbs,
Questions for self-examination
1. What group of words in Russian refers to prepositions? Give examples of such words. 2. Can prepositions be considered a separate part of speech and why? 3. What are the relative
Spelling training
Task 1. Open the brackets 1 (for) a meeting 1 (for) the elimination of errors 2 (c) a consequence of the disease 2 (c) due to progress 3 (c) due to circumstances
"Preposition as service unit speech "1. Describe the service parts of speech 2. Describe the pr
Writing unions. Ranks by value
Coordinating conjunctions- grammatical class of conjunctions used to connect homogeneous members sentences and parts of a complex sentence. By value are distinguished
subordinating unions. Ranks by value
Subordinating unions are unions that serve to connect syntactically unequal units of the main and subordinate clause as part of a complex sentence. By value
III. Conjunctions and allied words
Allied words are a category of pronominal words used to connect sentences. The following are used as allied words: interrogative pronouns-nouns (who,
IV. Ranks of unions by origin and structure
According to their origin, Russian unions are divided into two groups: non-derivative (primitive), inherited by the Russian language from the common Slavic fund (a, and, but, yes).
Questions for self-examination
1. What groups of words in Russian are called unions? Can they be called unions? Can it be called a separate part of speech? 2. What is the meaning and function of unions? Is it possible to approve
Spelling training
Task 1. Mark the sentences in which the underlined words are spelled correctly 1. So that they do not say, I will do this work. 2. We came here to
Spelling training
Task 1. Open the brackets 1 whatever (whatever) 1 what (same) thing 2 what (would) know, you need to learn 2 do everything the same (same) 3 whatever (whatever) it may be 3 he is (same)
"Union as a service part of speech" 1. Describe the union as a service part of speech 2. Define a writer
I. Particles and parts of speech
Particles - a class of words that gives various additional semantic shades to both words and sentences and serves to create various forms words (This is my house; p
Particle discharges by value and syntactic function
According to their meaning and functions, the particles are divided into four categories: 1) Particles that express the general semantic shades of the meanings of words in speech. These include:
Discharges of particles by origin and structure
Particles are divided into two main groups according to their origin. 1. Non-derivative (primordial) particles (de, they say, only, they say, would, yes, well, no, no, really, no, well, -s,
Questions for self-examination
1. What groups of words in Russian are called particles? 2. Specify the features that unite different particles into one part of speech. 3. With what significant and official words similar
Spelling training
Task 1. Insert particles not or not 1 Wherever you ... are, write to us. 2 In Belarus, there are few families where ... victims of the war. 3 We ... to whom we do not
"Particle as a service part of speech" 1. Describe the particle as a service part of speech 2. Indicate the ranks of particles
I. General concept of modality. Modal words
Modality is one of the main categories of a sentence that forms predicativity as the relation of a statement to reality. Modality objective (basic
Modal word ranks by meaning
By meaning, two groups of modal words are usually distinguished: modal words with an affirmative meaning, expressing the reality of the reported, its reliability (undoubtedly, of course, unconditionally
Discharges of modal words by origin
Correlation of modal words with significant parts speech is determined by their origin from significant words, due to which the so-called functional homonyms arose in the language. Among
Questions for self-examination
1. What is modality and what are its main types? 2. What ways of expressing modality are there in Russian? Show with examples. 3. Are modal words part of speech and
"Modal words in modern Russian" 1. Why modal words occupy a special place in the system of parts of speech of the modern Russian language
I. Meaning of interjections
Interjection is a relatively unproductive part of speech, not related to either official or significant words, expressing (but not naming) emotions, expressions of will. (For example, O
Lexico-grammatical categories of interjections
In Russian, there are three lexical and grammatical categories of interjections: emotional, expressing various feelings of surprise, approval, threat, reproach, fear, sadness
Interjection ranks by origin
By origin, interjections are divided into non-derivatives, to which in modern language some borrowings also apply (ah, oh, wow, oh, ege, gop, bis, bravo, cheers, etc.), and
III. Syntactic functions of interjections
As part of a sentence, the interjection performs a variety of syntactic functions. 1. In context, an interjection can take a position relative to an independent statement (so
IV. Interjections and onomatopoeic words
According to morphological and syntactic features, and also by the nature of correlation with realities, onomatopoeic words adjoin the interjection, which are imitations of sounds alive
Questions for self-examination
1. What group of words in Russian is usually referred to as interjections? Give examples. 2. Is it right to consider interjection as a separate part of speech? Why? 3. What digits for s
Spelling training
Task 1. Find interjections, put necessary signs 1 You should be a writer to her (her)! 2 Here (those) times! 3 I'm going, I'm going to open field: bell ding (din).
"Interjection and onomatopoeic words as service parts of speech" 1. Describe the interjection as a part of speech
FRONTIER CONTROL TEST FOR MODULE IV
1. Write out the writing and subordinating conjunctions. Indicate their value 1. I must have been terribly excited and stupid, because only after a few seconds I noticed that
Test #1
1. Indicate the noun generic 1. terror 3. youth 2. rugby 4. upstart 2. Specify possessive adjective 1. cheerful 3. chocolate
Test #2
1. In which line is a mistake made in the formation of the word form? 1) eight hundred rubles 2) about forty-three boxes 3) to sixty meters 4) about both barrels 2
Questions for the exam
1. Introduction to morphology: basic concepts and objectives of the course. 2. Parts of speech and principles of their classification. 3. Noun as a part of speech. Lexico-grammatical categories of names su
CONCLUSION
A life modern man impossible to imagine without contact with the means mass media. The press, television, radio and other media have a strong influence on the formation of social
GLOSSARY
IMPERSONAL VERBS - the lexical and grammatical category of verbs that do not combine with the subject and denote the state of nature (vyuzhit, purzhit); living beings (chill, unwell
UNDEFINITELY QUANTITATIVE NUMBERS -
lexical and grammatical category of numerals, including the words many, few, few, how many, several, so many, etc. (My memory has saved a few faces ... (P.))
List of abbreviations
The names of the quoted writers A. A. - A. Akhmatova A. B. - A. A. Blok A. V. - A. Voznesensky Ars. – Arseniev A. G. – A. Galich A. Gr. – A. S. Gribo
Dictionaries, encyclopedias, reference books
1. Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary linguistic terms. Moscow, 1969. 2. Vakurov V.N., Rakhmanova L.I., Tolstoy I.V., Formanovskaya N.I. Difficulties of the Russian language. Dictionary reference. M., 1993.
Monographs
1. Bondarko A.V. Type and tense of the Russian verb (meaning and usage). M., 1971. 2. Bondarko A.V., Bulanin A.L. Russian verb. M., 1967. 3. Bulanin A.L. Difficult Morpholo Questions
However, the degree of formality, abstractness and lexical weight of different prepositions is different, although in general the meanings of prepositions in Russian are much more specific than, for example, in French (). Even K.S. Aksakov correctly noted: “The meaning of prepositions is usually measured by cases: such and such requires an accusative, such and such a genitive, and that’s enough: meanwhile, the meaning lies in the prepositions themselves. This meaning is in them as a hint, which becomes is clear only in case; thus, the required case is here not an accidentally innate property of the preposition, but is a consequence of its meaning "(). "The preposition has a meaning in itself, and from this meaning we can deduce the possibility of using it with one or another case" ().
"Must be defined general meaning each preposition, and hence the position (i.e. function. - V. V.), which he sends in the language, in various applications, sometimes, apparently, completely dissimilar to each other "().
However, the differences in lexical meanings and grammatical functions of prepositions are very large. Penetrating one edge into the area of adverbs, prepositions, on the other hand, approach the "prepositional inflections" (V. A. Bogoroditsky's expression) of nouns or the "postpositions" of the verb. Losing their real, lexical meanings, they become pure case prefixes or verbal "glues" - exponents of indirect-transitive relations of the verb (for example: think about future; yearn on father; doubt in how-someday etc.) (). In this case, they become formal, morphological indicators syntactic links verb.
When mastering a literary language, the system of using such abstract prepositions after verbs presents particular difficulties. In many cases, the preposition is an integral element of an indecomposable phrase. The connection of verbs with such gluing prepositions is idiomatic. It seems unmotivated in terms of living syntax norms.
Very symptomatic examples of the misuse of such prepositions in the language of newspaper correspondents are given in A. Ivanov and L. Yakubinsky's "Essays on Language", for example: "Do not be surprised at this headline"; "You said little about the work of the excursion base"; "You don't need to forgive for such things" (), etc. Cf. typical slips of the tongue in modern oral (and sometimes written) speech: decided about volume indicates about volume etc.
It is also interesting to point out (V. A. Dobromyslova) that in the language of adolescent workers the percentage of use of prepositional constructions is insignificant - only 24% (while, for example, in an excerpt from Chekhov's "Men" they are 47.5%), especially for the expression relations of indirect object to nouns, adjectives and adverbs ().
K. S. Aksakov wrote very sharply: “The preposition, already revealing the power of the verb in itself and controlling names, stands at the boundary of two worlds of the word and is transferred from the sphere of the name to the sphere of the verb. Belonging to both spheres, it acts in the spirit of the verb in the first and in the spirit of the name in the second. He controls the names and merges with the verbs "().
In Russian, as in other languages, there are weak, "empty" prepositions denoting, according to at least in some syntactic combinations, an abstract, purely grammatical case relation. True, in Russian, not a single preposition has reached the grammatical abstraction that is characteristic of weak prepositions in English or French (for example, de or a) ().
Nevertheless, in the Russian language the bias towards the grammaticalization of some prepositions, towards their transformation into case prefixes, is very noticeable. For example, in combinations: grieve, yearn, cry, miss, suffer, dry, hurt soul with a pretext on and prepositional or dative case noun preposition on is an expression of the purely grammatical relation of the case form to the verb: it is devoid of any lexical meaning.
On the contrary, in other cases, prepositions retain all the brightness of their lexical meaning and even often form a separate syntagma in combination with nouns, which reveals a certain independence and only adjoins other members of the sentence. For example: “What, didn’t you wait?” Stepan Arkadyevich said, getting out of the sleigh, from a lump of dirt on the bridge of the nose, on the cheek and eyebrow, but shining with fun and health "(L. Tolstoy," Anna Karenina ");" Under the very images, in the first place, he sat with George on his neck, from pale, sickly face and from with his high forehead merging with his head, Barclay de Tolly" (L. Tolstoy, "War and Peace"); "Each regiment, in his silence and immobility, seemed an indifferent body "(ibid.):" Pierre, in concentration and distraction of his mood, did not recognize Rostov "(ibid.) ().
It is curious that in peasant and urban grassroots speech, a synonymous doubling of strong prepositions is often observed, the strengthening of one preposition by another with synonymous shades. So, A. Meromsky wrote in his brochure about the language of the Selkor: "Getting acquainted with the peasant manuscripts, one can notice the rather frequent use of double prepositions:" In the seventeenth year, Shuvaev left his estate and flew away with a fair wind behind across border"; "He does not know for for the sake of why does he need it" (). Compare: "That's it, you see, for for the sake of speed" (Ostrovsky, "Thunderstorm"); "Not for myself for the sake of, but for you, young people, he said "(Gorky," Philistines ") ().
So, Russian prepositions represent a wide variety of grammatical types. Their extreme poles are, on the one hand, prepositional adverbs and prepositional phrases (), and on the other hand, formal, empty prepositions - prefixes of names and postpositions of verbs.
Finally, prepositions expressing "the local calm position of the object", "a point inside the circle" (Potebnya) are combined with prepositional. These are in, on, at, by(in the temporal meaning of the sequence), about(basic meaning: stay, confinement within one's own limits, abstract "circular" possession).
These abstract allusions determine only the background, the general outline of the various uses of prepositions.
In this direction, modern Russian grammar has not gone very far from the (remarkable in its time) analysis that prepositions were subjected to in the works of A. Kh. Vostokov, K. S. Aksakov () and N. P. Nekrasov ().
Only acad. A. A. Shakhmatov, in draft sketches for his "Syntax" (), for the first time made an attempt to identify and systematize those grammatical relations that are expressed in Russian by prepositions. But these are only fragmentary notes, not explained by examples. The following main types of relations, signified by prepositions, can be distinguished in modern Russian:
1. Local e, spatial relations ( around - from the genus P.; before - from birth; between - from the genus and tv.; past - from birth; from - from birth, from-behind - from birth; from — from birth; across - from birth; y - from birth; from- from the genus. and wine.; about- with wines. and suggestion; in- with wines. and suggestion; behind - from wine and tv.; on the - from wine and suggestion; across - with wine; under - from wine and tv.; to - from date; on - from date, vin. and suggestion; above - from tv. before — with tv.; at - with a suggestion and etc.). For example: " At entrance the owner was sitting in the bath" (Pushkin, "Journey to Arzrum"); " FROM hill the master's house is visible" (Pushkin); "From the head before heels all Moscow ones have a special imprint" (Griboedov); "The people, with Petya in the middle, rushed to balcony"(L. Tolstoy, "War and Peace"); "Everyone will go to sleep, and I will go; nothing to everyone, but how do I in grave"(Ostrovsky, "Thunderstorm"); " Behind screens in one of the more secret rooms a man was hidden and clicked a nightingale" (Griboedov, "Woe from Wit"); "For a long time to us? - No, tomorrow I think in Moscow"(Chekhov, "The Seagull").
Already from one list of prepositions expressing spatial relations, it is clear how diverse the meanings and shades are within this semantic sphere. In the circle of the use of prepositions expressing spatial relations, syntactic synonymy is widely developed. It is almost completely unknown to us.
Based on the rethinking of spatial relations, various designations are formed internal relations staying in some state, under some conditions, social position, concomitant circumstance, internal proximity and internal connection of objects and signs, quality limits, goals, causes, etc.
2. Temporal, temporal relations ( before - from the genus P.; between — from the genus, obsolete, for example: "it's time between the wolf and the dog"; from — from birth, after - from birth; from- from birth; to - from date; on - from date, vin. and suggestion, in - from wine and suggestion; behind - from wine and tv.; on the- with wines. and suggestion; under - with wine; across - with wine; between - with tv.; before — with tv.; about- with wines. and suggestion; at - with a suggestion and etc.). It is easy to see that there are fewer prepositions expressing the meanings of time than prepositions with spatial meanings. Temporal values are combined with spatial ones and develop on their basis. Temporal relations in the Russian language are not as finely differentiated as spatial ones, but even here there is a diverse and complex synonymy.
Examples: "During classes, of which each on two hours, the monotonous answers of the lessons to the teacher made an invincible sleep" (Pomyalovsky, "Essays on Bursa"); "She was very good in this instant"(Turgenev," Noble Nest "); from most childhood etc.
3. Comitative relations, i.e. denoting accompaniment, compatibility, complicity ( from- from tv. P.; at - with a suggestion; colloquially between - from the genus and TV). For example: "He hired this closet from lunch And servant(Dostoevsky, "Crime and Punishment").
Escort relations in Russian literary language complicated by more and more abstract ideas. On their basis, the meanings of internal participation, organic connection, internal possession, means, causal relationship, accompanying conditions develop.
For example:
And all from beautiful behavior...
FROM soul full regrets,
And leaning on granite
Yevgeny stood thoughtfully.
What if, sister,
At beauty such and you are a master of singing ...
"I'm dumbfounded at such surprises"(Dostoevsky).
4. Ablative (caritive e) relations, i.e. expressing deprivation, removal, deprivation, opposition ( from - from genus. P.; instead of - from birth; without - from birth; except - from birth; from (co) — from birth; above - from birth; against - from birth; contrary to - from date; in- with a suggestion; at - with a suggestion and some others). Wed also: outside — from the genus n. For example: " Without ranks please sit down" (Gogol, "Inspector"); "Yes, where are you from tea-then?" (L. Tolstoy, "The Power of Darkness").
5.Transgressive relations, i.e., denoting the transition from one state to another, going beyond something ( behind - with wine; from - from the genus — from bag in bast, in - from wine — turn in ruins; tear apart, break in shreds etc.), for example: "And tore the letter in small pieces"(Pushkin, "The Queen of Spades").
6.Inchoative-finitive (terminologically e) relations, i.e., determining the degree, limit, starting point, initial moment of something, for example: busy on throat; "Neighbour, I full on throat"(Krylov," Demyanova's ear "), etc. ().
7. Quantitative e, quantitatively-defining relations ( in - with wine; on the - from wine etc.), for example: "For me, American seniors years in fifteen born - just disgusting" (Herzen).
8. Distributive, separating relations ( on - from date; on - with wine; on the - from wine etc.), for example: "He ate once a day on alone dish"(Turgenev," Noble Nest ").
9. Limitative e, restrictive relations ( on - from date). Wed modern expressions: inspector on labor; specialist on mechanical engineering; "Equip local resorts, often first-class on with its climatic and curative data"(from newspapers), etc.
10. Possessive, possessive relations, i.e. expressing belonging ( y - from birth; from- from TV; at - with a preposition), for example: "He had a single-barreled gun, from flint"(Turgenev," Yermolai and the Miller's Woman ").
11. Genetically e, or genetic e, relations (i.e., determining the source, composition, origin of something); for example: from - from the genus ( from nobles, from glorious kind Suvorov etc.); from — from the genus
12. Comparative relations, that is, expressing comparison, comparison, sometimes even identity: against(in simple opposite) — from birth; like - from birth; on the - with wine, before — with tv.; on - from date; from - with wine; in - with wine; under - from wine Wed also: instead of - from the genus (in the meaning of "for"). For example: "And the hand in bucket size "(Gogol); "Excuse me, this is rubbish against Ivana Kuzmina"(Gogol, "Marriage").
13. Modal relations, i.e. relations of image and method ( on - from date; in- with wines. and suggestion; on the - from wine and suggestion; through — from the genus (outdated) under - with tv.; from- from the genus. and tv.; at - with a suggestion; before - from birth; across - from wine and etc.). For example: "Puffed up and from open mouths crows were sitting on the bumps" (Pisemsky, "A Thousand Souls"); "She is a little from fool, her mother was the same" (Gogol, "Inspector"); "Offered to play in money one penny each "(Pushkin," Captain's daughter"). Compare: "However, you were probably told in joke as if I were a great poet" (Pushkin, "Egyptian Nights"); "I can talk to you on soul, won't you talk?" (Ostrovsky, "Thunderstorm").
14. Final e, target relations ( on the - with wine; in - with wine; on - with wine; to - from date; for - from birth; behind - from TV). For example: "It seemed to him that now he only understood for what worth living" (Turgenev, "Noble Nest"); "I say so, to example"(Ostrovsky, "Poverty is not a vice").
15. Causal e, causal relationships ( behind - from wine and tv.; under - with tv.; on - from date; to - from date; from - from birth; thanks to - from date; for the sake of - from birth; from - from birth; from-behind - from birth; from- from birth; for - from birth; in - from wine and suggestion; on the - from wine and suggestion; compare: in strength, by cause, because of, on account of, due to and others like it). For example: "Talents are true behind criticism not angry" (Krylov, "Flowers"); "I love you, but I can't from longing stay at home" (Chekhov, "The Seagull"); "I hardly sleep with annoyance, from anger that he missed the time so stupidly" (Chekhov, "Uncle Vanya").
According to the composition of Russian prepositions expressing causality, causal relations, one can conclude how the expression of causal relations developed in the Russian grammatical system. Part of simple, non-derivative prepositions ( for, by, under, from, from, into, on) combines causal meanings with spatial and temporal ones. This was one way of developing the concept of causality.
Another part of prepositions expressing causal relationships combines causal meanings with the meanings of purpose, purpose ( for, by and etc.). It is known that causal relationships were closely intertwined with the target ones in the field of alliances (cf. the history of alliances for Togo what the topics what and etc.).
The third part of prepositions expressing causal relationships combines causal meanings with comparative ones (for example: in, on, by and etc.). A. A. Potebnya wrote about this, pointing to "something deeply ancient state a thought in which the relations of cause and effect arose (among other things) from the relation of resemblance, so that the effect is only a modified likeness of the cause" ().
16.Instrumental relations: began inspect in lorgnette; enough about stone; sat behind elegy; to me not before books and others. Compare: at help, with assistance, through, through etc.
17. Deliberative relations, that is, serving to indicate the content, the reason for the judgment, on the subject of thought, speech, feeling (with verbs and names sentiendi et declarandi) ( about- with a suggestion; in - from wine and suggestion; behind - with wine; to - from date; above - with tv.; about - from wine and etc.; on the - from wines. etc.), for example: ABOUT how bet? May I know?" (Turgenev, "Spring Waters"); "Our business, brother, is with you about okolevantse think" (Chekhov, "Ivanov"), Compare: " ABOUT com did she dream? what is it?" (Griboyedov, "Woe from Wit").
18.Inner Relationships I, as it were, involvement, complicity ( in - with a suggestion etc.), for example: "Young people, prudent in windy vanity"(Pushkin); "The answers are sharp and remarks, so caustic in them importance funny" (Pushkin, "Feast during the plague").
19.Substitution relations but, functional being in the role of someone b ( behind - from wine pad.), for example: "The official whom we received behind auditor, was not an auditor" (Gogol, "Inspector"); "By her grace, I had the reputation behind selfish"(Turgenev, "Noble Nest"); "He was supposed to behind most sacred duty in the course of the course, be sure to cross everyone, both diligent and modest" (Pomyalovsky, "Essays of the Bursa").
20. Internal dependency relationships and for example: turn behind you, business behind few etc.
21.Approximate measure ratios (from - from wine p.), for example: boy from finger and etc.
It is quite obvious that it is very difficult to exhaust syntactic relations, even those expressed only by simple prepositions, in a dry protocol list.
IN semantic system prepositions, a complex area of abstract relations opens up, expressing the public understanding of the most various connections between objects, signs, states and actions.
In-depth work is needed to reveal the internal patterns in the semantic system of prepositions. For this, it is necessary not only to carefully study all types of connections between words expressed by case forms and prepositions, but also to clarify the semantic relationships between different prepositions.
The complex and nuanced synonymy of prepositions has not yet been studied in our country. For example, in the circle of causal relationships, there are subtle semantic and stylistic nuances associated with the use of different prepositions. So, to indicate the internal cause, the prepositions from, from, from, from-for, as a result of reason from genitive case. But the expressions: from shame, with shame, out-behind shame due to shame - not devoid of peculiar individual shades. In the same way, synonymous combinations are not completely homogeneous: for me for the sake of me; from dawn - on dawn(). The degree of their use is also different.
Synonymous differences in the use of prepositions may depend on the close connection of certain prepositions with different styles of book and colloquial speech.
For example, a suggestion on Unlike after is used with the meaning of time only in terms of book business, clerical and scientific style: on end, after arrival, by consideration, according to acquaintance etc.
Pro Unlike about is used mainly in colloquial speech and expresses a shade of attitude that is not directed at the essence of the subject (this shade is characteristic of the preposition about), and on its surface, relations, as if only outwardly capturing an object, rotating around it. Wed: tell about new works on physics And tell about new work on physics.
Through, through, Unlike behind, in a causal sense is used only in oral speech and has a secondary connotation of an intermediate link or an external agent. For example, in Griboyedov's "Woe from Wit": "What miracles, across which witchcraft everyone repeats the absurdity about me in a voice? "Compare with Pushkin:" One way or another, through sword And Fire, or from rum and sneak, or by more moral means, but savagery must disappear. "Compare the colloquial use across in the sense of "because of someone, something." Wed Chekhov in "Ivanov": "I don't drink, but across such happening I’ll drink”; in “Father”: “I didn’t want to drink, but across mushrooms I'll drink."
Meanwhile, the suggestion behind denotes the internal basis, motive of some state, action (meaning: in response to something, in return, as a reward for something), for example: " Behind the truth only fools get angry" (Turgenev, "Noble Nest"); "Talents are true behind criticism don't get angry" (Krylov).
The shades of causal relations expressed by different prepositions are especially diverse. First of all, it is striking that in the Russian language, to express the cause, for the most part, prepositions are used, which at the same time mean movement from somewhere, from some point, from some point or from some source, place, extraction from somewhere (cf. the meanings of words and expressions: output, extract output, out, out etc.).
Pretext from(from the genus. p.) most often denotes internal, mental or physical reason, while its use is limited to a narrow range of colloquial expressions: from longing, with joy, with grief, with hunger, with shame etc.
Pretext from(with genus p.) denotes both the external and internal motivation of a quality or action - the justification of something as a consequence, by referring to some phenomenon or action that served as a cause, for example: thinner from insomnia; from shame not knew where get away.
Pretext from(from the genus. p.) designates the internal psychological foundations of some action or property as their starting point and is used mainly in the bookish language. For example: from principle; from selfish motives; from respect to merit whom-someday; from love to art; from desires help; from diplomatic considerations; from envy.
The meanings of the compound preposition are much more dual. from-behind. It expresses both an internal reason and a pretext, a cover for the action, but emphasizes the rational, logical side of the motive: broke up from-behind trivia; from-behind noise nothing not heard(cf. from noise nothing not It was heard); from-behind you all came out. This suggestion is widely used in book speech and in common parlance (cf. A. Blok in "The Twelve": "Ali's hands are not covered in blood from-behind Katkina love").
Pretext on denotes a logically motivated reason for an action, either inherent in its subject, or forcibly approaching from the outside: on negligence, by humanity, according to thoughtlessness etc.
It is clear that with a deeper analysis of prepositional constructions, other semantic and stylistic shades, connections and relationships in the range of certain meanings expressed by prepositions will also be revealed.
I. C prepositional case m.
1. Used to designate the surface, the area of an object, which is the place of manifestation of some action. For example: on the street big motion; walk on the boulevard; "I silently sat down on the edge table"(Pushkin); live on the extreme North(cf.: on the Ukraine, on Corsica, on Alaska etc.); sit on the chair; on the table costs tableware; write on the dense paper.
It is used with the names of mountainous regions to indicate the place of action: on the Caucasus, on Ural(but cf. in relation to mountainous areas Western Europe: in Switzerland, in Tyrol; also with the names of states: in Spain, in Norway etc.).
It is used when designating an object or person as a surface, area, which is the location, discovery of something. For example: painting on the china; scratches on the nose; curtains on the windows; on the German hat And new coat; on the legs shoes.
It is figuratively used when referring to an object that is thought of as a background for the manifestation and concentration of some mental state: on the soul which-then heaviness; yearning on the a heart.
2. Used (along with the preposition in) when designating an object, a space within which it occurs, the manifestation of some action, property is closed. For example: First on the village worker; On the enterprises And in institution goes pre-election campaign.
// In contrast to the preposition in, denoting only the area, the sphere within which something happens, denotes at the same time the sphere, the place of action, and participation in the action, passive or active participation in some activity: sit on the lectures; to be on the concert(but: to be in theater); work on the factory(but: work in workshop); to study on the courses, on medical faculty, at workers' faculty(but: to study in institute, in university) .
3. Used to indicate the period of time within which something happens: on the my memory Moscow absolutely changed; on the these days; on the future week.
// Used with words denoting both time and the sphere of manifestation of some action or property: on the admission at doctor; on the work.
4. Used to denote an action, a circumstance, at one of the moments of which something happens: "Sparks go out on the fly"(Y. Polonsky); on the running; on the everyone galloping. Expressions of this kind are easily adverbialized.
5. Used when referring to objects in the presence of which something happens, happens: on the people; on the the world And death red(proverb); on the my eyes.
// Figuratively denotes conditions from which something follows: On the lack of fish And cancer a fish; "That's who we should respect on the solitude"(Griboyedov).
6. Used to denote a person, an object that is the focus of something, the object of manifestation of some action, state, quality: On the German lay big responsibility; All her love focused on the child; Disease affected on the his gait; Whole House on the my hands; On the German(cf. behind him) listed duty.
7. It is used when referring to objects that support something, which are a support, the basis of something: stroller on the springs; mattress on the springs; on the hinges; human on the crutches.
// Used when referring to items that are the inside, bottom side of something: coat on the wate; shoes on the double sole; fur coat on the squirrel fur; skids on the iron undercuts.
8. It is used when designating an instrument of action, and this instrument is at the same time either a surface or a means of manifesting an action: play on the piano, on flute, on wind instrument.
// It is figuratively used when referring to an object that is a material, a means of something, or that simultaneously forms both a sphere and a method of manifestation of some action, object, property: speak up on the French language; manuscript on the German language; cook, fry on the oil, on fat, on margarine; factory working on the waste oil.
// Used when referring to something that is part of a substance or with which an object is made: ointment on the vaseline; jam on the molasses, on sugar.
9. Denotes close proximity to some object, mainly to the instrument of action, being near it: two on the oars; one on the steering wheel.
10. Used to denote being in some state, position, in some activity: to consist on the service; be on the cure; to stand on the hours, on guard; to consist on the dependent; this on the my responsibility: "So that a goldfish would serve me and I would have on the parcels"(Pushkin).
11. Used when referring to an object that is the basis of some action: Thanks to you on the good word(i.e. for a kind word).
// Used to denote an object that is both the cause of some action and the scope of its manifestation: Many lost on the this deed.
12. Being after nominative case some word before the same word in the prepositional case, forms in spoken language such phraseological combinations, which denote the abundance of someone, something, the filling of the entire space with something (mostly something negative): ravine on the ravine; fool on the fool; bump on the pothole; hole on the hole; patch on the patch.
II. With accusative m.
13. Used when designating an object or person as a place towards which some action is directed: go on the street; lie down on the sofa; "I ordered to go on the unfamiliar subject who immediately began to move towards us" (Pushkin); go on the whom-someday war; take a look on the interlocutor; move on the East; climb on the roof; sit down on the a place; dive on the bottom; rush on the neck.
// It is figuratively used to refer to a person, object, phenomenon, towards which some action or some object is directed: quit sight on the developments; take on the myself assignment; comes on the mind thought; getting caught on the eyes; take offense on the whom-someday; slander on the whom-someday; respond on the call; answer on the question; reaction on the irritation; hope on the good luck; subscription on the loan.
// Denotes the direction of the action in the direction of some tool, means, method of some kind of work; sit down on the oars; remake furnace on the oil.
14. Denotes direction towards some point in time: Job on the tomorrow day; meeting appointed on the sixth Martha; decided see you on the another day; postponed on the future year.
// With words denoting time, in conjunction with adjectives next, next, as well as without them, with the words morning And tomorrow - specifies the time period immediately following something: on the next day is he left; on the morning is he already was healthy; on the another year; on the tomorrow is he changed my mind. After the word night used to indicate the day immediately following that night: in night on the First May.
15. It is used when designating a period by the time of the onset of which something is being done, something is found: stock up on the winter; not drink tea on the night; condition cash desks on the first January.
16. Used to designate a period of time that defines the boundaries of some action, state: borrow book on the several days; vacation on the month; work yet on the whole year.
17. It is used when denoting a measure, a quantity that defines the boundaries of something: on the these money not roam; buy on the two ruble; here sausages on the two ruble; move away on the hundred steps; raise noise on the the whole House; on the this once enough; on the this once I you I forgive; become famous on the the whole peace.
// It is used when denoting quantitative relations that determine the internal content, the purpose of an object: room on the two human; dinner on the ten persons.
18. Used when designating an object that is a measure, method and purpose of crushing, division: smash on the sections, paragraphs; divide on the parts.
19. With verbs meaning excess, limitation, failure to achieve any norm, as well as with the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, it is used to indicate a quantitative difference, the degree of superiority or deficiency: fall behind on the hundred steps; be late on the two hours; on the twenty rubles less; older on the five years; on the month before.
20. Used when specifying the purpose, the appointment of some action: take on the upbringing; give away on the commission; give on the memory; submit on the retirement(i.e. a request for a pension); take on the bail: take on the my responsibility; contribute project on the discussion; play on the promotion.
// Used when specifying the purpose, the purpose of some object: money on the construction And repair; statement on the extradition salaries; matter on the coat; tes on the roofing; on the any happening.
// With words expressing emotional evaluation some action, event, is used to denote the consequences and at the same time, as it were, the internal purpose of this action, event: " On the that trouble the fox ran close by" (Krylov); on the fear enemies; be born on the grief; on the his happiness nobody near not It was; "And soon, on the joy neighbors-enemies, I will cover the grave with earth?" (Pushkin).
// Used when indicating a reason for something (in colloquial speech or with a touch of archaism): gift on the birth; "On the death poet"(title of Pushkin's poem).
// Used to denote a motive, the basis of some action: donate on the poverty(out of regret for someone's poverty).
21. Used to indicate the subject in whose interests something is being done: one working on the all family; on the all not please.
22. Used to denote accompanying circumstances, conditions for something: on the hungry stomach; on the fresh head.
23. It is used to indicate the mode of action, mainly in expressions of an adverbial, idiomatic type: believe on the word; talk on the memory; memorize on the clove; live on the wide leg.
24. It is used when designating the sphere and area of some phenomena, in relation to which some sign, some action is manifested: is he on the all much; padok on the flattery; lucky on the finds; master on the all arms; on the such Affairs I not fit; "The mole is a great beast on the small Affairs"(Krylov); "And he on the money such a vein that God forbid" (Pisemsky).
It is used when designating an object, action, in relation to which some property, action, quality is manifested: limp on the both legs; deaf on the one ear; unclean on the hand; persistent on the weathering breed(in geology); trial on the strength(technical). Wed: suspicion on the what-someday; "reject everything suspicion on the participation in this matter" (Pismsky, "A Thousand Souls").
25. Used to designate an instrument of action: "We buried her on the recent money"(Pisemsky); "People are not rich: not on the what it was necessary to hire governesses" (Pisemsky).
On the example of studying the function of a preposition on the it is easy to see that in Russian the meaning of simple prepositions is becoming more abstract, more analytical; that along with specific, real relations - spatial and temporal - the same preposition denotes a multitude of figurative logical-syntactic shades, adverbial relations and connections between words.
Unfortunately, Russian grammar almost completely ignores this process. Meanwhile, without understanding and studying it, it is impossible to evaluate and notice the development of new prepositional constructions in modern Russian.
In the Russian literary language from the 17th - 18th centuries. there is a slow but deep process of syntactic changes in the system of case relations. The functions of many cases are complicated and differentiated by combinations with prepositions. So, since the XVIII century. prepositional constructions after verbs are especially widespread: avoid, spare, lag behind, deny, renounce etc. (genitive case with preposition from instead of the former genitive non-prepositional), for example: "When the whole world recanted from me"(Zhukovsky); and after verbs to reach, to reach, to reach etc. (genitive with preposition before instead of the former genitive non-prepositional): "Happily they reach before fatherland"(Karamzin); "Not many can reach before this greatness"(Karamzin); "Platform, before which in ten minutes you can reach "(Zhukovsky), etc. But compare also with Pushkin: "Finally I reached our hut"; "Here I reached Uglich." It is clear that the same verb, for example achieve, in some meanings it is used mainly with a preposition, in others - without a preposition.
Likewise in the preposition from (co) in combination with the instrumental case, the meaning of the mode of action (a meaning that can be defined as follows: "discovering something; so that something appears") or the meaning of a characterizing definition to a noun ("possessing something; having, discovering something") anything") is especially widely developed under the influence of Western European languages (cf. German preposition mit, French avec) (). A. S. Shishkov connected the spread of this meaning of the preposition from with influence French into Russian second language half of XVIII — early XIX in. (cf. the use of revolutions: from diligence study; pray from piety; dress co taste etc. instead of quality adverbs: diligently, diligently etc.) .
In "Discourse on the old and new style" A. S. Shishkov wrote: " Dress co taste is also not our own expression, for we do not say, or at least we should not say: cry from sorrow, love from tenderness, live from avarice; but meanwhile, as the property of our language in all other cases tells us to say: cry sad, love gently, live sparingly, in this one it is impossible to say: dress tasty" (). Later, F.I. Buslaev also recognized this turnover as "borrowed from foreign languages", but pointed out its frequent use in Lomonosov's language and in the language of magazines of the pre-Karamzin era. For example, Lomonosov: "The people of Kiev tried hard like servants treat them from great caress And bias"; in the journals of 1769: "Criticism benefits writers, but criticism co taste"(" Both this and that ");" Dress from very the best taste"("All sorts of things") ().
F. I. Buslaev also noted another "foreign turnover" with the pretext from(to indicate that an object and a person undergo some changes in their position, state, or undergo some kind of qualitative transformation). For example, in Zhukovsky: " FROM mine dead body getting worse every minute" ().
Non-prepositional constructions are being replaced by prepositional ones in the field of causal relations as well. In the XVIII century. the unprepositional creative was still in wide use, in which the meaning of the cause was not yet sharply separated from the meaning of the tool. Since the beginning of the XIX century. instrumental causes decisively gives way to prepositional constructions. Wed Krylov: "Isn't it true that us the tree is so magnificent and curly, sprawling and majestic?" ("Leaves and roots"); "Not us does our ship reign on the seas?" ("Guns and sails"); "My donkey stupidity entered the proverb. And they carry water on a donkey" ("Donkey"); in A. K. Tolstoy: "Are you courage glorious?" ("Vasily Shibanov"); in Herzen: "The boy, it seems, escaped death and illness with his extraordinary weakness"("Who is to blame?"). In the modern language, these constructions correspond to constructions with the preposition thanks to and the dative case.
General changes in the system of using prepositions are accompanied by a complication of the meanings of individual prepositions. Yes, in a sentence for the meaning of the goal, internal motivation, the orientation of interests towards someone, something in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. are complemented by a number of new meanings (cf. the meanings of the French pour and German zu). These meanings are somewhat close to the meanings of the dative case without a preposition. So, for begins to express that this or that quality, state, action is valid in relation to a given person or object. For example, in Karamzin's "Letters from a Russian Traveler": "Imagine my situation! At night on the street, in an unknown for me city"; Zhukovsky: "But for mighty arrow need is easy to endure"; "Your firmness for me amazing" (Pushkin, "The Queen of Spades").
Hence in the preposition for a new value grows — the value of the criterion. Pretext for begins to be used to express conditions that limit the manifestation of some quality, state, for example: For his age is he very developed; "For Turk, for Moldovans, for Vlachs I'm a robber, of course, but for Russians I am a guest" (Pushkin, "Kirdzhali"); "What are you for me? — Fly" (Pisemsky, "The Hypochondriac").
The meanings of prepositions, expanding, become more and more abstract, becoming more and more similar to the meanings of case prefixes. This is the use of the preposition about with a prepositional case after the verbs of feeling, speech, reflection. A. A. Potebnya wrote about grammatical relations of this kind: “Now, post verba sentiendi, cognoscendi, declarandi, we put in the unprepositional accusative only the closest, immediate object of perception, cognition, speech, in one way or another distinguishing from such an object another, further, more independent, to the knowledge or expression of which we reach through a series of inferences that are tangible to our consciousness.For example, on the one hand, we say: hear news, know friend, say word, "to see the light and its rotation" (Gogol); with another: hear about news, know about familiar, say about how And about what; see that light kolovrathen".
“The further we move into antiquity, the more often we encounter the absence of prepositional objects in the language, from which the probable conclusion is that there was a time when both types of objects, not at all different in consciousness, were equally expressed by a simple accusative. This recalls ... the state of people, for which there is no perspective in the graphic representation of visible objects "().
Interestingly, in the language of the XIX century. there are often cases of parallel use of the accusative case and the prepositional case with the same verbs, but with a very noticeable difference in semantic nuances. For example, Leo Tolstoy: "Zdrzhinsky told deed Raevsky, who brought his two sons to the dam under terrible fire and went on the attack next to them "(" War and Peace "); in Chernyshevsky in the novel" What to do? ":" I will tell you my joy"; at Herzen: "The governor said that he forgot permission given to me" ("Past and thoughts"); for the modern language in this context, it would be normal to combine with the preposition about or about.
Wed I. I. Dmitriev: "I took the courage remind him his youth("A look at my life"); in modern language remind what-someday has the meaning: by its similarity to evoke an idea, a memory of something.
The distinction between prepositional and non-prepositional constructions creates a clearer syntactic perspective. In the prepositional constructions themselves, the differences between syntactic synonyms come out more clearly. Weak forms gradually die off (for example, combinations with the preposition about after the verbs of speech, feeling, expression).
In modern literary language, the difference between o with a prepositional case and about from accusative case with verbs of speech, feelings and expressions rather stylistic ( about colloquial, colloquial) than lexico-semantic. A. M. Peshkovsky wrote in his "Syntax": " Pro with an accusative has the same meaning as oh oh with prepositional ( talk about war, think about harvest), and although we feel some internal difference between these synonyms, we find it difficult to determine it "(). Even earlier, K. S. Aksakov admitted: "The shade of remoteness and the goal in general is weakening, and about means in general only a moral striving somewhere, and sometimes even this significance is faintly felt. He thinks all about his friend; about you spoke" ().
From the second half of XIX in. a new synonymous series constructions after verbs of thought (but not speech) with a preposition above and instrumental case (cf.: think, meditate above how-someday etc.:, cf. work above how-someday). Wed in Leskov's essays "Laughter and Grief": "She always thinks above how-someday, but not about how-someday".
With a pretext about after the verbs of sad feeling, the preposition is also mixed on, whose meanings in these combinations are extremely abstract. Beyond the value after in combination with the prepositional case ( on arrival, by departure, by death, by departure deadline etc.) on has in the highest degree"formal" meaning with a few verbs expressing mental suffering, with the prepositional case of nouns singular: to be bored, to grieve, to dry, to suffer, to be sad, to hurt soul etc. With the same verbs, it is more often used on with dative case ( suffer on relatives; miss on brother etc.). This duality of use is a sign that the proper meaning of the preposition on lost in these combinations. The same verbs are normally combined with the preposition about.
Apparently, in the use of the preposition on with the prepositional case after the verbs of feeling, you need to see a causal rethinking of the temporal meaning ( yearn on -"after", "because").
But since in constructions like: yearn on com-anything - than-anything, grieve on com-anything - than-someday etc. - temporary value on erased, then the internal, logical difference between the preposition on in this usage and preposition about in the same combinations yearn about com-anything - than-anything, grieve about com-anything - than-someday.
Preposition constructions on feel more colloquial than the corresponding prepositional constructions about. Preposition constructions on and the prepositional case after the verbs of mournful feeling are a relic of the past in the modern language. They are unproductive. These are syntactic idioms. A. M. Peshkovsky was forced to admit: "In combinations to miss, to yearn, to dry, to suffer, to hurt soul on com the preposition is closely related to too few verbs to reveal its own meaning "().
Undoubtedly, the suggestion behind with accusative case with verbs know, recognize, consider etc. serves only as a grammatical expression of the dependent case. Its real meaning: in quality, instead of - here is very weakened, erased. These combinations differ from combinations of the same verbs with a simple instrumental verb (cf.: consider behind fool And consider fool) only subtle shade incomplete, insufficiently reliable qualification, a hint of the possibility of reassessment or some imaginary assessment.
All these examples from different sides illuminate the process of development of analytical forms of prepositional use. The internal stratification in the semantic system of prepositions is more and more clearly revealed. While some simple prepositions: for, before, before, at, under, except for, through, through, between, and even more so adverbial prepositions: near, among, past etc. - almost completely retain their real lexical meanings, other prepositions: about, for, from, in, on, in part: over, from, by, about, with, at - in certain areas of their use, others to a lesser extent, others up to complete transformation into case prefixes, weaken their lexical meanings, and sometimes almost completely lose them.
In the vast majority of cases, such a transition of a preposition to the role of a postposition, to the role of an "objective" morpheme with a verb, is observed in prepositions with abstract meanings. Such, for example, is the use of the following prepositions:
1. Use on with prepositional case (singular) and with dative case after verbs to be bored, to grieve, to grieve, to suffer, to be bored, to get sick soul, dry, cry etc.
2. Use of a preposition about after the verbs of internal perception of speech, feelings and mental expressions: think, guess, dream, kill, argue, talk, tell, take care, try, worry, regret, grieve, cry etc. This use of o in modern Russian is expanding, covering everything large group verbs and nouns semantically close to them.
3. Use on the with the accusative case after the verbs, meaning a feeling in its direction towards someone - something: to resent, to be angry, to grumble, to grumble, to be annoyed, to murmur, to complain, to complain, to weep, to be angry on the whom-anything, on what-anything, be angry, pout, get angry, agree, bow down and others like: cf.: scream on the whom-someday, cf. also: look like on the whom someday; encroach on the what; dare, dare on the what-someday; compare: ready, capable on the all. Wed type gallicisms count on the whom-someday.
4. Use in with the accusative case in a rather limited and internally disconnected group of combinations: believe; believe in whom-sometime, in what-someday; play in what-someday; be born in whom, in what-someday; cf. in with prepositional case: make sure, make sure in how-someday; doubt in how; to need in how-someday and etc.
5. Use from with the genitive case in a series of homogeneous phrases: submit from myself; portray from myself; build from myself; obsolete show, show from myself and some others. For example: "Earth portrayed from myself hell" (Chekhov, "Fermentation of Minds"); "He is constantly represented from myself a man who stands above all these trifles" (Herzen, "The Past and Thoughts").
6. Use behind with accusative after verbs reckon, reckon, reckon, reckon etc. For example: "But I don't I think behind selfish"(Turgenev, "Nest of Nobles"); "He behind happiness would considered his acquaintance with her "(L. Tolstoy, "War and Peace"). Cf .: "What do people usually say who have no convictions, but who want seem behind such"(L. Tolstoy, "War and Peace"); "He compiled for himself, as he said, a serious library and for rule set read all those books that he bought" ("War and Peace") and others like that.
7. Use above with instrumental case with a group of semantically related verbs laugh, mock, swear, sneer, sneer, taunt, tease etc. Cf. L. Tolstoy: "And Count Rostopchin contemptuously smiled myself above yourself"("War and Peace"). Compare: celebrate, take top, win victory above by whom-how etc.
In the literary language of the 18th - early 19th centuries. verb laugh(cf. swear etc.) was combined not only with the unprepositional dative case and with the preposition above and instrumental case, but also with the preposition about and prepositional. Wed Pushkin: "Not laugh sorrows mine"; from Zhukovsky: " moaning laughs destroyer". Compare with Pushkin: "And laugh coy about how"; "Of course, everyone is free laugh above some of them oddities"(" Young lady-peasant").
However, already N. I. Grech recognized only two constructions with the verb laugh: a construction with the dative case, when "the controlled name means an object that is not personal, real or abstract", and a more common construction with the preposition above and creative case.
F. I. Buslaev in his "Historical Grammar" considers the "more ordinary" construction with the preposition above(). But K. S. Aksakov, in his review, reproached Buslaev for not elucidating the internal difference between laugh - laugh above how And about how: "Laugh above how means: to make an object out of something, the goal of laughter; laugh about how means: to make something out of something a reason to laugh, to laugh for the sake of what "().
8. In modern language, prepositions before And from are, among other things, by grammatical means expressions and clarifications of the deferred and attaining meanings of the genitive case. For example, before: what concerns before me. Wed "touch before Total slightly" (Pushkin), etc.; from in a separative sense after verbs: to be freed, to abstain, to be saved, to be released(from the burden) evade, clear etc.
So, in the Russian language of the XIX - XX centuries. more and more prepositional-analytic constructions are spreading. Some prepositions in separate meanings or contexts of use are made simple grammatical prefixes with weakened, dimmed or completely extinguished real meanings.
Curiously, the combination hope with the genitive case is still found in the language of Chernyshevsky and L. Tolstoy. For example, in Chernyshevsky's novel What Is To Be Done?: "Soon I became convinced, however, that hope this - thing in vain"; "He never hoped her reciprocity"; cf. Tolstoy in "War and Peace": "It doesn't look like what is he hoped".
Pretext- an official part of speech that formalizes the subordination of one significant word to another in a phrase or sentence and thereby expresses the relationship to each other of those objects and actions, states, signs that are called by these words. (Example: speak about travel, talk during hours, near from at home, bored among strangers)
Classification (Grammar80)
According to their formal organization, prepositions are divided, on the one hand, into primitive and non-primitive, on the other hand, on simple and complex.
Primitive prepositions are a small, non-replenishing group of simple words that are not connected by living word-formation relations with any significant words. Many of them are able to connect with more than one case form of the name, almost all primitive prepositions are polysemantic. Primitive suggestions include: without (without), in (in), for, before, for, from (iso), to (ko), except, between, between, on, over (necessary), o (about, both), from (oto) , before (before), for the sake of, through, under (under), y, about.
Paired prepositions-fusions: because of, from under, (outdated because of, above)
Non-primitive prepositions are prepositions that have live word-building relationships and lexical-semantic connections with significant words - nouns, adverbs and verbs (germs). All of them are not meaningful, each preposition is connected with only one case form.
All non-primitive items are divided into: denominative (in view of, as, in the name of, along the line, under the guise), adverbial (near, over, after, according to) and verbal (including, excluding, not counting).
Simple items are both primitive and non-primitive, which consist of one word.
Composite items - those non-primitive prepositions that consist of two or three words: forms of a name, participle or adverb in combination with one or two primitive prepositions. (before, away from, in contrast to, according to, in relation to)
Non-primitive prepositions can be divided into ADVERSIBLE, DESIGNATIVE, VERBAL, depending on motivational relations (formed from adverbs, nouns or verbs).
Adverbs: simple and compound.
Simple adverbs coincide with the adverb. Examples: near, near, deep, along, instead of, inside, instead of, on the eve of, opposite, tangent, contrary to, about, around, contrary to, relatively, before, etc.
Compound adverbial prepositions are a combination of an adverb with a primitive preposition. Most of them are combined with the instrumental case, compatibility with one or another case is predetermined by the primitive preposition.
Examples: close to, far from, together with, away from, regardless of, in proportion to, along with, on par with, next to, next to, etc.
Denominative prepositions in form are
or (1) the prepositional case form of the name (i.e. the form indirect case abstract noun with a primitive preposition or preposition OUT) : without help, as, at the expense of, during, as a result, in relation to, during, from, etc.
or (2) such a prepositional case, accompanied by another (second) primitive preposition: depending on, towards, in contrast to, in response to, in connection with, in comparison with, etc.
or (3) the non-prepositional form genus. or tv. P. : order (something), by way of (something), type (someone-something)
Prepositions of groups 1 and 2 are compound, 3 are simple.
Verbal prepositions.
In form they are gerunds, in their state of the art not related to the paradigm of the verb, carrying the meaning of the relationship.
Simple verbal: thanks, including, not reaching, later, later. The case form of the name attached by such a preposition is predetermined by the nature of the strong connection of the corresponding verb. Exception: thanks, not reaching - they have their own control.
All such prepositions are unambiguous, relations are based on the lexical meanings of the corresponding verbs, excl. thanks to - has its own abstract meaning of cause, cause.
Compound verbal prepositions: looking at, looking at, judging by, based on, starting from, despite, despite.
Case forms with these prepositions reproduce the connections of the corresponding verbs: look, look at something, look at someone, something ..
All such prepositions are unambiguous, the relations they express are also based on the lexical meanings of the corresponding verbs.
Lexical meaning. Lexical meaning preposition as a single word is the meaning of a relationship. This relationship can be maximally abstract, broad, specific, narrow. In any case, the preposition has a lexical meaning, only the degree of its abstractness is different. The meanings of non-primitive prepositions (except for some ambiguous ones) are somehow connected with the lexical meaning of those significant words with which they are motivated.
Together with the case form of the name, the preposition forms a syntactic unity, the so-called. prepositional case form of the name. In most cases, it is impossible to establish a case value separate from the preposition in such a connection. For example, in combinations fatherless, with friends, in front of the house for SRL, the meaning of the case form cannot be considered outside of its combination with the preposition: at the level of syntactic semantics, the prepositional case form is indivisible.
Ranks of prepositions by meaning and by combination with case forms
Prepositions express all sorts of relationships between significant words. The main types of relations expressed are:
1) spatial: "return to Moscow", "come from the south", "rest in the countryside";
2) temporary: "sleep until the morning", "work for a month", "meet in a few days", "find out during the session", etc.;
3) objective: "telling about yourself", "knowing about yourself", "sickness for the homeland", "falling in love with a stranger";
4) target: "apply with claims", "live for a career", "give as a keepsake";
5) comparisons, likenings: "live with mine", "a fist the size of a head", "daughter is all like a mother";
6) the meaning of the instrument of action: "screw with a screwdriver"; "establish during experiments";
7) the meaning of the mode of action: "say without any expression", "dine with appetite";
8) attributive relations: "apple trees in bloom", "coat on batting".
The meanings of prepositions are realized only in combination with forms of indirect cases.
